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STUDIES in COMPARATIVE GENOCIDE Also by Levon Chorbajian STUDIES IN COMPARATIVE GENOCIDE Also by Levon Chorbajian ARMENIA IN CRISIS: The 1988 Earthquake, by Pierre Verluise (translator) THE CAUCASIAN KNOT: The History and Geopolitics of Nagomo-Karabagh (with Patrick Donabedian and Claude Mutafian) THE HAND IN YOUR POCKET MAY NOT BE YOUR OWN (editor) READINGS IN CRITICAL SOCIOLOGY (editor) Also by George Shirinian PROBLEMS OF GENOCIDE (editor) Studies in Comparative Genocide Edited by Levan Chorbajian Professor of Sociology University of Massachusetts Lowell Massachusetts USA and George Shirinian Acting CEO Toronto Public Library, York Office Canada First published in Great Britain 1999 by MACMILLAN PRESS LTD Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 978-1-349-27350-8 ISBN 978-1-349-27348-5 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-27348-5 First published in the United States of America 1999 by ST. MARTIN'S PRESS, INC., Scholarly and Reference Division, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 ISBN 978-0-312-21933-8 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Studies in comparative genocide I edited by Levon Chorbajian and George Shirinian. p. em. Originally presented at a conference held in Yerevan, Republic of Armenia, 1995. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-312-21933-8 (cloth) I. Genocide. I. Chorbajian, Levon. II. Shirinian, George, 1949- HV6322.7.S78 1998 304.6'63--dcZJ 98-38455 CIP Selection and editorial matter© Levon Chorbajian and George Shirinian 1999 Text© Zoryan Institute 1999, excluding Chapter I© Greenwood Publishing Company 1987, 1999 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1999 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P 9HE. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 99 To all victims and survivors of genocide Contents Preface ix Notes on the Contributors xi Introduction xv Levon Chorbajian PART I APPROACHES TO GENOCIDE 1 State Power and Genocidal Intent: On the Uses of Genocide in the 1\ventieth Century 3 Roger W. Smith 2 Science, Modernity and Authorized Thrror: Reconsidering the Genocidal State 15 Irving L. Horowitz 3 Comparison of Genocides 31 Yehuda Bauer PART II THE ARMENIAN GENOCIDE 4 A Conceptual Method for Examining the Consequences of the Armenian Genocide 47 Rouben P. Adalian 5 Philosophy of State-Subject Relations, Ottoman Concepts of '!Yranny, and the Demonization of Subjects: Conservative Ottomanism as a Source of Genocidal Behaviour, 1821-1918 60 James J. Reid 6 The Convergent Roles of the State and a Governmental Party in the Armenian Genocide 92 Vahakn N. Dadrian 7 The Genocide of the Armenians and the Silence of the Thrks 125 TanerAk~am vii Vlll Contents 8 Turkey: a Cultural Genocide 147 Anush Hovanissian PART III COMPARATIVE GENOCIDE, GENOCIDE DENIAL AND GENOCIDE PREVENTION 9 Testing Theories Brutally: Armenia (1915), Bosnia (1992) and Rwanda (1994) 157 Helen Fein 10 Pol Pot and Enver Pasha: a Comparison of the Cambodian and Armenian Genocides 165 Ben Kiernan 11 The Ukrainian Famine of 1932-3: the Role of the Ukrainian Diaspora in Research and Public Discussion 182 Frank Sysyn 12 The Psychology and Politics of Genocide Denial: a Comparison of Four Case Studies 216 Henry R. Huttenbach 13 Breaking the Succession of Evil 230 Franklin H. Littell 14 Preventing Genocide: Activating Bystanders, Helping Victims Heal, Helping Groups Overcome Hostility 251 Ervin Staub Index 261 Preface The essays in this volume were originally presented as part of a larger conference on comparative genocide held in Yerevan, Republic of Armenia in April 1995. The conference was jointly sponsored by the government of the Republic of Armenia through the National Com­ mission of Armenia on the 80th Anniversary Commemoration of the Armenian Genocide and the Zoryan Institute for Contemporary Armenian Research and Documentation in Cambridge, Massachusetts and Toronto, Ontario. The conference was part of the first scholarly commemoration of the 1915 Armenian Genocide in an independent Armenian state. For most of the Soviet period, the Genocide was deemed too nationalistic a topic for open discussion, and the need of Armenians for recognition and commemoration was subordinated to larger Soviet concerns. Only a series of spontaneous demonstrations in 1965, on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the officially neglected Genocide, forced the Soviet Armenian government to acknowledge popular feeling and to construct the Dzidzernagapert genocide monument. The impressive memorial is located close to the centre of Yerevan, on a hill over­ looking the capital. The Genocide Museum in Yerevan was only recently constructed as an outgrowth of the 1995 conference itself. To host international scholars in Armenia to discuss the Armenian Genocide and other genocides was, therefore, a truly historic event. The conception of the conference, from the beginning, was a com­ parative one, and this is one of its strengths. The government of Armenia and the Zoryan Institute were committed to framing the Armenian Genocide both in terms of its uniqueness - and all geno­ cides are unique in their particulars - and in presenting it as an important part of the continual unfolding of genocides during the twentieth century, and tragically, it can be predicted, into the twenty­ first century so long as perpetrators go unpunished, denial is unchal­ lenged and mechanisms for effective intervention fail to be created. The comparative component is built into the chapters by Henry Huttenbach, Helen Fein, Yehuda Bauer and Ben Kiernan. It is also reflected in the total scope of the chapters that consider, in varying degrees, the Armenian, Jewish, Ukrainian, Cambodian, East African, Yugoslav and Roma experiences. The juxtaposing of histories ix x Preface contributes to breaking down insular, national perspectives and chau­ vinistic attitudes by calling attention to genocide as a universal social process. This analytical and comparative framework assists in promot­ ing empathy and building bridges of responsibility essential to the effective publicizing and combating of genocide. The editors thank the many people who provided a forum for these papers by making the conference possible. In particular, we thank Levon Ter-Petrossian, first President of the Republic of Armenia, who established the National Commission on the 80th Anniversary Commemoration of the Armenian Genocide and the heads of the Commission, Mr Gagik Haroutunian, then Vice-President of the Republic, and Dr Jirair Libaridian, Senior Adviser to the President, for their invaluable logistical support in Armenia. We note the key role played by the Sarkissian brothers - Souren, Hrair and Kourken. With­ out their generous financial support, the conference would not have been possible. We also thank Zoryan Institute Conference Committee members Mr Kourken Sarkissian, Dr Levon Charkoudian and Dr Kbachig T6161yan, the last of Wesleyan University, for their dedicated efforts. Ms Laura Yardumian of Zoryan, Cambridge and Ms Carole DeGrace of Zoryan, Toronto deserve special recognition for their tireless efforts on behalf of this project. The success of the conference depended on their careful, often daily, attention to conference details over the course of many months. Dr Anny Bakalian of the College of Notre Dame of Maryland and Dr Markar Melkonian of Van Nuys, California, dear friends of longstanding, provided wise and timely editorial advice. Ms Annabelle Buckley, our editor at Macmillan, has been outstanding in providing the encouragement, patience and expertise without which this volume would not have been possible. The views expressed in this volume are those of their respective authors and not necessarily those of the editors, the Zoryan Institute or the government of the Republic of Armenia. Levon Chorbajian Billerica, Massachusetts Notes on the Contributors Rouben P. Adalian is Project Director of the Armenian National Institute in Washington, D.C., and Adjunct Professor at George Washington and Georgetown Universities. His research interests and publications cover topics in Armenian intellectual and political history, and the Armenian Diaspora. Among others, he is the author of From Humanism to Rationalism: Armenian Scholarship in the Nineteenth Century and The Armenian Genocide in the U.S. Archives, 1915-1918. Taner Ak~am is Research Fellow at the Hamburg Institute for the Social Sciences. His research has focused on social-psychological pro­ blems in modern Turkish society. His books, including Turkish National Identity and the Armenian Question, have been published in Thrkey and Germany. Yehuda Bauer is Permanent Academic Chairman of the Institute of Contemporary Jewry and Professor at the Hebrew University in Jeru­ salem. He is the author of numerous articles and books on the Jewish Holocaust, including The History of the Holocaust, and is the editor of the Journal of Holocaust and Genocide Studies. Levon Chorbajian is Professor of Sociology at the University of Mas­ sachusetts, Lowell. His interests are in political sociology, genocide studies, and racial and ethnic minority relations. He is the co-author of The Caucasian Knot: the History and Geopolitics of Nagorno-Karabagh and the translator of Pierre Verluise's Armenia in Crisis: the 1988 Earthquake. In 1986 and 1996 he was a Fulbright Senior Lecturer in Armenia.
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