DOCSLIB.ORG

Over-Water Refraction of 10-Cm Electromagnetic Radiation R

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Over-Water Refraction of 10-Cm Electromagnetic Radiation R THE BULLETIN OF THE AMERICAN METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY Entered as second class matter September 24, 1945, at the Post Office at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, under Act of Aug. 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate ©f postage provided for in the Act of Feb. 28, 1925, embodied in paragraph 4, section 538, P. L. and R., authorized Sept. 24, 1945. Published monthly except July and August. PUBLICATION OFFICE. American Meteorological Society, Prince & Lemon Sts., Lancaster, Pa. EDITOR. Robert G. Stone, P.O. Box 2061, South Station, Arlington, Va. SECRETARY. Charles F. Brooks, American Meteorological Society, Milton 86, Mass. EXECUTIVE SECRETARY. Kenneth C. Spengler, 5 Joy St., Boston, Mass. TREASURER. Ralph W. Burhoe, Milton 86, Mass. Annual subscription, $3.50; single copies of this issue, Vol. 28 January, 1947 No. 1 Over-water Refraction of 10-cm Electromagnetic Radiation R. B. MONTGOMERY Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution,1 Woods Hole, Mass. ABSTRACT A simple presentation is made of the optics involved in the nearly horizontal propagation of short radio waves above the spherical earth. The refraction produced by various types of atmospheric layers is discussed, especially the refraction in atmospheric layers close to a water surface and the resulting wide variation in possible range of communication between low-altitude terminals. A formula showing how the refractive index of air at radio wave lengths depends on moist-air variables is reproduced. A graph for the determination of potential refractive index is presented. As examples of over-water conditions, the vertical distributions of temperature, dew point, and po- tential refractive index are shown for two psychrometric ascents by airplane to 1000 feet. HE PURPOSE of this paper is to pre- The refraction phenomena here described sent an introduction to a meteorologi- affect the band of wave lengths, briefly Tcal problem which was actively in- designated ' '10-cmJ9 in the title, from about vestigated by various groups during the one centimeter up to several meters. At recent war. More complete accounts are longer wave lengths these phenomena be- being prepared for publication elsewhere, come negligible, and the ionosphere becomes particularly by the Radiation Laboratory, important. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.2 It is evident, from the new applications Mention of the wartime developments has of short-wave communication and radar be- already been made by Sheppard (1946). A ing developed, that there will be need for prewar study of atmospheric refraction of further meteorological study of low-level re- short-wave radiation has been presented by fraction. Friend (1945). 1. Refractive Index of Air 1 Contribution No. 361. The refractive index of air does not vary 2 Volume 13 of the Radiation Laboratory Series, significantly with wave length over the en- to be published by McGraw-Hill Book Company, has the title Propagation of short radio waves and was tire range from about one centimeter up written under the leadership of Donald E. Kerr. Chapter 3 of this book is "Meteorology of the re- through all the radio bands. It depends on fraction problem" by R. A. Craig, I. Katz, R. B. the air density and on the ratio of water- Montgomery, and P. J. Rubenstein. Unauthenticated | Downloaded 10/03/21 06:49 PM UTC vapor concentration to absolute temperature, pends very much on the water-vapor con- increasing with both of these. If the symbol centration. For light, it depends somewhat n is used for refractive index, p for total den- on wave length, but practically not at all on sity, q for specific humidity, and T for water vapor,3 the second term on the right- absolute temperature, and if A and B are hand side of (1) or (2) becoming negligible. dimensional constants, the basic relation is The values for dry air given by the formula of the form (Friend, 1940, p. 352) above are also approximately correct for light in air having any concentration of n - 1 = Ap( 1 + Bq/T). (1) water vapor. In dry air, therefore, the re- The working equation adopted at the Radi- fractive index is approximately the same for 2 ation Laboratory has pressure p and vapor light and for radio waves. In air of con- pressure e as independent variables; it is stant water-vapor concentration the gradient of refractive index is approximately the n- 1 = - V + same for both bands. In air of variable T (2) water-vapor concentration, however, the where gradients may be entirely different. These a = 79 X 10-6 C mb"1, b = 48000.^ qualitative relations may be useful if the In the atmosphere, refractive index tends refraction of radio waves is compared with to decrease upward due to the normal lapse such phenomena as mirage. of density, to decrease upward if there is a humidity lapse, and to decrease upward if 2. Propagation of Radiant Energy there is a temperature inversion. An atmos- The propagation of electromagnetic radi- phere of homogeneous air, namely, air in ation is affected not only by refraction, as which potential temperature and water-vapor well as by partial reflection from ground concentration are constant, forms a con- and water surfaces, but also by absorption, venient standard and has a vertical distribu- scattering, and diffraction. If these last tion of refractive index not very different effects were non-existent, the feasibility of from that found under average atmospheric radio communication between two given conditions. In homogeneous air the lapse points could be determined by tracing the rate of refractive index is positive, and its rays (wave normals) emanating from one magnitude is about 0.8 X 10"6 per hundred of the points; the density of these rays in feet. Rays directed nearly horizontally are the neighborhood of the other point would therefore refracted downward, but the curva- be an indication of the power received in ture is only about one sixth of the curvature communication between the two points. Al- of the earth (FIG. 1). The downward re- though the method of ray tracing takes account of refraction only, it is nevertheless useful in providing a rough, preliminary guide to the energy distribution surrounding a given point of transmission. The ray from the transmitter to the horizon is called the tangent ray (FIG. 2). Energy reaches the region above the tangent ray by direct radiation, but it penetrates the FIG. 1. Curvature of ray in homogenous air com- pared with curvature of earth's surface. region below the tangent ray and beyond the point of tangency by the process of fraction allows rays to reach somewhat be- diffraction. The latter region is known as yond the geometric horizon. Visible radia- the diffraction region. The efficiency of the tion is affected in the same manner; the sun process of diffraction decreases rapidly as and other objects are normally visible when the wave length decreases. In the absence they are slightly below the geometric horizon. of diffraction, the tangent ray beyond the For radio waves, the refractive index in air is independent of wave length but de- 8 See, for instance, Shaw (1930, p. 54). Unauthenticated | Downloaded 10/03/21 06:49 PM UTC point of tangency would form a sharp refractive index, not merely a substandard boundary between the illuminated region layer, is required in order to produce inferior and the earth's shadow. mirage; an inversion of refractive index for Short-wave communication deep into the visible light accompanies an inversion of diffraction region is usually very difficult. density, as may be seen from equation (1). Since the location of the tangent ray can Any atmospheric layer in which the lapse vary widely due to changes in gradient of rate of refractive index exceeds the value found in homogeneous air may be called superstandard, because its effect is apt to be to decrease the size of the shadow cast by the earth and, hence, to make communication between low-altitude terminals possible over ranges greater than those attainable FIG. 2. Tangent ray in relation to earth's surface. in a homogeneous atmosphere. It can re- sult from either an inversion of temperature refractive index, it serves to explain why (strictly, a lapse rate less than adiabatic) communication between two fixed points may or a positive lapse of water-vapor concentra- be possible at some times and not at others. tion. Since the lapse of water-vapor con- Likewise, the tangent ray drawn for the centration is normally positive, a tempera- location of a radar set is a help toward ture inversion is normally a superstandard determining which targets can be detected. layer. Although the substandard tempera- ture inversion described above is sometimes 8. Types of Befracting Layers observed, it is much less frequent. In visible If homogeneous air is regarded as a wave lengths, since water vapor does not standard,4 any layer in which the lapse rate affect the refractive index, a temperature of refractive index is less than the value inversion is always a superstandard layer; found in homogeneous air may be called under suitable conditions this layer results substandard, because its effect if any, is apt in looming, the phenomenon in which objects to be to increase the size of the shadow below the geometric horizon become unusu- for a transmitter at a low elevation. A ally visible. substandard layer occurs in hydrostatically Two degrees of superstandard layer need stable air if there is an upward increase in to be distinguished. If the layer is only water-vapor concentration sufficiently great moderately superstandard, rays directed to overbalance the effect of the upward in- nearly horizontally have a curvature which, crease in potential temperature. A second although greater than the curvature of rays kind of substandard layer is that due to a in homogeneous air, is less than the curva- superadiabatic temperature lapse rate ac- ture of the surface of the earth; this may companying constant water-vapor concen- be called a type-1 superstandard layer.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Atmospheric Refraction
    Z w o :::> l­ I­ ~ <x: '----1-'-1----- WAVE FR ON T Z = -rnX + Zal rn = tan e '----------------------X HORIZONTAL POSITION de = ~~ = (~~) tan8dz v FIG. 1. Origin of atmospheric refraction. DR. SIDNEY BERTRAM The Bunker-Ramo Corp. Canoga Park, Calif. Atmospheric Refraction INTRODUCTION it is believed that the treatment presented herein represents a new and interesting ap­ T IS WELL KNOWN that the geometry of I aerial photographs may be appreciably proach to the problem. distorted by refraction in the atmosphere at THEORETICAL DISCUSSION the time of exposure, and that to obtain maximum mapping accuracy it is necessary The origin of atmospheric refraction can to compensate this distortion as much as be seen by reference to Figure 1. A light ray knowledge permits. This paper presents a L is shown at an angle (J to the vertical in a solution of the refraction problem, including medium in which the velocity of light v varies a hand calculation for the ARDC Model 1 A. H. Faulds and Robert H. Brock, Jr., "Atmo­ Atmosphere, 1959. The effect of the curva­ spheric Refraction and its Distortion of Aerial ture of the earth on the refraction problem is Photography," PSOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING analyzed separately and shown to be negli­ Vol. XXX, No.2, March 1964. 2 H. H. Schmid, "A General Analytical Solution gible, except for rays approaching the hori­ to the Problem of Photogrammetry," Ballistic Re­ zontal. The problem of determining the re­ search Laboratories Report No. 1065, July 1959 fraction for a practical situation is also dis­ (ASTIA 230349). cussed. 3 D. C.
    [Show full text]
  • Atmospheric Optics
    53 Atmospheric Optics Craig F. Bohren Pennsylvania State University, Department of Meteorology, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA Phone: (814) 466-6264; Fax: (814) 865-3663; e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Colors of the sky and colored displays in the sky are mostly a consequence of selective scattering by molecules or particles, absorption usually being irrelevant. Molecular scattering selective by wavelength – incident sunlight of some wavelengths being scattered more than others – but the same in any direction at all wavelengths gives rise to the blue of the sky and the red of sunsets and sunrises. Scattering by particles selective by direction – different in different directions at a given wavelength – gives rise to rainbows, coronas, iridescent clouds, the glory, sun dogs, halos, and other ice-crystal displays. The size distribution of these particles and their shapes determine what is observed, water droplets and ice crystals, for example, resulting in distinct displays. To understand the variation and color and brightness of the sky as well as the brightness of clouds requires coming to grips with multiple scattering: scatterers in an ensemble are illuminated by incident sunlight and by the scattered light from each other. The optical properties of an ensemble are not necessarily those of its individual members. Mirages are a consequence of the spatial variation of coherent scattering (refraction) by air molecules, whereas the green flash owes its existence to both coherent scattering by molecules and incoherent scattering
    [Show full text]
  • Evaluating the Effectiveness of Current Atmospheric Refraction Models in Predicting Sunrise and Sunset Times
    Michigan Technological University Digital Commons @ Michigan Tech Dissertations, Master's Theses and Master's Reports 2018 Evaluating the Effectiveness of Current Atmospheric Refraction Models in Predicting Sunrise and Sunset Times Teresa Wilson Michigan Technological University, [email protected] Copyright 2018 Teresa Wilson Recommended Citation Wilson, Teresa, "Evaluating the Effectiveness of Current Atmospheric Refraction Models in Predicting Sunrise and Sunset Times", Open Access Dissertation, Michigan Technological University, 2018. https://doi.org/10.37099/mtu.dc.etdr/697 Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.mtu.edu/etdr Part of the Atmospheric Sciences Commons, Other Astrophysics and Astronomy Commons, and the Other Physics Commons EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF CURRENT ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION MODELS IN PREDICTING SUNRISE AND SUNSET TIMES By Teresa A. Wilson A DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY In Physics MICHIGAN TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY 2018 © 2018 Teresa A. Wilson This dissertation has been approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in Physics. Department of Physics Dissertation Co-advisor: Dr. Robert J. Nemiroff Dissertation Co-advisor: Dr. Jennifer L. Bartlett Committee Member: Dr. Brian E. Fick Committee Member: Dr. James L. Hilton Committee Member: Dr. Claudio Mazzoleni Department Chair: Dr. Ravindra Pandey Dedication To my fellow PhD students and the naive idealism with which we started this adventure. Like Frodo, we will never be the same. Contents List of Figures ................................. xi List of Tables .................................. xvii Acknowledgments ............................... xix List of Abbreviations ............................. xxi Abstract ..................................... xxv 1 Introduction ................................. 1 1.1 Introduction . 1 1.2 Effects of Refraction on Horizon .
    [Show full text]
  • Atmospheric Refraction: a History
    Atmospheric refraction: a history Waldemar H. Lehn and Siebren van der Werf We trace the history of atmospheric refraction from the ancient Greeks up to the time of Kepler. The concept that the atmosphere could refract light entered Western science in the second century B.C. Ptolemy, 300 years later, produced the first clearly defined atmospheric model, containing air of uniform density up to a sharp upper transition to the ether, at which the refraction occurred. Alhazen and Witelo transmitted his knowledge to medieval Europe. The first accurate measurements were made by Tycho Brahe in the 16th century. Finally, Kepler, who was aware of unusually strong refractions, used the Ptolemaic model to explain the first documented and recognized mirage (the Novaya Zemlya effect). © 2005 Optical Society of America OCIS codes: 000.2850, 010.4030. 1. Introduction the term catoptrics became reserved for reflection Atmospheric refraction, which is responsible for both only, and the term dioptrics was adopted to describe astronomical refraction and mirages, is a subject that the study of refraction.2 The latter name was still in is widely dispersed through the literature, with very use in Kepler’s time. few works dedicated entirely to its exposition. The same must be said for the history of refraction. Ele- ments of the history are scattered throughout numer- 2. Early Greek Theories ous references, many of which are obscure and not Aristotle (384–322 BC) was one of the first philoso- readily available. It is our objective to summarize in phers to write about vision. He considered that a one place the development of the concept of atmo- transparent medium such as air or water was essen- spheric refraction from Greek antiquity to the time of tial to transmit information to the eye, and that vi- Kepler, and its use to explain the first widely known sion in a vacuum would be impossible.
    [Show full text]
  • Optics of the Atmosphere and Seeing
    Optics of the Atmosphere and Seeing Cristobal Petrovich Department of Astrophysical Sciences Princeton University 03/23/2011 Outline Review general concepts: Airmass Atmospheric refraction Atmospheric dispersion Seeing General idea Theory how does image look like? How it depends on physical sites time Other sources: dome and mirror seeing Summary Airmass Zenith distance z Airmass (X): mass column density to that at the zenith at sea level, i.e., the sea-level airmass at the zenith is 1. X = sec(z) for small z X = sec(z) − 0.001817(sec(z) −1) − 0.002875(sec(z) −1)2 − 0.0008083(sec(z) −1)3 for X > 2 For values of z approaching 90º there are several interpolative formulas: - X is around 40 for z=90º http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airmass Atmospheric refraction Direction of light changes as it passes through the atmosphere. Start from Snell´s law µ1 sin(θ1) = µ2 sin(θ2 ) Top of the atmosphere Define sin(z ) µ 0 = N z0 : true zenith distance sin(zN ) 1 z : observed zenith distance Induction using infinitesimal layers zn : observed zenith distance at layer n sin(z ) µ sin(z ) µ n = n −1 , n −1 = n −2 sin(zn −1) µn sin(zn −2 ) µn sin(z ) µ ⇒ n = n −2 and so on... to get sin(zn −2) µn sin(z0) = µ sin(z) Refraction depends only on refraction index near earth´s surface Atmospheric refraction We define the astronomical refraction r as the angular displacement: sin(z + r) = µ sin(z) In most cases r is small sin(z) + rcos(z) = µ sin(z) ⇒ r = (µ −1)tan(z) ≡ Rtan(z) For red light R is around 1 arc minute Atmospheric dispersion Since R depends on frequency: atmospheric Lambda R dispersion (A) (arcsec) 3000 63.4 Location of an object depends of wavelength: 4000 61.4 implications for multiobjects spectrographs , where 5000 60.6 slits are placed on objects to accuracy of an 6000 60.2 arcsecond 7000 59.9 10000 59.6 40000 59.3 An image of Venus, showing chromatic dispersion.
    [Show full text]
  • Impact of Atmospheric Refraction on Asr Time
    Impact of Atmospheric Refraction on Asr Time Abdurrahman ÖZLEM Istanbul, Turkey E-mail: [email protected] Abstract: The influence of atmosphere on the salat times fajr , Istanbul (41º latitude). This drift increases to 5 minutes at a maghrib and isha is well-known and thoroughly studied by latitude of 55º. It should be noted that this drift is positive for Muslim researchers. However, its impact on asr time, though sunset (later) and negative for sunrise (earlier). small, had not been a concern. This paper examines the effect of refraction upon the asr time and proposes a simple correction factor into the calculations. Keywords: prayer timing; atmospheric refraction; asr; apparent sun angle 1. INTRODUCTION The five daily prayers are religious obligations for Muslims. Knowing the start & end times of these prayers is Figure 1 – Refraction at sunrise/sunset essential to fulfill these obligations. These times are defined in the Qur’an ( Hud , 11:114; Al-Isra , 17:78; Ta-Ha , 20:130) The dhuhr prayer starts when the Sun begins to decline as well as in Hadith ( Al-Nasa’i , 523) [1]. after reaching its highest point in the sky at noon (zenith) and Both fajr and isha times are expressed in reference to its time is independent of atmospheric refraction. twilight, namely fajr begins with the dawn (morning twilight) and isha starts after dusk when the evening twilight disappears [2]. Twilight is a direct cause of the atmosphere: 2. CALCULATION of ASR TIME Sunlight, scattered by the atmospheric particles, illuminates the lower part of the sky, although the sun is actually well The remaining prayer is the afternoon (asr ) prayer.
    [Show full text]
  • Probing Planetary Atmospheres with Stellar Occultations
    March 16, 1996 9:20 Annual Reviews ELLIOT3 AR10-05 Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 1996. 24:89–123 Copyright c 1996 by Annual Reviews Inc. All rights reserved PROBING PLANETARY ATMOSPHERES WITH STELLAR OCCULTATIONS J. L. Elliot Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences and Department of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139 and Lowell Observatory, Flagstaff, Arizona 86001 C. B. Olkin Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139 and Lowell Observatory, Flagstaff, Arizona 86001 KEY WORDS: Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Titan, Neptune, Triton, Pluto, Charon ABSTRACT Earth-based stellar occultations probe the temperature, pressure, and number- density profiles of planetary atmospheres in the microbar range with a vertical resolution of a few kilometers. Depending on the occultation data available for a given body and other information, the technique also allows determination of local density variations, extinction by aerosols and molecules, rotation period and zonal winds, atmospheric composition, and the temporal and spatial variability of an atmosphere. A brief quantitative description of the interaction of starlight with a planetary atmosphere is presented, and observational techniques are discussed. Observational results through 1995 are presented for Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Titan, Neptune, Triton, Pluto, and Charon. INTRODUCTION Occultations of stars by planetary atmospheres—observed from the vicinity of the Earth—probe the temperature, pressure, and number-density profiles of 89 0084-6597/96/0515-0089$08.00 March 16, 1996 9:20 Annual Reviews ELLIOT3 AR10-05 90 ELLIOT & OLKIN planetary atmospheres with a typical vertical resolution of a few kilometers. Be- cause the main process causing the starlight to dim is the spreading of light rays through refraction by the atmosphere of the planet, this method detects all gases in the atmosphere.
    [Show full text]
  • Titan Solar Occultation Observations Reveal Transit Spectra of a Hazy World Tyler D
    Titan solar occultation observations reveal transit spectra of a hazy world Tyler D. Robinson ∗ y, Luca Maltagliati z, Mark S. Marley ∗ , and Jonathan J. Fortney x ∗NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA 94035,yNASA Astrobiology Institute’s Virtual Planetary Laboratory,zLaboratoire d’Etudes´ Spatiales et d’Instrumentation en Astrophysique (LESIA), Observatoire de Paris, CNRS, UPMC, Universite´ Paris-Diderot, Meudon, France, and xDepartment of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Uni- versity of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064 Accepted to Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America High altitude clouds and hazes are integral to understanding ex- that even relatively tenuous haze layers can become optically thick oplanet observations, and are proposed to explain observed fea- [9]. Depending on the cloud or haze properties, the result can be a tureless transit spectra. However, it is difficult to make inferences flat or smoothly varying spectrum which contains little information from these data because of the need to disentangle effects of gas about the composition of the bulk of the exoplanet’s atmosphere. absorption from haze extinction. Here, we turn to the quintessen- A major obstacle to interpreting observations of potentially hazy tial hazy world—Titan—to clarify how high altitude hazes influ- ence transit spectra. We use solar occultation observations of Ti- exoplanet atmospheres is a lack of understanding of how aerosols tan’s atmosphere from the Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrom- influence transit spectra. A number of key physical processes are eter (VIMS) aboard NASA’s Cassini spacecraft to generate transit at play—gas absorption, atmospheric refraction, Rayleigh scatter- spectra.
    [Show full text]
  • Atmospheric Optical Phenomena Result from Visible Light Interacting with the Earth's Atmosphere and Aerosols
    Patrick Meyers Atmospheric Optics I. Introduction Atmospheric optical phenomena result from visible light interacting with the earth's atmosphere and aerosols. While studying such phenomena has some practical use to scientists, most of society's relationship with atmospheric optics is simply the enjoyment of a rainbow after a passing storm or watching a fiery red sunset in the western sky. As rays of light pass through the atmosphere, they interact with the atmosphere, causing the rays to change their path to the earth's surface. When light hits an interface of two media of different densities, the light can either reflect off the surface or penetrate and refract. Refraction causes light rays to bend when they encounter media of different densities. Reflections can produce sun pillars, and are an important aspect of rainbows. These phenomena can all be seen with the naked eye, but the important interactions occur on very small scales. This paper will examine several types of optical phenomena in the atmosphere, as well as some of the governing principles of optics. II. Refraction To get a basis of understanding for refraction, it is necessary to understand the behavior of light when it passes between media. Light traveling through material travels at a speed less than the speed of light in a vacuum. The non-dimensional refractive index is the factor by which the speed of light through the medium needs to be increased to be equivalent to the speed of light. The index of refraction, n, is mathematically defined as: = / vcn …………(1) where c is the speed of light in a vacuum and v is the velocity of light in the medium.
    [Show full text]
  • Atmospheric Effects
    Atmospheric Effects Page 1 Atmospheric Effects The earth's atmosphere has characteristics that affect the propagation of radio waves. These effects happen at different points in the atmosphere, and hence it is worth discussing the structure of the earth's atmosphere briefly. The earth's atmosphere can be divided into the following regions: • Troposphere { Existing from the earth's surface to between 7-17 km above the earth's surface, this region of the atmosphere is the most turbulent since there is a lot of thermal movement of air. Air temperature decreases strongly as altitude increases due to expansive cooling: as altitude increases, gases can expand due to the reduction of pressure which reduces the temperature of the gas. • Stratosphere { Starts at the troposphere and ends at an altitude of about 50 km. The ozone layer is located here. • Mesosphere { Existing between 50 to 80-85 km above the Earth's surface. • Thermosphere { Located beyond the mesosphere, it extends to 640+ km and contains the ionosphere which is a region of highly charged particles which results from the ionization of atmosphere atoms/molecules from solar radiation. The ionosphere plays a major role in radio wave propagation below 40 MHz. • Exosphere { The remainder of the atmosphere past the mesosphere, extending to approxi- mately 10,000 km. The most important atmospheric effects on radio wave propagation are refraction and reflection. Refraction can occur in the troposphere or the ionosphere. Tropospheric refraction occurs because the refractive index of the atmosphere decreases as altitude increases, leading to a bending of waves back toward the earth.
    [Show full text]
  • Atmos Mendes 1M.Pdf
    Atmospheric Refraction at Optical Wavelengths: Problems and Solutions V. B. Mendes(1) and E. C. Pavlis(2) (1)Laborat—rio de Tectonof’sica e Tect—nica Experimental and Departamento de Matem‡tica, Faculdade de Ci•ncias da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal ([email protected]) (2)Joint Centre for Earth Systems Technology, University of Maryland Baltimore County, NASA Goddard 926, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA ([email protected]) Abstract Atmospheric refraction is an important accuracy-limiting factor in the application of satellite laser ranging (SLR) to high-accuracy applications. The modeling of that source of error in the analysis of SLR data comprises the determination of the delay in the zenith direction and subsequent projection to a given elevation angle, using a mapping function. Standard data analyses practices use the Marini-Murray model for both zenith delay determination and mapping. This model was tailored for a particular wavelength and is not suitable for all the wavelengths used in modern SLR systems. Using ray tracing through a large database of radiosonde data, we assess the zenith delay models and mapping functions currently available and the sensitivity of models and functions to changes in the wavelength and we give some recommendations towards a unification of practices and procedures in SLR data analysis. 1. Introduction Atmospheric refraction is an important accuracy-limiting factor in the application of satellite laser ranging (SLR) to high-accuracy geodetic and geophysical applications and in robust combination of solutions from other space techniques. The propagation refraction due to the atmosphere, datm, is given by = − + − ,(1) d atm ∫ (n 1) ds ∫ ds ∫ ds ray ray vac where the first term on the right-hand side is the excess path length due to the delay experienced by the signal propagating through the atmosphere, i.e.
    [Show full text]
  • Microwave Atmospheric Refraction Correction Radiometer
    1965 (2nd) New Dimensions in Space The Space Congress® Proceedings Technology Apr 5th, 8:00 AM Microwave Atmospheric Refraction Correction Radiometer W. M. Layson Technical Staff, Pan American World Airways, Guided Missiles Range Division C. F. Martin Technical Staff, Pan American World Airways, Guided Missiles Range Division Follow this and additional works at: https://commons.erau.edu/space-congress-proceedings Scholarly Commons Citation Layson, W. M. and Martin, C. F., "Microwave Atmospheric Refraction Correction Radiometer" (1965). The Space Congress® Proceedings. 2. https://commons.erau.edu/space-congress-proceedings/proceedings-1965-2nd/session-6/2 This Event is brought to you for free and open access by the Conferences at Scholarly Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in The Space Congress® Proceedings by an authorized administrator of Scholarly Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. MICROWAVE ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION CORRECTION RADIOMETER W. M. Lay son and C. F. Martin Technical Staff Pan American World Airways Guided Missiles Range Division Patrick Air Force Base, Florida Range measuring systems are limited in accuracy by uncertainties in the atmospheric refraction correction. The effects of water vapor are difficult to evaluate and are responsible for most of the problem. The appli­ cation of a microwave radiometer to measure the random noise radiation from water molecules along a transmission path can lead to a precise determination of the water vapor content of the atmosphere. The refraction correction can then be made to an accuracy of less than 1% as compared to present methods which give 3 - 5%. I. Introduction The accuracy of radar tracking systems has increased to the stage where one of the major limiting factors is tropospheric refraction, especially at low elevation angles [ 1 1 .
    [Show full text]