An Integrated Approach to Assess the Environmental Impacts of Large-Scale Gold Mining: the Nzema-Gold Mines in the Ellembelle District of Ghana As a Case Study

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

Article An Integrated Approach to Assess the Environmental Impacts of Large-Scale Gold Mining: The Nzema-Gold Mines in the Ellembelle District of Ghana as a Case Study

Dawuda Usman Kaku 1 , Yonghong Cao 1,2,*, Yousef Ahmed Al-Masnay 1 and Jean Claude Nizeyimana 1

1 School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130117, China; [email protected] (D.U.K.); [email protected] (Y.A.A.-M.); [email protected] (J.C.N.) 2 State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Wetland Ecology and Vegetation Restoration, School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130117, China * Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The mining industry is a significant asset to the development of countries. Ghana, Africa’s second-largest gold producer, has benefited from gold mining as the sector generates about 90% of the country’s total exports. Just like all industries, mining is associated with benefits and risks to indigenes and the host environment. Small-scale miners are mostly accused in Ghana of being environmentally disruptive, due to their modes of operations. As a result, this paper seeks to assess the environmental impacts of large-scale gold mining with the Nzema Mines in Ellembelle as a case study. The study employs a double-phase mixed-method approach—a case study approach, consisting of site visitation, key informant interviews, questionnaires, and literature reviews, and the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) analysis method. The NDVI analysis shows that Citation: Usman Kaku, D.; Cao, Y.; agricultural land reduced by −0.98%, while the bare area increases by 5.21% between the 2008 and Al-Masnay, Y.A.; Nizeyimana, J.C. An 2015 periods. Our results show that forest reserves and bare area were reduced by −4.99% and −29%, Integrated Approach to Assess the Environmental Impacts of respectively, while residential areas increased by 28.17% between 2015 and 2020. Vegetation, land, air, Large-Scale Gold Mining: The and water quality are highly threatened by large-scale mining in the area. Weak enforcement of min- Nzema-Gold Mines in the Ellembelle ing policies, ineffective stakeholder institution collaborations, and limited community participation District of Ghana as a Case Study. Int. in decision-making processes were also noticed during the study. The authors conclude by giving J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, recommendations to help enhance sustainable mining and ensure environmental sustainability in the 7044. https://doi.org/10.3390/ district and beyond. ijerph18137044 Keywords: Ghana; Ellembelle district; large-scale gold mining; environmental impacts; normalized Academic Editor: Daniela Varrica difference vegetation index (NDVI)

Received: 19 May 2021 Accepted: 28 June 2021 Published: 1 July 2021 1. Introduction

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral Mineral wealth is an essential asset to enhance economic growth and foster infras- with regard to jurisdictional claims in tructure development, including building schools, hospitals, and road networks. The published maps and institutional afﬁl- mining sector has gained wide recognition for being a blessing to most African and other iations. developing nations with abundant mineral resources. Contrary, the sector is noticed to cause environmental issues, such as water and air pollution, land degradation, destruction of vegetation, and harm to biodiversity and other habitats [1–3]. In Ghana, mining is the fourth largest economic activity, and it accounts for about Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, x 2 of 20 5.5% of Ghana’s gross domestic product (GDP) and employs almost 300,000 people [2]. Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Ghana’s mineral production increased between the 2015 to 2018 production periods. An This article is an open access article increase in the country’s gold production (4%) beneﬁted from several factors, including the Ȼ distributed under the terms and scheduled output increase at two Newmont Gold Corp Mines atrevenue Ahanfo generated and Akyem by [the4,5 ].mining and quarrying sector increased from GH 1.35 billion to conditions of the Creative Commons The Ghana Revenue Authority (GRA) in 2016 reported that theGH mining sector regained its Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// position as the dominator of a source of direct domestic revenue in 2015. Total revenue creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ generated by the mining and quarrying sector increased from GHȻ 1.35 billion to GH 4.0/). 1.65 billion in 2015 and 2016, respectively, standing for 22% growth[ 6]. 1.65 billion in 2015 and 2016, respectively, standing for 22% growth [6]. Despite the significant contribution of the mining sector to the socio-economic development of Ghana, the related adverse impacts are on the rise and very alarming. The en- Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7044. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18137044 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerphvironment of most mining areas in the country is continuously deteriorating. Its immense economic value keeps diminishing from time to time, due to the heavy concentration of mining activities in such places [7,8]. Most mining activities possess detrimental effects on the host environment, due to their continued use of modern, sophisticated machinery, harmful chemicals, and extended blasting levels. Unsupervised and unsafe activities by large-scale and artisanal small-scale mines are characterized by overwhelming environmental degradation, including water, air, and noise pollution, deforestation, destruction and loss of vegetation and ecosystem, land degradation, loss of soil fertility, and massive erosion [8–10]. Agricultural lands are not only generally degraded, but very scarce. The scarcity status of arable land for agricultural production has also led to the shortening of the fallow period from 10–13 years to 2–4 years [7,11]. Large-scale gold mining activities have threatened the agriculture sector as the backbone of Ghana’s development. However, in the wake of these increasingly environmental challenges posed by the mining sector, the small-scale mining sector receives much attention over large-scale mines. In Ghana, small-scale artisanal firms stood for frequent accusations as guilty of these environmental challenges, due to their unsafe modes of operations. This, therefore, led to the imposition of a ban on small-scale mining activities in Ghana by the government in 2017 [9,12,13]. Research works in this study domain primarily focused on small-scale mining activities and their impacts on the environment, mitigation measures, and regulations to sustain the small-scale mining sector. For example, Bansah et al. (2016), in their work, suggested that small-scale mining firms should utilize professional engineers in their operation to help control the related negative environmental and social impacts [1,12]. Boafo et al. (2019) also postulated that environmental consequences caused by gold mining in Ghana are mainly a result of small-scale mining firms and weak institutional supervision [9]. Besides, the environmental and social impacts of gold mining in Ghana within the last decade are very challenging, with less focus and minimal research on the large-scale gold mining sector. As a result, this study aims to assess the environmental impacts of large-scale gold mining in Ghana with the Ellembelle district as a case study. Specifically, the goal of this study was to: (1) Assess the environmental impacts emanating from large-scale gold mining activities through field/site and community visitation; (2) use the Normalized Differ- ence Vegetation Index (NDVI), and Land-use maps to analyze the vegetation and land- use changes in Ellembelle from 2008 to 2020, due to large-scale gold mining, and (3) recommend possible mitigation measures to enhance sustainable mining and ensures environmental sustainability in the district and beyond.

Overview of Gold Mining Activities in Ghana Ghana’s rich gold mines and other mineral fields have attracted some leading mining companies in the world into the country, which has resulted in tremendous growth in the country’s mining sector for the past few years [14]. In Ghana, gold mining activities are in two main forms, which are small-scale and large-scale mining. Small-scale mining is well known in Ghana as “galamsey” (Figure 1A), which refers to “gather them and sell” [15]. This mining type requires less capital for its start-up and operations and is mainly undertaken by a small group of people with less technical skills [2,16]. Small-scale mining was restricted primarily to Ghanaians, but today, the activity is undertaken by both Ghanaians and foreigners, with an estimated number of 200,000 people engaged in [17].

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Despite the significant contribution of the mining sector to the socio-economic development of Ghana, the related adverse impacts are on the rise and very alarming. The environment of most mining areas in the country is continuously deteriorating. Its immense economic value keeps diminishing from time to time, due to the heavy concentration of mining activities in such places [7,8]. Most mining activities possess detrimental effects on the host environment, due to their continued use of modern, sophisticated machinery, harmful chemicals, and extended blasting levels. Unsupervised and unsafe activities by large-scale and artisanal small-scale mines are characterized by overwhelming environmental degradation, including water, air, and noise pollution, deforestation, destruction and loss of vegetation and ecosystem, land degradation, loss of soil fertility, and massive erosion [8–10]. Agricultural lands are not only generally degraded, but very scarce. The scarcity status of arable land for agricultural production has also led to the shortening of the fallow period from 10–13 years to 2–4 years [7,11]. Large-scale gold mining activities have threatened the agriculture sector as the backbone of Ghana’s development. However, in the wake of these increasingly environmental challenges posed by the mining sector, the small-scale mining sector receives much attention over large-scale mines. In Ghana, small-scale artisanal firms stood for frequent accusations as guilty of these environmental challenges, due to their unsafe modes of operations. This, therefore, led to the imposition of a ban on small-scale mining activities in Ghana by the government in 2017 [9,12,13]. Research works in this study domain primarily focused on small-scale mining activities and their impacts on the environment, mitigation measures, and regulations to sustain the small-scale mining sector. For example, Bansah et al. (2016), in their work, suggested that small-scale mining firms should utilize professional engineers in their operation to help control the related negative environmental and social impacts [1,12]. Boafo et al. (2019) also postulated that environmental consequences caused by gold mining in Ghana are mainly a result of small-scale mining firms and weak institutional supervision [9]. Besides, the environmental and social impacts of gold mining in Ghana within the last decade are very challenging, with less focus and minimal research on the large-scale gold mining sector. As a result, this study aims to assess the environmental impacts of large-scale gold mining in Ghana with the Ellembelle district as a case study. Specifically, the goal of this study was to: (1) Assess the environmental impacts emanating from large-scale gold mining activities through field/site and community visitation; (2) use the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), and Land-use maps to analyze the vegetation and land-use changes in Ellembelle from 2008 to 2020, due to large-scale gold mining, and (3) recommend possible mitigation measures to enhance sustainable mining and ensures environmental sustainability in the district and beyond.

Overview of Gold Mining Activities in Ghana Ghana’s rich gold mines and other mineral ﬁelds have attracted some leading mining companies in the world into the country, which has resulted in tremendous growth in the country’s mining sector for the past few years [14]. In Ghana, gold mining activities are in two main forms, which are small-scale and large-scale mining. Small-scale mining is well known in Ghana as “galamsey” (Figure1A), which refers to “gather them and sell” [15]. This mining type requires less capital for its start-up and operations and is mainly undertaken by a small group of people with less technical skills [2,16]. Small-scale mining was restricted primarily to Ghanaians, but today, the activity is undertaken by both Ghanaians and foreigners, with an estimated number of 200,000 people engaged in [17]. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7044 3 of 20 Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, x 3 of 20

Figure 1. (A) Small-scale (galamsey) mining activities, (B) large-scale surface mining activity, August (2020). Figure 1. (A) Small-scale (galamsey) mining activities, (B) large-scale surface mining activity, August (2020).

LargeLarge-scale-scale mining mining receives muchmuch attentionattention from from this this paper. paper. Large-scale Large-scale mining mining is theis theopposite opposite ofsmall-scale of small-scale mining, mining, which which embarks embark on mechanizeds on mechanized and sophisticated and sophisticated equip- equipmement andnt employs and employs highly highly trained, trained, educated, educated, and technical and technical know-how know personnel-how personnel in mineral in mineralresources resources explorations explorations [18,19]. [18,19 It is the]. It typeis the of type mining of mining that is that generally is generally associated associated with withmultinational multinational or multisite or multisite companies, companies, embedded embedded in global in global capital capital and ﬁnance and finance markets, mar- and kets,part ofand the part international of the international supply of mineralsupply of and mineral metals and commodities metals commodities [20]. This type [20] of. This min- typeing operationof mining has operation a worldwide has a employmentworldwide employment rate of about rate 2.5 millionof about people 2.5 million and generates people andmore generates than 95% more of the than world’s 95% of total the mineralworld’s productiontotal mineral [2 production]. Large-scale [2] mining. Large- (scalFiguree min-1B ) inginvolves (Figure both 1B) deepinvolves pit andboth surface deep pit methods and surface and requiresmethods hugeand requires capital investment.huge capital Thein- vestment.use of vast The portions use of of vast land, portions sophisticated of land, machines, sophisticated harmful machines, chemicals, harmful and thechemicals, general andextraction the general and processing extraction methods,and processing such as methods drilling,, blasting,such as drilling, haulage blasting of ore, crushing,, haulage and of ore,screaming crushing, agglomeration, and screaming makes agglomeration it mandatory, makes for large-scale it mandatory miners for tolarge seek-scale government miners toapproval seek government and acquire approval a license and before acquire commencing a license before operations commencing [16,21]. Currently, operations in [16,21 Ghana,]. Currently,about 23 large-scale in Ghana, mining about companies 23 large-scale and overmining 300 registeredcompanies small-scale and over artisanal300 registered groups smallengage-scale in mineralartisanal exploration groups engage [14,16 ].in Privatemineral individuals, exploration mostly [14,16 foreigners,]. Private individuals, own 90% of mostlythese companies foreigners, and own 10% 90% free of sharesthese companies or 20% optional and 10% offered free to shares the government or 20% optional [2]. Gold, of- fereddiamond, to the bauxite, government and manganese [2]. Gold, diamond, are the main bauxite, minerals and manganese produced by ar large-scalee the main miner- mining alscompanies produced in by the large country.-scale Othermining industrial companies minerals, in the country. like silver, Other salt, industrial and limestone, mineral ares, likeproduced silver, bysalt, small-scale and limestone operators, are produced [14,22,23]. by small-scale operators [14,22,23].

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2. Materials and Methods 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Study Area The Ellembelle District is one of the 14 Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assem- blies (MMDAs)(MMDAs) inin the the Western Western Region Region of of Ghana, Ghana, and and it isit locatedis located on theon the southern southern part part of the of regionthe region between between longitudes longitudes 2◦05 2°00 W5′ andW and 2◦35 2°30 W5′ andW and latitude latitude 4◦40 4°40 N0′ andN and 5◦20 5°20 N[0′ N24 [24]]. It. 2 hasIt has a totala total area area of of 995.8 995.8 km km2, representing, representing about about 9.8 9.8 percent percent of of the the landmass landmass of theof the Western West- Regionern Region [25]. [25] The. The district district has has an an estimated estimated population population of of about about 86,501. 86,501. It It lies lies withinwithin thethe semi-equatorialsemi-equatorial climaticclimatic zonezone ofof the the West West African African sub-region. sub-region. The The vegetation vegetation of of the the area area is ais moista moist semi-deciduous semi-deciduous rainforest, rainforest but, changesbut changes to secondary to secondary forest forest southwards southwards as a result as a ofresult human of human activities activities like logging like logging and farming and farming [25]. [25] The. underlyingThe underlying rock rock mainly mainly consists con- Cambriansists Cambrian type type of the of Birimianthe Birimian formation formation and and the the Tarkwaian Tarkwaian Sandstone-Association Sandstone-Association of Quartziteof Quartzite and and Phylites Phylites types. types. This This contains contains economic economic minerals, minerals such, such as kaolin, as kaolin, silica, silica, gold, andgold, sandstone and sandstone deposits deposits [24]. The [24] district. The district is blessed is blessed with several with several rivers andrivers streams; and streams; promi- nentprominent among among them is them the Ankobra is the Ankobra River, with River its, major with tributariesits major tr likeibutaries the Ahama like the and Ahama Nwini riversand Nwini [25]. Therivers Ellembelle [25]. The districtEllembelle is recognized district is recognized as a resource-based as a resource district,-based due district to the, heavydue to extractionthe heavy ofextraction gold and of crude gold oiland from crude the oil area. from Nkroful, the area. Teleku-Bokazo, Nkroful, Teleku Anwia,-Bokazo, and SalmanAnwia, areand dominants Salman are gold dominants mining citiesgold mining with small-scale cities with gold small mining-scale activitiesgold mining occurring activ- forities almost occurring three for decades, almost three while decades large-scale, while gold large mining-scale commenced gold mining in commenced 2011 [24]. Mining in 2011 has[24]. boosted Mining economichas boosted development economic development in the district, in butthe district has also, but caused has also severe caused damage severe to thedamage regional to the eco-environment regional eco-environment [25]. Figure [252 is]. a Figure map of 2 theis a Ellembelle map of the District Ellembelle containing District studycontaining communities. study communities.

Figure 2. Map of Ellembelle District containing study communities (2020). Figure 2. Map of Ellembelle District containing study communities (2020). 2.1.1. Case Study Large-Scale2.1.1. Case Study Surface Mining in Ellembelle LargeNzema-Scale Surface Gold Mine Mining is the in operational Ellembellename for the large-scale gold mining property in the EllembelleNzema Gold district, Mine and is the it is operational wholly owned name by for Adamus the large Resources-scale gold Limited mining (Adamus), property ain Ghanaian the Ellembelle subsidiary district, of Endeavour.and it is wholly Adamus owned holds by fourAdamus (4) mining Resources licenses Limited and eleven (Ada- (11)mus), prospecting a Ghanaian licenses subsidiary covering of Endeavour. an estimated Adamus land area holds of four 464 km(4)2 miningthat constitutes licenses and the Nzemaeleven ( property.11) prospecting Adamus licenses has 90% covering interest inan allestimated its mining land licenses, area of and 464 10% km remains2 that consti- with thetutes government the Nzema of property. Ghana, as Adamus stated by has the 90% Mining interest Act in of all Ghana its mining [26]. Salman licenses, ML, and Telaku 10% Bokazoremains ML,with Nkrfulthe government ML, and of Akango Ghana, ML as stated are the by four the Mining mining Act leased of Ghana sites operated[26]. Salman by Adamus,ML, Telaku and Bokazo hold 100% ML, interest Nkrful in ML, ﬁve and granted Akango prospecting ML are licenses the four [26 mining]. Figure leased3 presents sites the Adamus Mineral License Perimeters, Site Layout, and Deposit Locations in the District.

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Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7044 5 of 20 ML, Telaku Bokazo ML, Nkrful ML, and Akango ML are the four mining leased sites operated by Adamus, and hold 100% interest in five granted prospecting licenses [26]. Figure 3 presents the Adamus Mineral License Perimeters, Site Layout, and Deposit Locations in theToday, District. large-scale Today, mininglarge-scale is carried mining out is ca asrried surface out mining,as surface where mining, cyanidation where cyanidation is noticed isto noticed be the mostto be prevailingthe most prevailing technique technique employed employed by mining by companies mining companies for non-sulphidic for non- sulphidicpale placer pale ore placer [23,27 ,28ore]. Large-scale[23,27,28]. Large-scale mining in Ellembellemining in takesEllembelle the form takes of conventionalthe form of conventionalopen pit mining open methods, pit mining which methods, encompasses which encompasses drilling and blasting drilling of and competent blasting materialof com- petentfollowed material by loading followed and by hauling. loading Drillingand hauling. and blastingDrilling areand carried blasting out are on carried 6 m to out 15 on m 6benches, m to 15 m depending benches, ondepending the proposed on the deposit’s proposed geological deposit’s scope geological and geotechnical scope and geotech- settings nicalas blasted settings materials as blasted are materials excavated are in discreteexcavated 3 min highdiscrete ﬂitches 3 m [high26]. flitches [26].

FigureFigure 3. 3. MineralMineral license license perimeters, perimeters, site site layout, layout, and and deposit deposit locations locations (2013). (2013).

2.2.2.2. Methods Methods of of Data Data Collection Collection and and Analysis Analysis TheThe study study is is a a case case study study approach approach which which employed employed a a double-phase mixed-method designdesign to to collect collect and and analyzed analyzed data data on on the the en environmentalvironmental impacts impacts of of large-scale large-scale gold gold min- min- inging in in the the Ellembelle Ellembelle District. District. Phase Phase one one consists consists of of qualitative qualitative data data acquisition acquisition through through reviewingreviewing the the relevant relevant literature, literature, field ﬁeld or or si sitete visitation, visitation, interviews, interviews, and and questionnaires. questionnaires. PhasePhase two two involved remote sensingsensing datadata thatthatcomprises comprises the the Normalized Normalized Difference Difference Vegeta- Veg- etationtion Index Index (NDVI) (NDVI) and and Land-use Land-use Land-cover Land-cover (LULC) (LULC) map map to to critically critically analyze analyze and and detect de- tectthe the vegetation vegetation land-use land-use changes changes in the in studythe study area area caused caused by large-scaleby large-scale gold gold mining. mining.

2.2.1.2.2.1. Data Data Collection Collection Participant Observations, Interviews, and Questionnaires Participant Observations, Interviews, and Questionnaires Field visitations and participant observations were done at some operational sites Field visitations and participant observations were done at some operational sites to to allow researchers to be more abreast with mining activities that pose threats to the allow researchers to be more abreast with mining activities that pose threats to the envi- environment of mining host areas. Interviews and open questionnaires were administered ronment of mining host areas. Interviews and open questionnaires were administered to to collect data from key informants from stakeholder institutions (District EPA officer, Dis- collect data from key informants from stakeholder institutions (District EPA officer, Dis- trict Environmental health and safety officer, District planning officer, and mines workers) trict Environmental health and safety officer, District planning officer, and mines workers) and opinion leaders from host communities with in-depth knowledge of the phenomena under study. Topics included in the interviews and questionnaire (Supplementary Ma- terials) were on the nature of the environment before the commencement of large-scale

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mining operations, impacts of mining activities on both the built and natural environment, environmental policies, and mitigation measures to curb environmental devastations exacerbated. Respondents were selected by using the purposive sampling methods. Sec- ondary data was gathered from journals, articles, books, websites of the case company, and literature reviews.

The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) For the past decade, the NDVI differencing method and classification method are the most commonly used change detection methods that project detailed and accurate information for monitoring and determining LULC changes [29]. NDVI stands as one of the earliest remote sensing analytical products used to facilitate the complexities of multispectral imagery, is now the most popular index used for vegetation assessment. This popularity and widespread use relate to how an NDVI can be calculated with any multispectral sensor with a visible and a near-IR band. Kriegler et al. (1969) proposed a simple band transformation: Near-infrared (NIR) radiation minus red radiation divided by near-infrared radiation plus red radiation (Equation (1)), resulting in a newly simplified image called the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) [30]. The NDVI is widely used to detect the changes in vegetation at regional and global scales through reflective bands of satellite data. NDVI generated image is highly suitable to determine vegetation dynamics between two or more different dates [29,31,32]. NDVI image differencing is based on subtracting different time periods of the same location or scene. The NDVI image values can be simply deduced by subtracting the two or more different times pixel by pixel to create the differentiated image [33]. Lyon et al. (1998) investigated seven vegetation indices by using Landsat MSS image data for land cover change detection from three different dates and postulated that the NDVI differencing technique was the best vegetation change detection. Mathematically, the NDVI data layer is defined as [29,30,34]:

N NIR − R Red NDVI = IR ed (1) NIR NIR + RedRed where NDVI is the normalized difference vegetation index. Red and NIR are spectral radiance (or reflectance) measurements recorded with sensors in red (visible) and NIR regions, respectively. Radiance (watts steradian−1 m−2 µm−1) is the measure of energy flux recorded by a sensor. The values of radiance are often rescaled to digital numbers (DN) as 6-bit or 7-bit (MSS), 8-bit (TM, ETM+), or 12-bit (Landsat8) unsigned integers. Reflectance is a unitless measure of the ratio of radiation reflected by an object relative to the radiation incident upon the object [35]. The NDVI values should be greater than zero (0) and must be between −1 and +1, where increasing positive values represent healthy and green vegetation, and negative values represent sparse or non-vegetated surface features like water, barren land, ice, snow, or clouds. The presence of atmospheric effects causes the (red and near-infrared) wavelengths to scatter, affecting the calculation of NDVI. The use of reflectance is important to control the effect of scattered radiation in the atmosphere. The changes in NDVI values among different objects are due to their relative changes in spectral responses. Therefore, Equation (1) can be changed, as follows [30,36]:

R − 1 NDVI = (2) R + 1 where NDVI is the normalized difference vegetation index. R is the ratio of NIR to Red, and is commonly referred to as the ratio vegetation index [30]. Equation (2) is more explicit for deﬁning NDVI behavior patterns, due to different responses of NIR and Red to atmospheric effects [37]. To detect gold mining-related vegetation and LULC changes in Ellembelle, we col- lected three Landsat images of the study region (Landsat7, ETM+) image for 2008 and (Landsat8, OLI) images for 2015 and 2020 from archives of the United States Geological Survey (USGS). The ArcGIS software was used to process these images. At the ﬁrst stage, Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7044 7 of 20

the NDVI layers were generated, and band math was then performed on the resulting NDVI images by calculating the area of each map (2008–2015–2020). To determine the areas with land cover changes, the 2015 image values were deducted from the 2008 image values, and the 2020 image values were also deducted from the 2015 image values, respectively. To finally assess the changes in NDVI values, the NDVI-change image was sliced into the three classes, class 1, class 2, and class 3, showing areas with low, medium, and high NDVI density values, respectively. At the second stage, we investigated the changes in each vegetation and land cover type to find the areas where the NDVI values has changed and classified the resulting images using ArcGIS 10.3. An overlay comprising LULC maps of 2008, 2015, and 2020 was developed through the ArcGIS software, and a transition matrix was done for the overlaid LULC maps of 2008, 2015, and 2020.

2.2.2. Data Analysis and Presentation The content analytical method was used to analyze the qualitative data, while Excel (Microsoft, Redmond, DC, USA), ArcGIS (Esri, Redlands, CA, USA), and OriginLab software (OriginLab, Northampton, UK) analyzed available quantitative data. Outputs were presented as summary statistics in tables, graphs, maps, and pie charts. On-ﬁeld pictures were also presented as ﬁgures to attest and support our results

3. Results and Discussion 3.1. Demographic Characteristics of Respondents Table1 shows the demographic characteristics of the respondents interviewed during the survey. A total of 65 people were sampled for the study, which were selected from the four mining host communities. Twenty respondents were selected from Nkroful as district capital, where respondents from all stakeholder institutions were found. Forty-ﬁve respondents were evenly selected from the three remaining communities (Telaku Bokazo, Anwia, and Salma), with 15 respondents each from these communities.

Table 1. Demographic characteristics of respondents.

Community Total Variable Nkroful T. Bokazo Anwia Salma n = 65 (%) Gender Male 13 7 10 10 40 (61.5) Female 7 8 5 5 25 (38.5) Age group 20–35 4 3 3 4 14 (21.5) 36–45 11 8 10 8 37 (56.9) 46+ 5 4 2 3 14 (21.5) Educational level Non-Formal 3 5 8 8 24 (36.9) Basic 4 3 3 1 11 (16.9) Secondary 5 4 4 3 16 (24.6) Tertiary 8 3 0 3 14 (21.5) Occupation Stakeholder institution 3 0 0 0 3 (4.6) Opinion leader 3 2 2 2 9 (13.8) Mine worker 2 1 0 1 4 (6.2) Farmer 8 8 9 8 33 (50.8) Others 4 4 4 4 16 (24.6)

The majority of the respondents were males (61.5%) because most of the males are engaged in mining-related activities and other occupations that are important for the study and are deemed to have in-depth knowledge about mining-related issues, as similarly reported by Mabey et al. [8] and Kamga et al. [38]. Most of the respondents fall within the Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7044 8 of 20

age group of 36–45 constituted 56.9%. Usually, this age group consists of key informants and opinion leaders [8]. Concerning education, most of the respondents (36.9%) had no formal education; this was due to the remoteness of some communities, which deterred most respondents from having access to education at an early age. This was in contrast to the report by Kamga et al. [38] where most of the respondents only attained primary level education, due to the inﬂuence of mining. Most of the respondents (50.8%) are engaged in agricultural activities as farming is the dominant activity in the area.

3.2. Results of the NDVI Analysis In our study, three classes are used in categorizing the values of NDVI images. Class 1 represents areas with low density with values from 0.02 to 0.21, Class 2 has values from 0.21 to 0.26 representing areas with medium density, and Class 3 values are from 0.26 to 0.3+ representing high-density areas. Table2 shows the NDVI density classes in the years 2008, 2015, and 2020. As presented in Table2 and Figure4, significant changes occurred in the medium and the high-density classes, whereas the low-density class saw very slight changes. The category of medium NDVI density (class 2) increased from 34.32% in 2008 to 44.22% in 2015 and then reduced to 33.38% in 2020. Also, the category of high NDVI density (class 3) has decreased from 59.40% in 2008 to about 47.01% in 2015 and increased to 58.89% in 2020. In contrast, the category of low NDVI density has increased from 6.28% in 2008 to 8.76% in 2015 and then reduced to 7.73% in 2020. Figure5 shows the NDVI density map of the study area in 2008 and 2015, and 2020. Band math was then conducted on the resulting NDVI images by subtracting the 2015 image values from the 2008 image values and 2020 image values from the 2015 image values. The resulting values gave the changes in the vegetation amount and status that occurred between these three time periods for every image pixel. However, in the NDVI change detection, the three classes denote the rate of changes that took place in the area within the 12 years (2002, 2015, and 2020) period. The low class in red indicates negative change, the medium class in yellow indicates no change, and the high class in green shows a positive change. Due to the difficulties in acquiring the LULC map of the study area (mining host communities), the LULC map of the study region (whole district) was used, but mining host communities and their environs received much attention during the analysis processes. LULC classes were extracted through site visitation and available topographic maps. The maximum likelihood classifier was used to perform a supervised classification, and four land use classes, such as agricultural lands, residential areas, forest reserves, and bare land, were identified.

Table 2. Change of the NDVI density classes between 2008, 2015, and 2020.

2008 2015 2020 NDVI (KM2) km2 % km2 % km2 % Class 1 (Low) 59.59 6.28 83.22 8.76 73.40 7.73 Class 2 (Medium) 325.76 34.32 419.68 44.22 316.78 33.38 Class 3 (High) 563.80 59.40 446.25 47.01 558.97 58.89 Total 949.15 100 949.15 100 949.15 100

Table3 and Figure6 present the pattern of land use changes between 2008, 2015, and 2020. Figure7 represents the LULC images of the study area for 2008, 2015, and 2020. The spatial extent of agricultural lands reduced from 82.13% in 2008 to 80.54% in 2015 and slightly increased to 81.11% in 2020. Forest reserves expanded from 14.23% in 2008 to 15.58% in 2015 and then reduced to 14.10% in 2020. The reduction in the forest reserve was due to the intense increase in mining operational activities between 2013 and 2016. Residential areas, including mining plant sites and community resettlement projects, kept increasing to replace agricultural lands and bare areas in the 12 years mining periods. Residential areas rose from 2.09% in 2008 to 2.16% in 2015 and further increased to 3.85% in 2020. Bare areas also saw a slight increase from 1.55% in 2008 to 1.72 in 2015, and then Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7044 9 of 20

reduced to 0.94 in 2020, the reduction of the bare areas in 2020 was due to increase in residential lands in the same period. However, comparing the overall percentage changes in LULC between 2008 and 2015 and between 2015 and 2020 periods shows that agricultural lands reduced by −0.98%, which resulted in an increase of 5.21% of the bare area between the 2008 and 2015 periods. Forest reserves and bare area reduced by −4.99% and −29%, Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, x 9 of 20 Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, x respectively, while residential areas/lands increased by 28.17% between9 of the20 2015 and

2020 periods.

Figure 4. NDVI density classes changes during the period of 2008 to 2020. Figure 4. NDVI density classes changes during the period of 2008 to 2020. Figure 4. NDVI density classes changes during the period of 2008 to 2020.

Figure 5. NDVI density maps for 2008, 2015, and 2020. Figure 5. NDVI density maps for 2008, 2015, and 2020. Figure 5. NDVI density maps for 2008, 2015, and 2020. Due to the difficulties in acquiring the LULC map of the study area (mining host Due to the difficulties in acquiring the LULC map of the study area (mining host communities), the LULC map of the study region (whole district) was used, but mining communities), the LULC map of the study region (whole district) was used, but mining host communities and their environs received much attention during the analysis pro- host communities and their environs received much attention during the analysis processes. LULC classes were extracted through site visitation and available topographic cesses. LULC classes were extracted through site visitation and available topographic maps. The maximum likelihood classifier was used to perform a supervised classification, maps. The maximum likelihood classifier was used to perform a supervised classification, and four land use classes, such as agricultural lands, residential areas, forest reserves, and and four land use classes, such as agricultural lands, residential areas, forest reserves, and bare land, were identified. bare land, were identified.

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Public Health Health 2021,, 18,, x 7044 1010 of of 20

Table3 3 and and FigureFigure6 6present present the the pattern pattern of of land land use use changes changes between between 2008, 2008, 2015, 2015, and and 2020. Figure Figure 77 representsrepresents thethe LULCLULC imagesimages ofof thethe studystudy areaarea forfor 2008,2008, 2015,2015, andand 2020. 2020. TheThe spatial extent of agricultural lands reduced from 82.13% in 2008 to 80.54% in 2015 and slightly increased to 81.11% in 2020. Forest Forest reserves reserves expanded from from 14.23% in 2008 to 15.58% in 2015 and then reducedreduced to 14.10% in 2020.2020. The reduction in the forest reserve was due to the intense increase in mining operational activities between 2013 2013 and and 2016. 2016. Residential areas, including mining plant sites and community resettlement projects, kept increasingincreasing to to repl replaceace agricultural lands lands and and bare bare areas areas in in the 12 years mining periods. Residential areas rose from 2.09% in 2008 to 2.16% in 2015 and further increased to 3.85% inin 2020. Bare Bare areas areas also also saw saw a a slight increase from 1.55% in 2008 to 1.72 in 2015, and then redureducedced to 0.94 in 2020, the reduction of the bare areas in 2020 was due to increase in residential lands in the same period. However, However, comparing the overall percentage changes inin LULC betweenbetween 20082008 and and 2015 2015 and and between between 2015 2015 and and 2020 2020 periods periods shows shows that that agricultural agricul- tulandsral lands reduced reduced by −0.98%, by −0.98%, which which resulted resulted in an increase in an increase of 5.21% of of 5.21% the bare of the area bare between area betweenthe 2008 the and 2008 2015 and periods. 2015 periods. Forest reserves Forest reserves and bare and area bare reduced area reduced by −4.99% by −4.99% and −29%, and −29%,respectively, respectively, while while residential residential areas/lands areas/lands increased increased by 28.17% by 28.17% between between the 2015the 20 and15 and2020 2020 periods. periods.

Table 3. Comparison of areas and pattern of changes in LULC classes between 2008,2008, 2015,2015, andand 2020.2020.

20082008 20152015 20202020 ChangeChange between between ChangeChange betweenbetween LULCLULC Type Type LULCLULC Area Area LULCLULC Area Area LULCLULC Area Area 20082008 and and 2015 2015 2015 andand 2020 2020 km2 km2 % % km2km2 % % km2km2 % % kmkm2 2 %% kmkm2 2 % AgriculturalAgricultural lands lands 779.55779.55 82.1382.13 764.44764.44 80.5480.54 769.91769.91 81.1181.11 −15.11−15.11 −0.98−0.98 5.475.47 0.36 ForestForest reserve reserve 135.10135.10 14.2314.23 147.89147.89 15.5815.58 133.84133.84 14.1014.10 12.7912.79 4.524.52 −−14.0514.05 −−4.99 ResidentialResidential areas areas 19.8019.80 2.092.09 20.5020.50 2.162.16 36.5836.58 3.853.85 0.700.70 1.741.74 16.0816.08 28.17 Bare area 14.73 1.55 16.35 1.72 8.85 0.94 1.62 5.21 −7.50 −29.76 BareTotal area 949.1814.73 1001.55 949.1816.35 1001.72 949.188.85 1000.94 -1.62 -5.21 −7.50 - −29.76 - Total 949.18 100 949.18 100 949.18 100 - - - -

Figure 6. The land covers categories changes during the 2008 to 2020 periods (%).

Int.Int. J. J. Environ. Environ. Res. Res. Public Public Health Health 20212021, ,1818, ,x 7044 1111 of of 20 20

Figure 7. LULC classified images of the study area for 2008, 2015, and 2020. Figure 7. LULC classified images of the study area for 2008, 2015, and 2020. 3.3. Field and Community Survey 3.3.3.3.1. Field Impact and Community on Water Survey 3.3.1. ActiveImpactand on Water shutdown mines are globally noticed to possess severe and lasting threats to waterActive bodies and shutdown [23,36,37]. mines Liquid are waste globally released noticed during to possess the processing severe and stage lasting of oresthreats are tomostly water treated bodies with[23,36,37 advanced]. Liquid refinement waste released methods, during whiles the “secondary” processing stage wastewater of ores with are mostlyfewer concentrationstreated with advanced of contaminants refinement like minemethods, drainage whiles water, “secondary” leaching from wastewater tailings dams,with fewerand water concentrations from waste of rock contaminants piles are often like andmine migrate drainage directly water, into leaching nearby from water tailings bodies dams,or are and inadequately water from treated waste in rock ponds piles [23 are,38 often]. Unlike and othermigrate large-scale directly mininginto nearby companies water bodieswhere or mining are inadequately effluents are treated directly in discharged ponds [23,38 to nearby]. Unlike rivers other and large streams-scale [mining16], Adamus com- paniesResources where Mines mining observed effluents good are anddirectly acceptable discharged waste to managementnearby rivers practicesand streams for solid[16], Adamusand liquid Resourc waste,es including Mines observed reuse, recycling, good and well-constructedacceptable waste tailingsmanagement dams, practices landfill, andfor solidoffsite and incineration. liquid waste, These including waste reuse, management recycling, practices well-constructed deter the miningtailings companydams, landfill, from anddirectly offsite polluting incineration. available These water waste bodies management through effluent practices discharge. deter the However, mining company findings fromfrom dire thectly field polluting study indicate available that water significant bodies rivers through and effluent streams, discharge. such as Subri, However, Anwiabaka, find- ingsBruma, from Angajaleh, the field study Kandagale, indicate Bangara, that significant and Kowire, rivers and provide streams ready, such sources as Subri, of water Anwia- for domestic and agricultural purposes to surrounding communities like Nkroful, Anwia, baka, Bruma, Angajaleh, Kandagale, Bangara, and Kowire, provide ready sources of wa- Telaku-Bokazo, Aluku, Salman, and Kandagale are greatly polluted by mine wastewater ter for domestic and agricultural purposes to surrounding communities like Nkroful, drainage and heavy run-off from heaped waste rocks at mining pits (Figure8). These Anwia, Telaku-Bokazo, Aluku, Salman, and Kandagale are greatly polluted by mine rivers are heavily affected by mine explorations, due to their closeness to mining pits and wastewater drainage and heavy run-off from heaped waste rocks at mining pits (Figure operational sites. 8). These rivers are heavily affected by mine explorations, due to their closeness to mining Some streams in the area are shrinking, due to the constant filling of waste and rocks pits and operational sites. during run-off from mine sites and alterations by the mining company to divert or change Some streams in the area are shrinking, due to the constant filling of waste and rocks the watercourse to provide enough spaces for mining activities. Interviews with some during run-off from mine sites and alterations by the mining company to divert or change respondents from Nkroful, Salman, and Teleku-Bokazo revealed that they sometimes found the watercourse to provide enough spaces for mining activities. Interviews with some re- dead fishes at the shores of rivers and streams with toxic effluents from mines sites as spondents from Nkroful, Salman, and Teleku-Bokazo revealed that they sometimes found causative agents. They often find it challenging to access water free from contaminants for deaddomestic fishes and at agriculturalthe shores of activities rivers and even streams though with rivers toxic and effluents streams arefrom abundant. mines sites as

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, x 12 of 20

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7044 12 of 20 causative agents. They often find it challenging to access water free from contaminants for domestic and agricultural activities even though rivers and streams are abundant.

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, x 2 of 20

Figure 8. Subri River and Broma River are heavily polluted by large-scale mining activities (effluent) in Ellembelle, August Figure 8. Subri River and Broma River are heavily polluted by large-scale mining activities (effluent) in Ellembelle, (2020). August (2020). revenue generated by the mining and quarrying sector increased from GHȻ 1.35 billion to GH DataData from from the District Assembly also has it that government, corporate bodies, and individualsindividuals invest invest huge huge sums sums of of money money of of about about GH GH Ȼ14,000 14,000 ($2500) ($2500) and and drill drill as asdeep deep as 90–120 m to have access to uncontaminated underground water in mining host commu- as 90–120 m to have access to uncontaminated undergroundȻ water in mining host com- nities.munities. This Thisconciliates conciliates with with findings findings by the by authors the authors of1.65 [39,40 of billion [39] ,that40 ]in that mining2015 mining and effluents 2016, effluents respectively, are standing for 22% growth [6]. primarily acidic and saline, with sulfate (SO42-), iron2− (Fe), and metalloids highly concen- are primarily acidic and saline, with sulfate (SO4 ), ironDespite (Fe), andthe significant metalloids contribution highly con- of the mining sector to the socio-economic devel- tratedcentrated in it, in which it, which threatens threatens the thelives lives of habitats of habitats andopment and negatively negatively of Ghana, alters altersthe therelated the prolificacy prolificacy adverse of impacts are on the rise and very alarming. The en- communities.of communities. vironment of most mining areas in the country is continuously deteriorating. Its immense economic value keeps diminishing from time to time, due to the heavy concentration of 3.3.2.3.3.2. Impact Impact on on Vegetation/Ecosystem Vegetation/Ecosystem and and Agricultural Agriculturalmining Land Landactivities in such places [7,8]. Most mining activities possess detrimental effects on AccordingAccording to Andre Andre and Gavin, Ghana’s gold the mining host industry environment is more , due helpful to their to the continued use of modern, sophisticated machinery, nationalnational economy. economy. In contrast, indigenes of local or harmful hosting hosting communitieschemicals, communities and face extended the resulting resulting blasting levels. Unsupervised and unsafe activities by socialsocial and and environmental environmental consequences, consequences, including includinglarge the the- scaledistraction distraction and artisanal of of arable arable small lands lands-scale [2,41 [2,41 mines]].. are characterized by overwhelming environ- The study found out that using sophisticated machine mental to to degradation embark on ,mining including o operations,perations, water, air, and noise pollution, deforestation, destruction thatthat is, is, clearing clearing of of sites, sites, drilling, drilling, and and blasting blasting,, hasand resulted loss of in vegetation deforestation and and ecosystem, a shift in land degradation, loss of soil fertility, and massive thethe land land use use pattern pattern in in the southwestern part part of the erosion Ellembelle [8–10] .District. Agricultural Vast Vast portions lands are of not only generally degraded, but very scarce. The vegetative cover have been cleared cleared off as extensive scarcity large large-scale-scale status mining of arable unfolds land infor affected agricultural production has also led to the shortening of areas.areas. Mining Mining host host communities communities,, such such as as Salman, Salman,the Anwia, Anwia, fallow TelakuTelaku-Bokazo, period-Bokazo, from 10 –and and13 yearsNkroful Nkroful, to 2, –4 years [7,11]. Large-scale gold mining activities havehave experienced experienced vegetation vegetation loss loss with with large large tracts tracts haveof land of threatened land rendered rendered thebare agriculture bare,, due to due gold tosector min- gold as the backbone of Ghana’s development. ingmining operations. operations. Vegetative Vegetative cover cover loss in loss these in these areas areasis associatedHowever, is associated with in the repercussions with wake repercussions, of these, such increasingly environmental challenges posed by the assuch soil as erosion, soil erosion, run-off, run-off, gullies, gullies, less groundwater less groundwater miningrecharge, recharge, sector, and concentration the and small concentration-scale of miningcarbon of sector receives much attention over large-scale dioxidecarbon dioxide(CO2) in(CO the 2atmosphere.) in the atmosphere. Apart from Apart erosion, frommines. land erosion, In devoid Ghana, land of small devoid vegetative-scale of vegetative artisanalcover re- firms stood for frequent accusations as guilty of sultscover in results loss of in viability loss of viabilityfor agricultural for agricultural use and loss usethese of and environmentalhabitat loss of for habitat animals challenges for [16] animals. Most, due [ 16re- to]. their unsafe modes of operations. This, therefore, spondentsMost respondents expressed expressed their views their on views how on large how-scale large-scaleled mining to the mining imposition had negatively had negativelyof a ban affected onaffected small agri--scale mining activities in Ghana by the government cuagriculturalltural activities, activities, especially especially in an in interview an interview within witha 201748-year a [9,12,13 48-year-old-old farmer]. Research farmer who works whostated stated inthat; this study domain primarily focused on small-scale “that;Before “Before the commencement the commencement of Adamus of Adamus operations, operations, we miningused we usedto haveactivities to havea lot aandof lot animal oftheir animal speciesimpacts species in on our in the environment, mitigation measures, and regula- forest.our forest. The most The most common common ones oneswere wererabbits, rabbits, rodents rodents (grasscutterstions (grasscutters to sustain and rats and the), rats), antelopes,small antelopes,-scale snails, mining snails, and sector. For example, Bansah et al. (2016), in their monkeys.and monkeys. Now, Now,these theseanimals animals are no are more no because more because of thework, ofdistraction the suggested distraction of the thatforest of the small and forest heavy-scale and opera- heavymining firms should utilize professional engineers in operational sounds by the mining company. Again, almost 80% of our vast land for agricultural tional sounds by the mining company. Again, almost 80%their of op oureration vast land to help for agricultural control the pur- related negative environmental and social impacts purposes has been taken by the mining company, and we now find it difficult to have access to land poses has been taken by the mining company, and we now[1,12 find]. Boafo it difficult et al. to ( 2019have )access also postulated to land for that environmental consequences caused by gold for food production. This has made access to the limited available farmland very competitive and food production. This has made access to the limited availablemining farmland in Ghana very are competitive mainly a and result prob- of small-scale mining firms and weak institutional problematic. Too much pressure exerted on limited available farmland and lack of good farming lematic. Too much pressure exerted on limited available supervisionfarmland and [9]lack. Besides,of good farming the environmental practices and social impacts of gold mining in Ghana practices makes it difficult for the land to regain its fertility leading to low agriculture output”. makes it difficult for the land to regain its fertility leadingwithin to thelow lastagriculture decade output are very”. Figure challenging, 9 with less focus and minimal research on the Figure9 shows a typical landscape before the mining activities and the current destruction large-scale gold mining sector. with enormous erosion. As a result, this study aims to assess the environmental impacts of large-scale gold mining in Ghana with the Ellembelle district as a case study. Specifically, the goal of this

study was to: (1) Assess the environmental impacts emanating from large-scale gold mining activities through field/site and community visitation; (2) use the Normalized Differ- ence Vegetation Index (NDVI), and Land-use maps to analyze the vegetation and land- use changes in Ellembelle from 2008 to 2020, due to large-scale gold mining, and (3) recommend possible mitigation measures to enhance sustainable mining and ensures environmental sustainability in the district and beyond.

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, x 13 of 20 Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, x 13 of 20

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7044 13 of 20 shows a typical landscape before the mining activities and the current destruction with showsenormous a typical erosion. landscape before the mining activities and the current destruction with enormous erosion.

Figure 9. Destructed vegetation and land with massive erosion taking place, August (2020). Figure 9. DestructedDestructed vegetation and land with ma massivessive erosion taking place, August (2020).

A study by the Food and Agriculture Organization confirmedconfirmed that land degradation and lossA study of arable by the land Food saw and a Agriculturevery height Organizationin Ghana between confirmed 1990 andthat 2005land ,degradation due to gold andand loss loss of arable land saw a very height in Ghana between 1990 and 2005 2005,, due to gold mining resulting in the extinction of 26% of forestforest cover and 15–20%15–20% of arable land at the mining resulting in the extinction of 26% of forest cover and 15–20% of arable land at the southern part ofof thethe countrycountry (Tarkwa,(Tarkwa, Ayanfuri, Ayanfuri, Bogoso, Bogoso, and and Dunkwa) Dunkwa) where where gold gold mining min- southern part of the country (Tarkwa, Ayanfuri, Bogoso, and Dunkwa) where gold min- ingis very is very active active [15 ,[15,1616]. From]. From the the field field survey, survey, it it was was observed observed that that several several gulliesgullies havehave ing is very active [15,16]. From the field survey, it was observed that several gullies have emerged in most mining sites caused by massive erosions,erosions, due to the absence of vegetative emerged in most mining sites caused by massive erosions, due to the absence of vegetative cover. Such gullies and some old miming pits are filledfilled with stagnantstagnant water serving as cover. Such gullies and some old miming pits are filled with stagnant water serving as breeding places for reptiles like snakes that possess treats to the health of residents [16] [16].. breeding places for reptiles like snakes that possess treats to the health of residents [16]. Figure 10 is an old pitpit containing stagnant waterwater atat thethe Salman-AkangoSalman-Akango pitpit concession.concession. Figure 10 is an old pit containing stagnant water at the Salman-Akango pit concession.

Figure 10. An old pit filled with stagnant water (Salman-Akango pit), August (2020). Figure 10. An old pit filled with stagnant water (Salman-Akango pit), August (2020). Figure 10. An old pit ﬁlled with stagnant water (Salman-Akango pit), August (2020). 3.3.3. Impact on Land and Soil 3.3.3.3.3.3. Impact Impact on on Land Land and and Soil Soil Another component of the environment that suffers a devastating effect from gold miningAnotherAnother is land/soil. component component Mining, of of theirrespective the environment environment of the that that type suffers suffers and mode a devastating of operations, effect leads f fromrom to gold the miningdistractionmining is land/soil. of land andMining, Mining, soil irrespectiveorganisms irrespective resulting of of the the type type in andsoil and infertilitymode mode of of operations, operations,in affected leads leadsareas. to This the distractionsituationdistraction becomes of of land land worst and soil if appropriate organisms measuresresulting arein soil not infertilityeffectively in enforced affected [8,16 areas.]. Large This situationsituation becomes becomes worst worst if if appropriate appropriate measures measures are not effecti effectivelyvely enforced [[8,168,16].]. Large tracts of land and vegetation cover in most gold mining regions in Ghana have been cleared to provide space for surface mining activities [35].

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It was noticed during the ﬁeld study that large-scale gold mining explorations have caused excessive damage to the lands and soil of mining communities within the Ellembelle District. The activities of Adamus Resource Ltd., such as excavation, deep drilling, pitting, Int. J. Environ. Res.and Public frequent Health 2021 excessive, 18, x blasting, have caused land degradation and landscape changes 14 of 20 (Figure 11A,B) in host communities. Data gathered from the District EPA indicates that about 530 hectares of land have been disturbed by large-scale mining operations and out of which about 110 (20%) hectares have been rehabilitated (Figure 12). Mining host communi- tracts of land and vegetation cover in most gold mining regions in Ghana have been ties, like Nkroful, Salman, Telaku-Bokazo, Anwia, and Aluku, have experienced decreases cleared to provide space for surface mining activities [35]. in the physical soil qualities, due to the constant removal of the fertile topsoil, massive It was noticed during the field study that large-scale gold mining explorations have erosion, and sedimentation. Harmful chemicals used during blasting, transportation of caused excessive damage to the lands and soil of mining communities within the Ellem- toxic substances from mining sites or pits, and the destructions of stable soil aggregate belle District. The activities of Adamus Resource Ltd., such as excavation, deep drilling, had also causedpitting, reductions and frequent in the soil excessive quality inblasting, these mininghave caused host communities land degradation [2]. The and landscape emergence andchanges concentration (Figure of 11A,B) chemicals in host and communities. microbiological Data factors gathered in the from soil the threaten District EPA indi- the growth andcates survival that ofabout plants, 530 andhectares therefore, of land jeopardize have been agricultural disturbed by land large sustainability-scale mining operations in mining areasand [27 ].out of which about 110 (20%) hectares have been rehabilitated (Figure 12). Mining It was observedhost communities that cash crops, like like Nkroful, cocoa, Salman, coconut, Telaku and rubber-Bokazo, plantations Anwia, and that Aluku were, have experi- in existence inenced host communities decreases in the and p theirhysical environs soil qualities before, due the to commencement the constant removal of gold of the fertile mining operationstopsoil, are massive gradually erosion, losing and lives, sedimentation. with some of Harmful such crops chemicals currently used having during blasting, yellowish leaves,transportation due to the concentrationof toxic substances of harmful from mining chemicals sites or in pits, the soiland andthe destructions the loss of stable of soil fertility tosoil support aggregate plants had growth.also caused This reductions afﬁrms the in the work soil by quality the authors in these of mining [42,43 ],host commu- which postulatednities that [2] most. The available emergence plant and nutrients concentration are contained of chemicals by theand topsoil, microbiological which factors in is estimated tothe be 20soil cm threaten deep, the and growth bulldozers’ and survival clearing of impoverish plants, and therefore, the soil fertility jeopardize and agricultural disclose the subsoil,land sustainability which has limited in mining fertility areas for [27] plant. survival [44].

Figure 11. (A) Degraded land due to mining activities (excavation), (B) blasting and pitting (Adamus pit) caused massive Figure 11. (A) Degraded land due to mining activities (excavation), (B) blasting and pitting (Adamus land degradation, August (2020). pit) caused massive land degradation, August (2020). It was observed that cash crops like cocoa, coconut, and rubber plantations that were in existence in host communities and their environs before the commencement of gold mining operations are gradually losing lives, with some of such crops currently having yellowish leaves, due to the concentration of harmful chemicals in the soil and the loss of soil fertility to support plants growth. This affirms the work by the authors of [42,43], which postulated that most available plant nutrients are contained by the topsoil, which is estimated to be 20 cm deep, and bulldozers’ clearing impoverish the soil fertility and disclose the subsoil, which has limited fertility for plant survival [44].

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7044 15 of 20 Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, x 15 of 20

FigureFigure 12. 12.Land Land disturbance disturbance and and rehabilitation rehabilitation in in the the district district (based (based on on data data from from the the District District EPA). EPA). 3.3.4. Noise Pollution 3.3.4.The Noise noise Pollution was highly overlooked by Ghanaians and some authorities from developing countriesThe asnoise a form was ofhighly pollution overlooked until recentlyby Ghanaians where and many some people authorities started from noticing develop- its relateding countries problems as ona form humanity of pollution [2,5,45 until]. Today, recently nearly where every many industry people that started employs noticing heavy its machineryrelated problems operates on within humanity a given [2,5,45 noise]. Today, pollution nearly standard every industry with regular that assessmentemploys heavy of noisemachinery emission operates levels within by the a designated given noise body pollution [2]. Noise standard pollution with regular is inevitable assessment during of miningnoise emission operations, levels due by to the the designated use of heavy body and [2] sophisticated. Noise pollution and other is inevitable inclusive during activities min- likeing excavation, operations, blasting, due to the drilling, use of and heavy hauling and [sophisticated1,8]. Field observation and other and inclusive data gathered activities fromlike theexcavation, Ellembelle blasting, District drilling, EPA reveals and hauling that host [1,8 communities]. Field observation experience and minimal data gathered noise fromfrom the the Adamus Ellembelle mines District processing EPA reveals plant sitethat itself. host communities Communities experience are usually minimal abused withnoise excessivefrom the noiseAdamus and mines strong processing vibrations, plant mainly site during itself. Communities blasting periods are at usually mining abused sites. Thewith excessiveexcessive noise noise and and vibrations strong vibrations, produced mainly during during blasting blasting have periods affected at buildings mining sites. in host The communities,excessive noise especially and vibrations in Nkroful produced and Anwia, during with blasting cracks have easily affected seen on buildings structures, in due host tocommunities, the regular waggling especially of in buildings. Nkroful and According Anwia, to with the casecracks company easily seen and on the structures District EPA,, due theto the severity regular of bothwaggling noise of and buildings. vibration According produced to is the always case company moderate and from the a scaleDistrict of lowEPA, tothe high, severity and the of both ambient noise noise and levelvibration is sometimes produced above is always standard, moderate mostly from at a night scale times. of low Respondentsto high, and fromthe ambient Nkroful noise and level Telaku-Bokazo is sometimes indicated above standard, that other mostly primary at night sources times. of noiseRespondents that are of from high Nkroful nuisance and are thatTelaku emanating-Bokazo from indicated heavy that trucks other when primary passing sou throughrces of communities to and from mining sites. Besides, noise pollution by mining companies also noise that are of high nuisance are that emanating from heavy trucks when passing has intrinsic effects on mineworkers as continuous exposure to loud noise causes hearing through communities to and from mining sites. Besides, noise pollution by mining com- problems. A study by the authors of [46] had it that 59 (23%) out of 250 large-scale mining panies also has intrinsic effects on mineworkers as continuous exposure to loud noise workers in Ghana had noise-induced hearing loss [2,47]. causes hearing problems. A study by the authors of [46] had it that 59 (23%) out of 250 Notwithstanding efforts by authorities and mining companies to curb the effects of large-scale mining workers in Ghana had noise-induced hearing loss [2,47]. noise on local people, the impacts of noise pollution go a long way to affect animals in Notwithstanding efforts by authorities and mining companies to curb the effects of their natural habitat near mining sites. According to National Geographic Resource (2019), noise on local people, the impacts of noise pollution go a long way to affect animals in loud sounds above 84 decibels can harm a person’s ear and negatively affect the health their natural habitat near mining sites. According to National Geographic Resource (2019), and wellbeing of wildlife. A caterpillar is said to have a malfunctioning heart, while the loud sounds above 84 decibels can harm a person’s ear and negatively affect the health number of chicks of bluebirds reduces when exposed to excessive noise [48]. Some animals and wellbeing of wildlife. A caterpillar is said to have a malfunctioning heart, while the like bats, rabbits, and some rodents use typical sounds for several purposes, including navigation,number of food chicks search, of bluebirds attracting reduces mates, andwhen escaping exposed predators. to excessive Noise noise pollution [48]. Some distracts ani- themmals fromlike bats, achieving rabbits, these and taskssome renderingrodents use their typical inability sound tos for survive several in pur suchposes, areas includ- [48]. Placesing navigation, and forests food closer search, to the attracting Nzema mines mates, operational and escaping sites predators. have lost Noise several pollution species dis- of animals,tracts them due from to their achieving inability these to bear tasks excessive rendering noise their emitted inability during to survive blasting in andsuch other areas mining[48]. Places activities, and therebyforests migratingcloser to the to favorableNzema mines environments. operational sites have lost several

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, x 16 of 20

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Healthspecies2021, of18, animals 7044 , due to their inability to bear excessive noise emitted during blasting 16 of 20 and other mining activities, thereby migrating to favorable environments.

3.3.5. Impacts on Air 3.3.5. Impacts on Air The qualityThe qualityof air in of the air district, in the district, especiall especiallyy in active in mining active mining communities, communities, has been has been threatenedthreatened,, due to large due- toscale large-scale surface gold surface mining gold activities. mining activities. The study The discovered study discovered that air that pollutionair in pollution Nkroful in, Telaku Nkroful,-Bokazo Telaku-Bokazo,, Anwia, Aluku Anwia,, and Aluku, Salman and Salmanemerges emerges from several from several causativecausative mining mining activities, activities, with withthe highly the highly noticeable noticeable ones ones being being dust dust from from untarred untarred roads. roads. These roadsroadswere were used used by by mining mining companies companies for continuousfor continuous transportation transportation of workers of and workersheavy-duty and heavy machines-duty machines to and fromto and operational from operationa sites, smokes/fumesl sites, smokes/fumes and chemicals and from chemicalsvehicles, from vehicles, and processing and processing plants, dust plants, and dust chemicals and chemicals released released during excavation,during exca- blasting, vation, andblasting loading, and of loading ores. The of severity ores. The of how severity activities of how affect activities air quality affect is presented air quality in Figureis 13 presentedin percentages.in Figure 13 in percentages.

Figure 13. Percentage presentation of air pollution activities (based on data from the District EPA). Figure 13. Percentage presentation of air pollution activities (based on data from the District EPA). Amponsah (2011) asserted that mining exploration and operation activities possess an Amponsahinescapable (2011) physical asserted and that material mining harm exploration to both the and environment operation andactivities the inhabitants. possess The an inescapableenvironment physical of mining and material communities harm isto always both the at risk,environment due to its and exposition the inhabita to pollutantsnts. like The environmentfumes, dust, of and mining chemicals, communities thereby is creating always health at risk and, due safety to its hazards exposition [18]. to It pollu- was revealed tants likeduring fumes, the dust, study and that chemicals, some residents thereby of creating Nkroful health demonstrated and safety to hazards the District [18] Assembly. It was revealedduring during early 2018,the study due that to a some minimal residents outbreak of Nkroful of respiratory demonstrated ailment to in the the District town, which Assemblywas during linked early to severe 2018, air due pollution to a minimal by dust outbreak from untarred of respiratory roads ailment used by in mining the town, companies. which wasAn in-depth linked to interview severe air with pollution a 44-year-old by dust opinion from leaderuntarred lamented roads that:used “byCitizens mining of Nkroful companies.and Telaku-BokazoAn in-depth interview communities with are a heavily44-year bombarded-old opinion with leader dust lamented pollution that since: “ theCit- Adamus izens of MinesNkroful started and Telaku operations.-Bokazo This communities issue of dust are heavily pollution bombarded became worsewith dust when pollution work commenced since on the Adamusthe Nkroful Mines started and Teleku-Bokazo operations. This sites issue due of to dust their pollution closeness became to communities, worse when and work that com- saw to the menced partialon the Nkroful resettlement and Teleku of project-Bokazo affected sites personsdue to their in both closeness communities. to communities, Severedust and that emissions saw occur to the partialwhen resettlement heavy-duty trucks of project and otheraffected vehicles persons ply in on both untarred communities. communities’ Severe roads. dust However, emissions the truth occur whenmust heavy be established-duty trucks that and Adamus other Resourcesvehicles ply Ltd. on has untarred its mining communities’ roads, and roads. therefore However, its heavy-duty the truthmachines must be seldomestablished ply the that community Adamus Resources roads. Complaints Ltd. has wereits mining lodged roads, by the and Project therefore Affected its Persons to the Resettlement Committee, which picked them as concerns for discussion with the Company. heavy-duty machines seldom ply the community roads. Complaints were lodged by the Project Af- These complaints were rampant at the initial stage before the resettlement of the affected Persons. fected Persons to the Resettlement Committee, which picked them as concerns for discussion with Such discussions, coupled with several demonstrations to the District Assembly, have led to dust the Company. These complaints were rampant at the initial stage before the resettlement of the reduction exercises carried out periodically by the company on the community’s major road. The affected Persons. Such discussions, coupled with several demonstrations to the District Assembly, problem still keeps persisting”. have led to dust reduction exercises carried out periodically by the company on the community’s major road.4. Conclusions The problem still and keeps Recommendation persisting.” Findings from both the NDVI analysis and the ﬁeld survey show that large-scale gold mining operations threaten the environment of the study area. Within the twelve years (2008 to 2020) considered for our analysis, empirical ﬁndings show that severe environmen-

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7044 17 of 20

tal impacts and changes took place between 2013 to 2016 when mining activities were very intense in the area. However, aside from the already discussed negative effects emanating from large-scale mining activities in the area, some issues like weak enforcement of mining policies, ineffective collaborations between mining support and environmental protection institutions, and limited community participation in environmental decision-making processes were noticed during the study. Although the case company is continuously modifying its operations processes to control its resulting impacts on host communities and the environment, such interventions are inadequate to curb the resulting environmental impacts. Mining host communities and their environment severely bear the consequences that arise from mining. Thus, the following recommendations are made to improve sustainable mining, enhance environmental sustainability, and achieve sustainable development in the district and in Ghana: 1. Ensuring Effective Stakeholder Coordination, almost all environment components suffer the consequences of large-scale mining activities; therefore, controlling such impacts requires cross-sectoral efforts from all mining sector institutions. There should be effective coordination among all environmental protection and mining support institutions like EPA, Mineral commission, Forestry, and other stakeholders, such as traditional councils and opinion leaders of host communities. Doing this will offer traditional rulers a golden opportunity to add their views to decisions that directly or indirectly affect their wellbeing. Effective collaboration with well-defined roles among these stakeholders will provide a solid body to ensure environmental sustainability by effectively monitoring and scrutinizing the objectives and activities of mining companies. 2. Frequent Environmental Education in Mining Communities, environmental protection institutions like the EPA should frequently organize environmental education and awareness programs for mining companies and citizens of host communities on the value of the environment and how to enhance its sustainability as mining operations unfold. Mining companies should be made aware and be educated on some of their unwanted practices and the associated negative impacts that jeopardize environmental sustainability. 3. Conducting of Thorough Environmental Impact Assessment, as the mining company is still searching for gold deposits to extend its operations to other areas in the district, appropriate and responsible agencies like the EPA are to conduct an extensive environmental impact assessment to determine and weigh the potential hazards of a newly proposed site before granting a permit. The mining company should be denied a permit if these potential hazards to the environment are very severe after the impact assessment. 4. Embarking on Afforestation Programs, the government should make it mandatory for large-scale mining companies to incorporate afforestation programs in their activities. Abandoned mine sites and degraded land should not only be rehabilitated by filling pits with gravel, but should include replanting trees to regain the lost vegetation. 5. Installations of Noise Absorbing Machines and Formulation of Strict Blasting Regulations, mining companies should install modern noise-absorbing machines in host communities to help absorb and reduce the excessive noise generated into the community during blasting and other operational activities. Blasting regulations should also in- volve a defined distance from mining operating sites to communities to deter blasting at mines sites near communities. The research was conducted on a single large-scale mining company operating in four communities within one district in Ghana, so it is advisable to be careful about the generalization of our results to activities of other large-scale mining companies in different regions throughout the country. However, the literature shows that the reported results are reconcilable with other large-scale mining activities in the country and other developing countries. The LULC maps and the NDVI data used for the analysis were based on the whole study region (District) instead of the study areas (host communities), Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7044 18 of 20

due to the difﬁculties in acquiring LULC images for the study areas. For that matter, it would be interesting for further studies to be conducted by using GIS and remote sensing methodologies. This would quantify and assess the environmental impacts emanating from both small-scale and large-scale mining in most dominants mining regions of the country, and that will help to detect the exact or direct changes and impacts that are solely caused by mining.

Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10 .3390/ijerph18137044/s1, Table S1: Questionnaire to EPA, District Environmental Officer, and Farmers. Author Contributions: D.U.K. designed the research, conducted the survey, monitored the data collection and wrote the document. GIS methodologies, data analyses and presentation were done by Y.A.A.-M., and J.C.N. Paper supervision and editing was done by Y.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This work was funded by the Project for Science and Technology Development of Jilin Province (20200503001SF). Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable for this study because the study does not need the ethical approval. Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable for this study because the study was anonymously conducted without any of the respondent name mentioned. Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. Acknowledgments: We would like to extend our gratitude to Douglas A. Arhinkorah (EPA official), Lord S.K. Cudjoe (Ex Assemblyman for Nkroful), Godknows Obeng Mavis Cobbina Joseph Yeboah, and Hamza Razack for their diverse supports during the fieldwork. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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