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An Afrocentric Critique of the United States of America's Foreign Policy

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An Afrocentric Critique of the United States of America's Foreign Policy An Afrocentric Critique of the United States of America’s foreign policy towards Africa: The case studies of Ghana and Tanzania, 1990-2014 by Kgothatso Brucely Shai Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in International Politics in the Faculty of Humanities (School of Social Sciences) at the University of Limpopo Supervisor: Prof. R.R. Molapo Co-supervisor: Prof. T. Sodi Declaration Student no: 201324973 I, Kgothatso Brucely Shai declare that An Afrocentric critique of the United States of America’s foreign policy towards Africa: The case studies of Ghana and Tanzania, 1990-2014 is my own work and that all sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. ----------------------------------- ------------------------------- Signature Date ii Acknowledgements Without the various forms of support that I received from God, the Living Dead, individuals and institutions in South Africa and beyond, the operationalisation of this study could have remained a pipe dream. For this, I am grateful to all. However, the following people deserve a special mention: Firstly, I am extremely indebted to my supervisors, Profs. R.R. Molapo and T. Sodi for their intellectual mentorship, patience and guidance when academic storms withered around my ideological and educational comfort zone. The critical and harsh comments of on and off-campus colleagues, Profs. S. Mokgoatšana, K. Nel and M.P. Mokhahlane; Drs. B.M. Rathete, J.C. Makhubele, A.V. Dhliwayo, S.A. Rankoana, L. Mafisa and R.O. Iroanya; Messrs. M. Vunza, D. Mabizela, G. Matheba, S. Vuma, T.S. Nyawasha, R.K. Manyaka, S. Toure, F. Chiyemura and Ms. D. Tumbare have all shaped this thesis positively and are worth appreciating. The tireless efforts of University of Limpopo librarians, Mr L. Seabi, Ms L. Bopape Du and those of their colleagues at the University of Free State (UFS), A. du Preez and H. Van Donder have unlocked all information cul-de-sacs and for that, will be cherished forever. Dr. I. Umejesi (UNISA) and Prof. M. Thompson (International Institute of Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) deserve a special thanks for their research and academic support during my participation at the Southern African Young Scientists Summer Programme (SA-YSSP) in Bloemfontein; wherein I was afforded with time and space to focus on my doctoral research. The invaluable inputs of all the respondents of this study, including those who shared their views off the record have immensely benefited this study. My friends, S.P. Maluleke, K. Lekgothwane and K. Mohlaba for their moral support. iii It is also worth appreciating the prayers, moral support and understanding of my parents, Phaswane and Thepudi; siblings, Mmathari and Mmaseroto; fiancé, Lebo; kids, Mogodisheng and Thato aka Philosopher during this heavily taxing academic journey. Lastly but not least, I wish to record particular thanks to the following institutions: National Institute for the Humanities and Social Sciences (NIHSS), University of Limpopo, US Diplomatic Mission to South Africa (Pretoria), National Research Foundation (NRF) and Embassy of the United Republic of Tanzania (Washington, D.C.), UFS, IIASA and Exactica for their immeasurable support during the different stages of this research. iv Dedication This study is dedicated to my late matrimonial grandmother, Mafiri “Nkakaile” Lewele for being there for me at all times. v Abstract The United States of America’s (US) foreign policy towards Africa has been the subject for debate. This is partly because the country’s relationship with African countries is not consistent. By and large, such relations are shaped by a number of factors which include political orientation and material resources. Within this context, the present study uses case studies from two different parts of Africa to tease out US foreign policy towards Africa. This explorative study uses Ghana and the United Republic of Tanzania (hereafter referred to as Tanzania) as test cases to compare and critique the post-Cold War foreign policy of the US towards Africa. It does this by first analysing and constructing the theoretical material on the three pillars of the US Africa policy (oil, democracy and security) and subsequently, contemporaneously locating the US relationship with Ghana and Tanzania. Largely, the study carries a historical sensibility as it traces the US relationship with Ghana and Tanzania from as far as the colonial era. History is crucial in this regard because the past provides a sound basis for understanding the present and future. To add, in International Politics theory holds sway and history is used as a laboratory. In this thesis, the researcher proposes Afrocentricity as an alternative theoretical paradigm crucial in understanding US foreign policy towards Africa. As it shall be seen, such a paradigm (theoretical lens) remains critical in highlighting the peculiarity of the US relationship with Ghana and Tanzania. It is envisaged that a deeper understanding of the US foreign policy towards Ghana and Tanzania is achievable when its analysis and interpretation is located within a broader continental context of Africa. To realise the purpose of this study, the researcher relies methodologically on interdisciplinary critical discourse and conversations in their widest forms. With reference to the test cases for this study, the agenda for democratic consolidation features prominently on both of them while oil is only applicable to Ghana in this regard. In contrast, Tanzania distinguishes itself both as a victim of terrorism and equally so as a strategic partner on the US anti-terrorism efforts in East Africa. Yet, oil in West Africa’s Ghana is important for the US both as an economic resource and a strategic energy source during wartime periods. Overall, vi the ‘differential’ foreign policy towards individual African states is also a significant observation which dispels the myth of a universal US foreign policy framework. Keywords: Africa, Afrocentricity, democracy, East Africa, foreign policy, Ghana, oil, security, Tanzania, United States of America, West Africa. vii List of Abbreviations AFRICOM Africa Command AGOA African Growth and Opportunity Act AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome AMISOM African Union Mission in Somalia ANC African National Congress AOPIG African Oil Policy Initiative Group APRM African Peer Review Mechanism ASF African Standby Force AU African Union CCGA Chicago Council on Global Affairs CCM Chama Cha Mapinduzi CPP Convention People’s Party CSIS Center for Strategic and International Studies CSOs Civil Society Organisations CSR Corporate Social Responsibility DDG Deputy Director General DHRF Democracy and Human Rights Funds DME Department of Minerals and Energy EAC East African Community ECA Economic Commission for Africa ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States ECOWASBRIG Economic Community of West African States Standby Force EISA Electoral Institute of Southern Africa EUCOM European Command GDP Gross Domestic Product GNP Gross National Product HDI Human Development Index HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus HPI Human Poverty Index HSRC Human Sciences Research Council ICC International Criminal Court IGAD Inter-Governmental Authority on Drought and Development viii IGD Institute of Global Dialogue IIASA International Institute of Applied Systems Analysis IR International Relations ISS Institute of Security Studies ISS Islamic State of Syria KANU Kenya African National Union MCA Millennium Challenge Account MCC Millennium Challenge Corporation MDC Movement for Democratic Change NAM Non-Alignment Movement NGOs Non-Governmental Organisations NIHSS National Institute for the Humanities and Social Sciences NRF National Research Foundation NSC National Security Council OPEC Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries PEPFAR President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief PFG Partnership for Growth SAAPAM South African Association of Public Administration SADC Southern African Development Community SAIRR South African Institute of Race Relations SA-YSSP Southern African Young Scientists Summer Programme START National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism TANU Tanganyika African National Union TRALAC Trade Law Centre for Southern Africa TUT Tshwane University of Technology UFS University of Free State UHRA Uganda Human Rights Activists UL University of Limpopo UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNISA University of South Africa URCS Uganda Rural Community Support US United States ix USA United States of America USAID United States Agency for International Development USIS United States Informational Service USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics WAC World Affairs Council WTC World Trade Centre WTO World Trade Organization ZANU-PF Zimbabwean African National Union-Patriotic Front x TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration ii Acknowledgements iii Dedication v Abstract vi List of abbreviations vii Section A (General Perspectives) Chapter 1: Contextual Orientation of the Study 1 1.1. Identification of the research theme 1 1.2. Problem statement 10 1.3. Operational definition of concepts 10 1.3.1. Foreign policy 10 1.3.2. Afrocentric critique 11 1.4. Purpose of the study 11 1.4.1. Aim of the study 11 1.4.2. Objectives of the study 11 1.5. Major research questions 12 1.6. Organisation of the study 12 Chapter 2: Literature Review 15 2.1. Introduction 15 2.2. Conceptual framework 17 2.2.1. Foreign policy 17 2.2.2. Regionalising 19 2.3. Revising the US foreign policy towards Africa during the Cold War 20 2.4. Post-Cold War US Africa policy orientation 23 2.4.1. The American theoretical position on Africa’s democratisation 24 2.4.2. Global and regional perspectives on US policy towards West Africa 25 2.5. American foreign policy since September 2011 30 2.5.1. Globalising and militarising US foreign policy after the 9/11 attacks 31 2.5.2. Revisiting the US engagement in North Africa and Middle East 34 2.5.3. Obama and the US Africa policy 35 xi 2.6. US’s direct engagement with West and East Africa 38 2.6.1. Ghana in focus 38 2.6.2. Tanzania in focus 39 2.7.
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