SUICIDE BOMBING IN PAKISTAN MUHAMMAD ALI KHAN SAIF DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY, FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES QUAID-I-AZAM UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD 2013 Suicide Bombing In Pakistan 1 Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Anthropology MUHAMMAD ALI KHAN SAIF Department of Anthropology Faculty of Social Sciences Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad 2013 AUTHOR’S DECLARATIONS 2 I hereby declare that this thesis represents the original work of the author. Works of all other people has been acknowledged in the text. The research has been carried out as part of partial fulfillment for the award of Doctor of Philosophy Degree in Anthropology. Muhammad Ali Khan Saif ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks to Allah for enabling me to undertake this research. In addition, I would like to express my gratitude and indebtedness to Prof. Dr. Hafeez-ur-Rehme to man Chaudhry for supervising my thesis. His guidance was of immense help and support and in particular the interest he took in ensuring that I accomplish this task. His patience with me and constant support during my work has been of great value. His guidance in writing of this thesis has been of profound significance. I would also like to express my deep gratitude and support to my teachers, Dr. Anwar Iqbal Syed for his support and guidance in this work. His comments have been of great value. In addition, I would also like to acknowledge the support of Dr. Waheed Chaudhry and Dr. Waheed Rana in this respect. Their support has made the completion of this work possible. 3 ABSTRACT This thesis is an attempt to explore the causes and motivation factors behind suicide terrorism in Pakistan with special reference to the region of Waziristan. The area under research is large and complex. The research is focused on the main causes and motivation factors behind the ever burgeoning culture of suicide terrorism in Pakistan. It was planned at the very outset that the study should not expand into too many areas of investigation which always instigate a researcher to probe while losing sight of main problem. The main focus of the study is the region comprising of North and South Waziristan, the most troubled zone in the tribal areas of Pakistan which has emerged as a hub of Al-Qaeda supported religious extremists and a nursery of suicide bombers in Pakistan. Anthropological field work was the hardest activity to carry out in this region since both the militants and the security forces are engaged in hostilities. Visiting the region and conducting field research was not without risks. However, despite these difficulties my native ethnic connections and support of political and tribal leaders worked effectively and finally I was able to enter the field and conduct my research. The study is highly qualitative in nature because of its obvious requirements but a handful of statistical tools were also employed to tabulate the supportive tangible information. The primary data has been presented by and large in the form of case studies but a sizeable part contains an account and analysis of in-depth interviews and personal field observations. The study has been planned systematically, starting with theoretical discussion on the subject and moving logically towards the main analysis. A detailed discussion of the regional scenario and history of suicide bombing has been provided before addressing the central thesis problem pertaining to suicide bombing in Pakistan. The data on tribal areas of Pakistan reveals that political and religious factors are not the sole reasons for motivating volunteers to carry out suicide bombing. It has also been discussed that the suicide bombing phenomenon in Pakistan is not totally comparable to rest of the world particularly to other Muslim regions such as Palestine and Iraq. The treatment and practice of religion is ethnographically grounded and highly context sensitive; therefore the conventional parameters of analysis are not applicable across the board. Thus, the frameworks proposed by Robert Pape and Samuel Huntington do not offer much relevance to understand terrorism and suicide bombing in Pakistan. The tribal culture and religious environment have a dominant role 4 here. The ‘Pushtun’ tribal cultural code of life called ‘Pushtunwi’ provides that every Pushtun is bound to take revenge against his enemy for his insult and dishonour. Pashtunwali mandates upon him to offer shelter to his guests or a person who seeks asylum. Pashtunwali also requires a Pashtun to be loyal to his faith, Islam, which is regarded as a matter of personal honour. The Islamic concept of Jihad also binds a Muslim to fight against the enemies of Islam. This concept has been interpreted by pro-militants clerics to motivate their followers for Jihad and martyrdom (Shahadat) which is the ultimate culmination of Jihad. These concepts have widely been used to engage youth in suicide terrorism by motivating them with religious emotionalism. This study argues that the phenomenon of suicide bombing can best be understood in a holistic manner by taking into account the interplay of strong cultural support factors, existing religious milieu and socio-economic and political conditions of Pakistan and in particular the Pashtun inhabitants of tribal areas. Suicide bombing and the resulting culture, the data strongly suggests, is not entirely an individual activity. It is a group activity, planned and organized by other players who have their own political agenda; the individual is used merely as a mule and an instrument. There were a number of questions proposed in the research problem which have been answered in the final analysis. It has been concluded that suicide bombers in Pakistan are not always alienated and marginalized individuals. It is rather peoples’ disillusionment and frustration as a result of politically motivated problems that are channelized into suicide attacks. Religion in isolation of other social, cultural and economic factors is not the sole motivating factor behind suicide attacks. A set of motivational factors inducing an individual to commit suicide bombing may include a desire for social prestige, heroism, albeit pseudo, and recognition particularly with one’s immediate social and tribal circles. The data also reveal that almost all known suicide bombers belong to religious schools of Deobandis who are Sunnis and followers of the Hanafite school of Islamic fiqh, with some adherents of the Wahhabi school as well. The data also show that finances are abundantly available for terrorist activities. However, the identification of main sources is undiscoverable through anthropological research because of the sensitivity of the subject. The main postulate that religion is the main motivation factor was, therefore, proved incorrect owing to the fact that at personal level it is not religion but personal individual traits and inclinations under which an individual succumbs to motivations for commission of such acts. Religious zeal is just one factor in addition to many others. Revenge appeared as a strong contributing factor. However, at a larger societal level, it was not found correct. The assumption that the society in general is strongly supportive of 5 suicide attacks was also proved false as the majority of the people do not agree with the interpretation of Islamic principles offered by the militant circles. Money, as a major inducement and contributor was also not proved correct. The study was not aimed at offering a viable solution to the suicide bombing problem. However, it has come up with the finding that suicide terrorism is basically a reaction of extremist religio-political groups to political grievances, and that Pakistan’s current social and political environment has provided an enabling environment and a fertile ground for this style of activity. Its internal political and social problems have facilitated the exploitation of religion and culture by the militants and disgruntled elements to spread their message through death and destruction. This study is divided into eight chapters. The first chapter discusses the methodological approach adopted for the research. The second chapter discusses the relevant theoretical formulations and literature review. The third chapter provides an overview of the background of suicide terrorism in other Muslim states and Pakistan. Chapter four discusses the tribal areas of Pakistan, in particular, Waziristan and the cultural and traditions of its Pashtun inhabitants. Chapter five discusses developments in Waziristan after the October 2001 invasion of Afghanistan and the emergence of militancy as a result and its relationship with suicide terrorism in the region. Chapter six and seven include ethnographic studies, including case studies, interviews etc. of the relatives of suicide bombers and would be suicide bombers. A discussion on public perceptions and response to suicide terrorism is also included. Chapter eight contains the final conclusion and observations. 6 ABBREVIATIONS ANP Awami National Party FATA Federally Administered Tribal Areas FCR Frontier Crime Regulation 1901 FR Frontier Regions JI Jamaat Islami JUI Jamiat-e-Ulama-Islam KPK Khyber Pukhtunkhwa Province MQM Muttahida Quami Movement PBUH Peace Be Upon Him PML Pakistan Muslim League PPP Pakistan Peoples’ Party PTI Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaaf TTP Tehreek-e-Taliban Pakistan IMU Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan 7 TRANSLITERATION Ameer A leader Fatwa A religious decree issued by a scholar or a grand cleric on a question of Islamic law Fidai