CHOOSING SILENCE: THE UNITED STATES, TURKEY AND THE ARMENIAN GENOCIDE by Maral N. Attallah A Thesis Presented to The Faculty of Humboldt State University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in Sociology May, 2007 CHOOSING SILENCE: THE UNITED STATES, TURKEY AND THE ARMENIAN GENOCIDE by Maral N. Attallah Approved by the Master’s Thesis Committee: ________________________________________________________________________ Jennifer L. Eichstedt, Major Professor, PhD Date ________________________________________________________________________ Samuel P. Oliner, Committee Member, PhD Date ________________________________________________________________________ Elizabeth Watson, Committee Member, PhD Date ________________________________________________________________________ Jennifer L. Eichstedt, Graduate Coordinator, PhD Date ________________________________________________________________________ Christopher Hopper, Interim Dean for Research and Graduate Studies, PhD Date ABSTRACT Choosing Silence: The United States, Turkey and The Armenian Genocide Maral N. Attallah My work is a comparative/ historical analysis of the Armenian Genocide, and how the denial and treatment of this genocide by Turkey and the United States has affected the social psychological wellbeing of succeeding generations of Armenians. I explore the literature that documents Turkey’s denial of the Armenian Genocide, and I also consider the United State’s political stance (or lack there of) on the denial. I use historical sources (i.e. books, videotapes, scholarly journals, etc.) to compare the Armenian Genocide with other genocides (i.e. Jewish Holocaust, Rwanda, etc.), and I look specifically at the reasons behind the state-sponsored killings, methods of murder, and who were the killers. The majority of my thesis covers the Armenian Genocide, detailing what happened, how it happened and why it is denied. I draw on genocide studies and literature of the Armenian genocide. I use literature on collective memory/ collective identity in order to theoretically demonstrate ways in which collective knowledge and identities are formed. One Purpose of my thesis is to concisely draw together literature that recognize the reality and effects of the Armenian genocide. The International community is faced with overwhelming evidence proving the Armenian Genocide happened and was in fact iii State-sponsored under the Ottoman Empire’s Turkish government. Even in the face of hundreds, if not thousands of survivor testimonies, archival photographs, documentation of first-hand eyewitness accounts by diplomats, missionaries, and reporters, there is still political and academic silence around discussion of the Armenian Genocide. The second purpose is to join my personal biography as a second generation Armenian American with the sociological imagination in order to shed light on Turkey and the United States’ shared role in the distortion of history. Lastly, I draw on social movement literature in order to briefly document the developing international effort calling for the Turkish government’s recognition of the Armenian Genocide. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My grandfather was a survivor of the Armenian Genocide (one of the only members of his family to survive) and although he was not able to tell the story of his family’s extinction, I am able to tell the story of his survival. This is my life’s work, if not for him then for my father who came to America for “a better life.” Though some would say he is a symbol of the “American Dream,” his own dream of seeing the day in which the United States calls upon Turkey to admit their role in the Armenian Genocide has yet to come true. For a man who has been my teacher and my support system when I thought the loss of my mother was too much to bear, I dedicate my life’s work in his name. Shukran baba! In deepest thanks to Dr. Jennifer Eichstedt for her brilliance as not only a Race and Ethnicity professor, but also a mentor. I will forever be grateful for her unwavering belief in my work and constant support of my random ideas. I promise to use my “brilliant mind” for good in hopes of one day becoming at least half of the academic/ activist she is. Simply giving “thanks” to Dr. Samuel Oliner, a survivor of the Jewish Holocaust, is an inadequate expression of my esteem and gratitude. Dr. Oliner is truly the epitome of altruism at its best. The knowledge I have acquired from our discussions will never be forgotten. Through my research I have learned the nature of evil, and because of him I will teach the nature of good. Many thanks to Dr. Betsy Watson for her persistence and guidance; my writing would not have been worth reading if it had not been for her constant critique of my thoughts and ideas. v I would like to recognize Dr. Ronald G. Suny, who over the past two years has been quite an inspiration. I thank you for your correspondence and permission to not only view, but also cite your “unpublished” manuscripts. Also, thanks to Professor Donald E. Miller and his wife Lorna Touryan Miller, for giving me permission to re-print their Map of Armenia within my thesis. For all the scholars of Armenian Studies and culture who have graciously supplied me with stacks upon stacks of literature, Shnorhagallem (thank you)! My work is only possible because of their accomplishments, and I only hope I can carry on the revolution! I would also like to thank my good friend and colleague Mark Bauermeister, who never let me fall “too deep” into my work and always kept it competitive. Best of luck my friend; GO CYCLONES! My sincerest gratitude is extended to two other members of my cohort: Lucy Stokes and Gisela Rutishauser, who not only weathered four semesters of graduate school with me, but without question kept my sanity afloat and sarcasm in tact. A special thanks to: Anna Hohl, F. Stearns, D. Clark, Z. Mohrmann, the Yamashita family, Yeran Attallah, Attallah Attallah and Tish Attallah for their continued belief in my work over the years. Researching and writing about genocide is undoubtedly a daunting task, and I lovingly thank Violet Hales for her steadfast support and patience. Finally, for my mother, Antonia R. Attallah, I am incapable of expressing in words the feelings in my heart or thoughts in my head. You will truly never know the impact of my work, nor of your role in my growth, but if there is one thing I can say it was your grace and strength that brought me to this peak. If it matters at all here is your dedication… here is my thesis. vi PREFACE Sadly, the Turkish government can continue denying the Armenian Genocide – against all evidence – in great measure due to the complicity of the U.S. Administration, which, at Turkey’s urging, works against Congressional legislation commemorating this crime and has even nominated an Ambassador to Armenia, Dick Hoagland, who is on record denying that it was genocide. -Aram Hamparian, Armenian National Committee of America Executive Director No U.S. President has ever made genocide prevention a priority, and no U.S. president has ever suffered politically for his indifference to its occurrence. It is thus no coincidence that genocide rages on. -Samantha Power, A Problem from Hell: America and the Age of Genocide I should like to see any power in this world destroy this race; this small tribe of unimportant people whose wars have been fought and lost, whose structures have crumbled, whose literature is unread, whose music is unheard and whose prayers are no more answered. Go ahead, destroy this race! Destroy Armenia! See if you can do it. Send them away from their homes into the desert. Let them have neither bread nor water. Burn their homes and churches. Then see if they will not live again, see if they will not sing and pray again. For, when two of them meet anywhere in the world, see if they will not create a new Armenia. -William Saroyan, (1908-1981) Record Everything! Remember! -Simon Dubnow, Famous Jewish Historian’s last words as he was driven to his death in the Nazi gas chambers vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS................................................................................................ v PREFACE......................................................................................................................... vii TABLE OF CONTENTS.................................................................................................viii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION....................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 2: COLLECTIVE MEMORY/ COLLECTIVE IDENTITY........................... 8 Collective Memory ................................................................................................. 8 Memory Distortion.................................................................................... 10 Collective Identity................................................................................................. 13 CHAPTER 3: GENOCIDE............................................................................................... 15 Coining of the Term Genocide ............................................................................. 15 Scholarship of Genocide....................................................................................... 17 Power, Authority and Processes of Genocide....................................................... 27 Power and