Svensk Teologisk Kvartalskrift. Årg. 81 (2005) Religion, Culture and God’s Here and Now Contextual Theology in Dialogue with Social Anthropology

SIGURD BERGMANN

Sigurd Bergmann är professor i religionsvetenskap (teologi, etik och religionsfilosofi med vetenskapsteori) vid Institutionen för arkeologi och religionsvetenskap vid Norges Teknisk- Naturvetenskapliga Universitet i Trondheim samt docent i systematisk teologi vid Teologiska fakulteten i Lund. Han har varit sekreterare för Nordiskt forum för kontextuell teologi fr.o.m. 1991, ledare för Northern Network on Worldview, Religion and Nature fr.o.m. 1996, initiativ­ tagare till den Europeiska forskarkooperationen «Religion and Envrionment» fr.o.m. 2003, och leder f n. en inte rdisciplinär forskargrupp om «Technical Spaces of Mobility».

anthropology’s still most profiled and important The Here and Now of Theology theoreticians, Clifford Geertz, and on his con­ Since the beginning, theology’s long history of cept of a pragmatics of religion. interpreting God has been characterised by pro­ Approaching anthropology as a theologian cesses of exchange with different rational, aes- often provokes an elementary objection. Crit­ thetical and moral patterns in their respective ically, colleagues are questioning why one contexts. The triune God has been experienced, would wish to hand oneself over to the power of reflected and interpreted as the God of the Here Cultural Studies and thus run the risk of subor­ and Now.1 Hence, reflecting upon «the Here anddinating theology to other concerns. Should one Now» represents a crucial dimension of theo- not instead take care of the identity of theology logy. in harmony with its own tradition? One of contextual theology’s main character­ Questions such as this are analysed and istics is the explicit use of the understanding ofanswered in a convincing way by North Amer­ «culture», a field mainly developed by theican theologians, e.g. Sheila Greeve Davaney disciplines of anthropology and ethnology in the and Kathryn Tanner, and I shall not spend time Social Sciences and Humanities. reproducing their arguments here.2 In this article I shall not develop general In short, a theology that does not meet the observations on the future of contextual theo­ challenge from Cultural Studies, and that is not logy, but offer a piece of «craft.» that I regard as able to exchange theories and methods, will isol­ necessary for the future of contextual theology ate itself. I am also afraid that it does not do jus­ as well as of systematic theology in general. The tice either to its ecclesial mandate, because task can be summarized in one question: What is being-the-church always takes place in terms of the significance of social anthropology for the understanding of religion and culture in contex­ 2 Sheila Greeve Davaney, «Theology and the Turn to tual theology? Cultural Analysis», 5, in: Delwin Brown/Sheila In order to deal with this task within the para­ Greeve Davaney/Kathryn Tanner (eds.), Converging meters of an article, I shall focus on one of on Culture: Theologians in Dialogue with Cultural Analysis and Criticism, Oxford: Oxford University 1 I am grateful to Mary C. Grey for coining the for­ Press 2001, 3-16. On different understandings of cul­ mulation of the «God of the Here and Now» while we ture in theology cf. also Kathryn Tanner, Theories of were discussing an adequate title for the book on «God Culture: A New Agenda for Theology, Minneapolis: in Context». Fortress 1997. 68 Sigurd Bergmann the church’s being-in-the-world. A theology that clothing these conceptions with such an aura of wants to reflect on the experiences of human factuality that (5) the moods and motivations people with the God who acts and liberates in seem uniquely realistic.4 the world, should not have problems evol ving as contextual theology, as a culturally enlightened The elements of this definition of religion form theology nurtured by the believers’ synergies part of the system of symbolic representations with the indwelling Holy Spirit of the Here and on which Geertz’ whole theory of culture is Now. Necessarily it must prepare to free itself founded. Through this, the anthropologist from conventional understandings of its identityaccords a specific significance to religion in as a closed unit. Any claim to an essential auto­itself. nomy of theology itself needs to be radically Religion so far is for Geertz not fiction but a questioned. It seems to be more in accordance sociocultural form of expression that produces a with modernity than with the classical develop­ claim to reality, a claim which he takes very ser­ ment of theology. iously. Geertz’ understanding of religion does In the following, I shall first describe Geertz’ not limit itself to the empirically perceivable understanding of culture and religion. Inevidence, a rather he also acknowledges how reli­ second move I shall discuss what contextual gion manages to transform human experiences theology could learn from his pragmatics of reli­ with regard to a superior power.5 gion. In a third move I shall formulate four Geertz puts a specific emphasis on religion’s objections to Geertz’ understanding of religioncapacity to contribute to and to create the social in order to profile the contribution of theology to order, thus arguing against any vulgar positiv- the discourse on religion and culture more clearly. Finally, I shall briefly suggest an altern­ 3 Clifford Geertz, «Religion as a Cultural System», ative direction for a future theology by envis­ in: The Interpretation of Cultures , New York: Basic aging its dialogue with anthropology. Books 1973, 87-125, 89. Anthropologists after Geertz have criticized the understanding of culture as a con­ sistent, sharply bounded, stable social order and of­ Culture and Religion as Systems of fered a more self-critical postmodern understanding of Symbolic Representation according the differences in and between cultures in order not to legitimate applied ethnocentrism. Cf. Tanner, op.cit., to Clifford Geertz chapter 3. Nonetheless, the strong and weak parts in In what follows I shall not offer any detailed Geertz’ concept of culture can offer theology an exegesis of Geertz’ work, but concentrate on his entrance to the dialogue with Cultural Studies. A theo­ essay about religion. logical discussion with concepts of culture where, plurality, difference, multiple identities and flows are For Geertz religion is «a cultural system». at the centre is offered in my essays on transculturality: «Culture» means for him S. Bergmann, «Transculturality and Tradition — Re­ newing the Continuous in Late Modernity«, in: Studia a historically transmitted pattern of meanings Theologien Vol. 58, No. 2/2004, 140-156, and «Revi- embodied in symbols, a system of inherited con­ sioning Pneumatology in Transcultural Spaces», ceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of (forthcoming in: Sturla Stålsett (ed.), Spirits of Glob­ which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop alisation: Cross-Cultural and Theological Perspect­ their knowledge about and attitudes toward life.3 ives on (Neo-)Pentecostalism and Experiential Spiritu­ alities). Detailed descriptions and discussions with Geertz’ definition of «religion» is multifacetedcross-cultural concepts of visual arts in anthropology and detailed. A religion is: are offered in S. Bergmann, I begynnelsen är bilden: En befriande bild-konst-kultur-teologi, [In the Begin­ ning Is the Image: A Liberating Theologyy of Visual (1) a system of symbols which acts to (2) estab­ Arts and Culture7, Stockholm: Proprius 2003, chapter lish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods 4. and motivations in men by (3) formulating con­ 4 Geertz, 90f. ceptions of a general order of existence and (4) 5 Geertz, 109. Religion, Culture and God’s Here and Now 69 istic view according to which religion only theology but also in the history of sociology — offers a mirror of society.6 Religion is a source especially by stressing the constructive potential for individuals and groups from which the ima­in religion which directs even the empirical ges of the world, of the self and of the relations social scientist toward the world of religious between both emerge, and in view of this fact images and models of religious thinking and religion ought to be of great interest for anthro­ acting. pology and the Social Sciences. At the end of his In other texts, Geertz has further developed essay, the reader gains the impression that his method of cultural analysis through com­ Geertz holds that the interpretation of religion is bining hermeneutics and semiotics. Assisted by a necessary task of the Social Sciences, if they the turn to religious pragmatics, this method wish to understand the social and psychologicalcould in the future also be applied to the life of humans in general. The theory of religion «reading» of cultural systems of signs and sym­ in this way fulfils the turn to pragmatics and bols and investigating them with the help of leaves a purely idealistic or purely materialistic notions such as worldview, ethos, and life-inter- understanding behind.7 Religion emerges in thepretation. space in between ideas and actions. Religion takes place in the synthesis of a population’s worldview and ethos. What Contextual Theology Could Such an understanding of religion is able to Learn from a Pragmatics of Religion go beyond Schleiermacher’s reduction of reli­ gion to «das schlechthinnige Abhängigkeits­ What can contextual theology learn in dialogue gefühl», which had described religion by em­with Geertz’ pragmatics of religion? phasising the individualistic dimension of reli­ By contextual theology, I mean a Christian giosity. Since then, our discourses have been life-interpretation (Swedish «livstolkning») that heavily influenced by the belief that religion is conscious about its embeddings and inter­ mainly concerns the inner affairs of the indi­changes with historical, sociocultural and ecolo­ vidual — truly a distorting image of the human gical contexts.9 in modernity’s theory of religion. Many good To begin with, it seems obvious to me that reasons, which will not be developed here, could systematic theology in the academic and pas­ be formulated against this reduction of religiontoral spheres must both approach the notion of to subjectivity. I would even go further and pro­religion and relate to various theories of religion. pose a human ecological model of religion Drawing a separating border between Christian­ where religion and religiosity are located in the ity on the one side and religion on the other triangle of subjective, sociocultural and naturalseems meaningless today. dimensions with all aspects interacting in differ­ Four reasons can be given. entiated ways.8 Firstly, in ordinary language the terms reli­ Moreover, with the help of his model Geertz gious, religion, religiosity and spirituality are manages to question not only the reductionistused often and with many different meanings. understandings of religion in hermeneuticalSecondly,-cultural and religious pluralism, pro­ moted by the migration flows in the globalised world system, challenges Christians at nearly all 6 Geertz, 119. places and cities of the world to reflect about 7 «Pragmatics» means the interest in how a theory, concept or religion works in practice and its con­ sequences for action. Similarly to linguistics Religious 9 Cf. G od in Context , op.cit., 2-6. On the concept of Studies has also turned its interest from the essence of life-interpretation (Swedish: livstolkning), which dif­ language and religion to its use. fers from the Uppsala approach of empirical studies of 8 Cf. my human-ecological model for contextual faith and ideologies (Swedish: livsåskådningsveten­ theology, in S. Bergmann, G od in Context: A Survey o f skap) see Per Erik Persson, «Livstolkning — något för Contextual Theology , Aldershot: Ashgate 2003, 95- teologi/religionsvetenskap?» in: Svensk teologisk 106. kvartalsk rift 75, No. 2, 1999, 64-70. 70 Sigurd Bergmann interreligious encounters and the intercultural In its influential form as a kerygmatic theo­ sharing of life. logy the task of academic theology was to serve Thirdly, since Bonhoeffer, theology needs to the preaching of the Word of God. The question face the question of how it makes sense to de­ how God acted in this world was simply an­ velop the church’s being-in-the-world not only swered by claiming God’s presence in the exclusively in a confessional language system, church of the believers and in creation in gen­ but also in how it can be meaningfully developederal. Even if it were possible to contextualise with regard to and as a part of other systems. Karl Barth’s theology, this does not mean that it Fourthly, theology also includes the invest­ will develop into a genuine contextual theology. igation of the plausibility of Christian faith in Barth's understanding of theology remains, in the perspective of a sociology of knowledge — spite of all its openness to creation, an ecclesio­ which Per Frostin was strongly busy developing centric construction, and it remains — in spite of in a political key, while Manfred Hofmann all its Trinitarian formulations — a christo- looked more directly into the political relevance centric and in soteriology a modalistic project. of Christian practices as parts of the social Departing from Bonhoeffer instead, one movements and especially the indigenous mo­should seek God and the church in the world, bilisation.10 How can the Christian interpreta­ and one should always in the first place ask for tions of life in the horizon of the image of God the place where Christ is present, in order to ask become socially relevant and how could they in the second place where the church emerges. join other religions to evolve the diversity and The quest for an «ecclesiogenesis» (L. Boff) «multitude» of culture and nature beyond needs the to be given priority in a concept of crea­ present state of a global faith in an «Empire» of tion instead of an ecclesiocentric Christology.13 accumulating finance capital all over?11 The challenges of interreligious encounters in practices and ideologies are especially explosive 12 Cf. my essay «Space and Justice in Eco-Spiritual- in the context of the ecological challenge of ity», in: Vasilios N. Makrides/Jörg Riipke (eds.), Reli­ globalisation, a theme that I unfortunately can- gionen im Konflikt: Vom Bürgerkrieg über Ökogewalt 19 not continue in this essay. bis zur Gewalterinnerung im Ritual, Münster: What, now, is the challenge of a pragmatics Aschendorff 2004, 212-225. Rich results from our of religion to systematic theology? Norwegian research programme on «Religion in a Conventionally, one has defined theology as Globalised Age» are published at present, see http:// «Church dogmatic» or as «doctrine of faith»,www.tf.uio.no/riga/eng-ab.html . whose task it was to formulate and interpret the 13 Cf. Volf’s detailed analysis of powerful and dom­ central claims of Christian faith and to connect inant ecclesiologies in contemporary Roman-Catholic and Orthodox Church leaders as Joseph Ratzinger them into a system of different «loci». (now Pope Benedict XVI) and John D. Zizioulas (now Metropolitan of Pergamon). Volf’s conclusion is 1() See Per Frostin, «Kristendomens kairos», i: S. clearly that the ecclesiocentric and power-oriented Bergmann (ed.), De nedtystades Gud: diakoni för livets character of these two influential church leaders is skidl, Stockholm: Proprius 1992, 13-53, 29. Manfred obviously not in accordance with classical Christian Hofmann/Christina Runquist, Krock eller dialog? doctrine, where the concept of God must be superior to Europeiska möten med Latinamerikas ursprungsfolk, the concept of the church, and that ecumenical eccle- Stockholm/Stehag: Symposion 2003, 220f. siology still is a common vision to come. Miroslav 11 Cf. Michael Hardt/Antonio Negri, Empire , Cam­ Volf, Trinität und Gemeinschaft: Eine ökumenische bridge Mass./London: Harvard University Press 2000, Ekklesiologie, Mainz/Neukirchen Vlyun: Grünewald/ and Ulrich Duchrow/Franz Josef Hinkelammert, Neukirchener 1996, (After Our Likeness: The Church Leben ist mehr als Kapital: Alternativen zur globalen as the Image of the Trinity (Sacra Doctrina), Grand Diktatur des Eigentums, Oberursel: Publik-Forum Rapids, MN: Eerdmans 1998). On the superiority of 2002, (English ed. Property for People, not for Profit: pneumatology and cosmology over ecclesiology in Alternatives to the global tyranny of capital, Geneva/ Early Church Doctrine see S. Bergmann, Creation Set London: WCC and the Catholic Institute for Inter­ Free: The Spirit as Liberator of Nature, chapter V.4.3., national Relations). (Sacra Doctrina), Grand Rapids, MN: Eerdmans 2005. Religion, Culture and God’s Here and Now 71

Following Gustaf Aul én, the church repres­ Cultural Studies and the ecology of creation, one ents not a value in itself but is nothing else thancould not develop any theological interpretation God’s instrument to expand his reign in theat all. This insight is of course not at all a new whole of creation. Therefore two central ques­ one, but one can find and verify it also among tions are at the heart of ecclesiology as well: many thinkers in classical theology through the What is needed in the Here and Now of the ages. Earlier theologians have also been highly world for the salvation of the creation, and who aware of the conditions of their context, time is the God, who acts in this context of the trans­ and place.16 formation of the world? In the first place, contextual theology can A catholic understanding of theology learn from a pragmatics of religion to regard cul­ ascribes tradition a greater significance than in ture as a system of symbolic representations, Protestantism, and David Tracy’s influential which are emerging in the space between life definition states that theology is «the attempt to views and practical life forms. The pragmatics establish mutually critical correlations between of religion could serve theology in so far as they an interpretation of the Christian tradition and anoffer a method, which obviously is hard to unite interpretation of the contemporary situation».14 with a concept of an exclusively language based Tracy has proposed this definition in continu­dogmatic. Nonetheless, it remains an open ques­ ity with Paul Tillich and it has been widely tion how far one could combine it with a her­ accepted. Positively, one can say that the inter­ meneutical interpretation of sacred or classical pretation of the situation is given an important texts according to Schleiermacher and Geertz. significance in this understanding of the work of One could for example ask whether the de­ the theologian. Tradition appears necessarily in velopment of a hermeneutical theology, which dialogue with the interpretation of the situation. does not only use hermeneutics as a useful tool In understanding the situation of the tradition,or in ad-hoc ways for its own sake, but which a pragmatics of religion could also develop works as an integrated discipline among others interesting contributions. While «situation» forwith problems of text and interpretation, could Tracy always means something in flow, he inspire the anthropologically enlightened theo­ regards «tradition» as something static. logy. Analogous to theology understood as her­ Tracy wanted to unite the static and the fluidmeneutics with others, contextual theology in a common system, and one could noticecould also develop as a specific Cultural Studies clearly how he is influenced by Tillich’s theory of correlation where theology offers the answer to the questions of the situation.15 15 The Canadian Protestant theologian Douglas John However, why is the culture or existence the Hall offers many encouraging arguments and approaches for the understanding of theology as con­ question and why is God the answer? Couldn’t it textualisation, but he does not step out of Tillich’s be the opposite? Could not God be the question separation between the questions (in the context) and and could not the culture be the answer? the answers (in Christianity) by describing the context In my view, many biblical texts and witnesses as the «form of faith’s self-understanding» (p. 84) in the Christian tradition could be read as ques­separating it from the «content» of faith. Douglas John tions about God. Where is God? What does s/he Hall, Thinking the Faith: Christian Theology in a do? Why was I bom? Why do I need to suffer? North American Context, Minneapolis: Augsburg How can the creation be saved from evil? Fortress 1989. A more balanced view is offered by The answers might be sought in the inter­ South African theologian Albert Nolan, 11 : «Because pretations of life, culture, human beings andour questions are always contextual, our answers also nature. Without an interpretation assisted bybecome contextual.» Albert Nolan, «What Is Contex­ tual Theology? A South African Perspective», in: S. Bergmann/G. Eidevall (eds.), Upptäckter i kontexten: 14 David Tracy, «Theological Method», in: P. C. Teologiska föreläsningar till minne av Per Frostin, Hodgson/R. King (eds.), Christian Theology: An Lund: Institutet för kontextuell teologi 1995, 10-19. Introduction to Its Traditions and Tasks, 2. ed. Phil­ 16 Cf. Albert Nolan’s clear statement, op.cit., 12: adelphia: Fortress 1985, 35-60, 36. «All theology is contextual». 72 Sigurd Bergmann

among others sharing the challenge to interpret where already the selection of texts necessarily cultural processes.17 Manfred Hofmann has needs to be controversial — that belong to the explicitly shown in several cases from Latin central sources for theology in the area of cog­ America (Nicaragua, Bolivia and Guatemala), nitive religion in the genre of expanded doctrinal how such a model can be applied with special systems. A pragmatics of religion could help to regard to the interwoven aspects of culture and integrate everything that is expressed in the religion in specific contexts of oppression and space between worldview and ethos in different liberating praxis, where the «identification with cultural processes. The world of ordinary life the Other» offers a foundational hermeneutical (Alltagswelt) 99 would then become a central lens for cultural and theological interpretation.18locus for theology. Per Frostin developed in continuity with Edward A beautiful example is found in my essay on Schillebeeckx the notion of «contrast experi­ the culture of composting where it is made evid­ ence» for a similar interpretation of contextually ent how the — in environmentalism nearly holy embedded systematic approaches.19 — compost can be understood as an expression The positions conflict when it comes to the of a specific late modern or better compost- point where one needs to perceive God him-/her- modern religiosity of earth and Spirit, which can self in the cultural field and to identify what onebe located in the horizon of antique Greek Gaia sees as the Christian God. In the perspective of goddess spirituality and patristic theology.23 contextual theology, God is encountered as a In the context of a more aesthetically directed Liberator in the same cultural context that also Religious and Christian Studies one should also keeps the Cultural Studies busy. The Gospel in include the many artefacts from visual arts and this case is not opposed to culture, as it has architecture, and also urban and landscape plan­ become usual to postulate in the ecumenically ning as important sources for the reflection on common phrase of «Gospel and culture», but thehow the God of the Here and Now is acting in a Gospel is transformed into the good news in the spatially liberative mode.24 midst of culture.90 Geertz emphasises, as we saw, the capacity of With the help of a pragmatics of religion, sys­ religion not only to mirror social reality but also tematic theology also can widen the area of objects, which leads to a closer cooperation with for example practical theology reflecting on 21 On the notion of «gelebte Religion» (lived reli­ «lived religion».21 It is not only confessions,gion) and the relationship of religion, life and interpre­ biblical texts and tradition’s classical authors — tation see Hans-Giinter Heimbrock, «Kann das Leben die Religion ersetzen? Religionstheoretische Überle­ gungen zur Konjunktur eines Begriffs», in: M. Witte 17 Jeanrond describes three types of hermeneutical (ed.), Der eine Gott und die Welt der Religionen: Bei­ theology and argues for the third one, where theology träge zur Theologie der Religionen und zum interreli­ develops in an equal cooperation and exchange with giösen Dialog, Würzburg 2003,387-409,407. Cf. also other hermeneutical disciplines focusing on problems Wolf-Eckart Failing/Hans-Giinter Heimbrock, G ele­ of human existence. Werner G. Jeanrond, Gudstro: bte Religion wahrnehmen: Lebenswelt — Alltagskul­ Teologiska reflexioner II, Lund: Arcus 2001, 81-95. tu r — Religionspraxis, Stuttgart: Kohlhammer 1998. I Q Cf. Manfred Hofmann, Identifikation mit dem 22 On the concept of «Alltagswelt» and man/ Anderen: Theologische Themen und ihr hermeneuti- woman’s bodily being in it see Schütz, 29ff., and on scher Ort bei lateinamerikanischen Theologen der contextual theology approaching the culture of ordin­ Befreiung, Lund: Verbum/Håkan Ohlssons 1978, ary life see S. Bergmann/C.R. Bråkenhielm (eds.), 152ff.; Religion und Identität: Maya in Guatemala, Vardagskulturens teologi i nordisk tolkning, Nora. Nya Frankfurt M./London: IKO-Verlag 2001, 3ff. Doxa 1998. Alfred Schütz/Thomas Luckmann, Struk­ 19 Per Frostin, Liberation Theology in Tanzania and turen der Lebenswelt, Konstanz: UVK 2003. South Africa: A First World Interpretation, (Studia 23 S. Bergmann, «Erde, Kultur und Heiliger Geist: Theologica Lundensia 42), Lund: Lund University Praktische Theologie des Kompostierens», in: Geist, Press 1988, 94ff. der lebendig macht: Lavierungen zur ökologischen 20 Cf. my critical discussion with Bevans in: G od in Befreiungstheologie , Frankfurtam Main: IKO-Verlag Context, 90. für interkulturelle Kommunikation 1997, 296-328. Religion, Culture and God’s Here and Now 73 to shape it. The question concerning how reli­ this moral struggle not extended to industrial giously determined life interpretations are de­man’s acceleration of global climate change in signed so that they lead to a transformation of creation? social praxis becomes here a central problem for To put it shortly: The islamist interpretation contextual theology with normative ambitions. of Islam is as hard to combine with its own tradi­ The challenges emerge in life itself, which tion as the war against evil by Reagan and Bush inspire belief in God as well as life with God to Jr. is compatible with the Christian tradition.25 It new modes of thinking and acting. In Latinis, though, of great interest that both Islam and America it was the suffering of large parts of the Christianity can be politically interpreted in such population under an unjust world economy sys­a distorted, perverted mode. It is furthermore tem who’s violence still victimises human and necessary to analyse why this interpretation other beings in many places of the planet. In mobilizes a whole range of populations and eco­ feminist theology, it was the many differentiated nomic and military systems by such a political experiences of being a woman in the context of a theology that does not relate to any idea of a hierarchically ordered patriarchate with many common good and a common God for the best faces. In ecotheology, one takes serious the of all creatures in creation. In my view, Geertz experiences of the living creatures in our envir­ gives serious credit to the political capacity of onment that are suffering under man’s uncon­religion including Christianity. trolled desire to rule over nature. Interpreting One could possibly hope that Geertz’ idea of these experiences in a framework of a prag­ the social relevance of religion could also be matics of religion one must ask what it means transferred to theology itself which unfortu­ that God is encountered as a liberator at those nately is regarded as not very plausible or relev­ places where his/her creatures are suffering, and ant today. The opposite needs to be made evid­ how this faith and experience can contribute to ent. After having critically discussed for a long the transformation of social and cultural prac­ while the guilt of monotheism in modem and tices of globalisation. universalistic oppressions of differences and Another application can also be studied in so-strangers, we would strongly need a discourse called Islamism. How are understandings ofon the constructive and liberative potentials of a faith and interpretations of holy scriptures and triune religiosity for a diverse and united, a plan- traditions constructed in such a way that they etarian and colourful world, where both the become a motivation to participate in a military strange and the familiar, both identity and differ­ fight against global evil in general, which can ence are reconciled. only be destroyed because it is simply nothing but evil? And in an opposite way: How can the so- System, Symbol, Function, Power — called war against terrorism be understood as a Critical Objections religious expression between a Christian sectar­ ian worldview and a nationalistic ethos where Geertz’ theory of religion is of course not with­ Christian and political elements are interming­ out problems either. Here, I will focus on four ling in a way that the well known claim of valid­ objections. ity for the fight of good against evil dominates What does Geertz mean by «system»? the present world politics? In addition, why is Is religion for him a system of a specific kind, which is related to other systems like science,

24 Cf. Seppo Kjellberg, Urban Ecotheology , Utrecht: International Books 2000; T. J. Gorringe, A Theology 25 Bush Jr. and his allies in the «war against evil» are of the Built Environment: Justice, Empowerment, violating a foundational principle in Christian faith, Redemption , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press clearly formulated in the Lord's prayer: «... and save 2002; S. Bergmann (ed.), Architecture, Aesth/Ethics us from evil». Not the human believer him/herself but and Religion, Frankfurt am Main/London: IKO-Verlag only God has the full capacity of salvation. The one für interkulturelle Kommunikation 2005. who claims this power for oneself moves into heresy. 74 Sigurd Bergmann common sense or arts? Alternatively, is religion science that only works empirically on the ana­ and religiosity sooner a partial system of culture lysis of culture? in general? Obviously, such a danger exists at present Geertz does not offer a clear answer, and it and the theologian therefore should choose his/ would be one possibility to understand his con­her partners and theories carefully. I however ception of system as analogous to Luhmann hope that my presentation of Geertz4 pragmatics where religion represents a particular system in could make it evident that one cannot locate the total social system. Geertz in the camp of the functionalist structur­ Such a limited understanding could probablyalists of his time but could sooner regard his the­ not be combined either with the intentions ory as an ally in the struggle for the legitimacy behind Geertz4 essay. His emphasis was to over­ of invisible smooth and verbally ephemeral real­ come the reductionist theories in Social Science ities. In my view, a functionalist method (not and to widen the understanding of religion intheory) a could be fruitful also for theology, way that makes it possible to use religion as a because it would increase its potentials to widen notion to describe and hermeneutically interpretthe area of phenomena and interpretational pat­ the cultural system of symbolic representations. terns. It would be of damage if functionalism We should not over-interpret the notion of sys­ itself dominated the paradigm of theology, but tem in Geertz4 essay, but separate it clearly from this is not the case in Geertz4 pragmatics. Luhmann4 s theory of system, a problem more A more sublime trend is taking place in the relevant for the followers of Geertz in Social present development of Religious Studies where Science than for us. For theology, nonetheless, I also would like to see more profiled contribu­ Geertz’ understanding of system does not offertions from Theology. To make it short, while one any clear help for grasping the believers’ spe­ position argues for the identity of Religious cific contributions to culture or the uniquenessStudies totally as a part of Cultural Studies of religion. where the notion of religion is exclusively de­ A second more problematic objection is re­ veloped in functionalist modes, another position lated to his notion of symbol. argues for the continuity of so called substantive Geertz never really explicates what he means definitions of religion, which would be able to by symbol. It seems26 as if he simply wants to emphasise the specific characteristics of religion highlight the human ability to make abstractions and its academic discipline. and to bring together things in many ways with I hope that my discussion here makes it clear the help of notions and artefacts. Obviously, he enough that my own position argues for an in­ wants to show that the empirical reality of Social tegration of substantive as well as functionalist - ) 0 Science also includes an invisible side, which is perspectives on religion.^ An exclusively func­ revealed in man/woman‘s capacity to symbolise. tionalist understanding of religion, on the one Geertz should not be bound to such a highly hand, is highly problematic with regard to the ambitious theory of symbolisation as Paul Til­ self-understanding of believers and would there­ lich, rightly criticised by Anders Jeffner.27 Obvi­ fore not be in accordance with the codes of con- ously, by using notions like worldview and sym­ textualism. An exclusive substantive understan­ bolic representation he is focussing on the legit­ ding, on the other hand, would prolong the uni- imacy of what is quite self evident for the hu­ versalistic modernist paradigm of knowledge manities with the notion of «ideas». Nonethe­building with regard to either confessional or less, his theory here has a serious deficit. academic power constellations. It would not be A third objection concerns the implicit func­ tionalism of anthropological theories. Does not anthropology reduce theology to a functionalist 28 «Substantive» means that an understanding o f reli­ gion must do justice to what Sundermeier, 26f., calls 26 Geertz, op.cit., 91. «Transzendenzerfahrung». Theo Sundermeier, Was ist 27 Anders Jeffner, The Study of Religious Language, Religion? Religionswissenschaft im theologischen London: SCM 1972, 56-60. Kontext, Gütersloh: Kaiser 1999. Religion, Culture and God’s Here and Now 75

in harmony with the plurality and ambiguity of give those events meaning and embody this in late modem culture either.29 concrete power sharing constellations. Finally I would like to offer a critique of While Geertz is looking for the common Geertz’ way of thinking which at present is essence in religion, Asad is more interested in discussed in post-colonial discourse. the fact that the religious perspective is not Talal Asad, anthropologist and scholar of everywhere the same.32 Islam Studies, discusses how the notion of «reli­ Following the lines of Asad, Geertz seems to gion» is constructed as a central anthropological be much more a part of a late mediaeval Chris­ category.30 Asad’s main argument criticising tian construction of the postulated essence of Geertz is that religion than one could expect. Evaluating Asad’s criticism itself, I would like to emphasise there cannot be a universal definition of religion, two points. not only because its constituent elements and rela­ The criticism of a badly reflected role of tionships are historically specific, but because that transhistorical and essentialist definitions of reli­ definition is itself the historical product of dis­ gion must be taken seriously, in anthropology as cursive processes.31 well as in contextual theology. The need for a historical self-critical consciousness, especially His critical argument furthermore focuses on with regard to normative power sharing negoti­ Geertz’ lack of reflection on the dimension of ating practices where agents form religious insti­ power in religious practices and symbolisations. tutions and scholars from Religious and Chris­ Asad’s point is that this construction of a the­ tian Studies are involved cannot be high lighted ory of religion in itself is a crucial part of a spe­ enough. So far, contextual theology could learn cifically Christian history, and that the anthropo­ about an important sensibility and reflexiveness logist’s concept of religion also continues this from Asad. history. Theology as well as anthropology in But in the line of his own argument, Asad Geertz’ pragmatics tends to obscure the distinc­ himself should also be asked whether he does tion between historical events and practices on not design his argument from a standpoint loc­ the one side and the authorizing processes that ated outside of context or almost longing for a meta-situated place. One thing is to ask for more contextual awareness about the role of universal- 29 Sundermeier, op.cit. 238, reminds scholars of the istic definitions. It is another thing to ask roots of Religious Studies in its Western context and whether believers themselves depart from belief therefore also in theology, and proposes, 240ff., a dif­ in a universal power in Christianity as well as in ferentiated model of the relationship of Theology and Islam, and that Religious Studies and Theology Religious Studies with both overlapping and specific also need to make justice to this. spaces. Against approaches who want to develop Reli­ Asad is right that a non-reflected analogy of gious Studies fully as a part of Cultural Studies (ex­ cluding internal perspectives) as for example Kippen- the concept of God and the concepts of trans­ berg, 1 Iff., Sundermeier, 25ff., reminds us of the self- historical religion are definitely not the way to referentiality of definitions of religion (pointing back solve the problem. However, Asad’s postcolonial to the scholar him/herself) and argues for an under­ consciousness about the power generating con­ standing of religion where both substantive and func­ texts, where understandings of religion emerge, tionalist dimensions are respected and balanced, and can only challenge us to dig deeper into the where it is necessary to combine both internal and forces behind the birth and construction of belief external perspectives. Hans G. Kippenberg/Kocku von forms, practices and discourses. Stuckrad, Einführung in die Religionswissenschaft, The emphasis that Geertz lays on the univer­ München: Beck 2003. sal dimension of religion needs to be criticised if 30 Talal Asad, Genealogies of Religion: Discipline this is to be turned into a general paradigm of and Reasons of Power in Christianity and Islam, Bal­ timore/London: The John Hopkins University Press religion in anthropology and also for contextual 1993, chapter 1, 27ff. 31 Asad, 29. 32 Asad, 48. 76 Sigurd Bergmann

theology. However, the future of an anthropo­ forms of indwelling could offer an exciting path logy of religion as well as of contextual theology for developing contextual theology in the future needs to be developed in a better symmetry and into something that no longer would be defined balance of substantive and functionalist, of con-by notions like system, symbols or dogmatics, textualised as well as of transcultural and trans-«livsåskådningsvetenskap» or «hermeneutische historical concepts. The need to reflect the Theologie». global, planetary, Earth-bound and universal It would sooner lead us into the reflection on dimensions of religion, and especially of reli­ how we could understand theology itself as a gion in particular specific forms, can and shouldnecessary skill to survive as humans in a world not be simply swept away by Religious Cultural of radical cultural transformation. In this regard, Studies. theology has much to learn from artists who Theologically this whole field of discourse integrate practical skills, ideational reflexiveness seems to be highly explosive in ongoing debates and communicative awareness about contexts of of scholars in Religious Studies; it could be reception in their artefacts and processes of pro­ taken into a construction of the mystery of the duction. Continuing in the path of Marcuse, then Incarnation, where Trinitarian theology makes it the task of arts and theology would be to express possible to focus especially on the dialectics of what cannot be expressed in any other way in local and global, cultural and transcultural, con-the present culture: «an authentic utopia based textualising and transcontextualising develop­on memory».34 Or to put it a bit more theologic­ ments in history and place. Incarnation shouldally, to manifest God’s vision of a liberated crea­ not be reduced to Christ’s entrance to the world,tion, based on «the sociocultural memories of as Gustaf Aulén rightly claims, but incarnation local theologies»35 born in our forerunning «is realised in and through the work of salva- believers’ communio with God. o 'y tion». Incarnation is an ongoing process in the The investigation of contextual theology as a world, and contextual theology reflects the expe­ skill would be at the centre of such an explora­ riences of the Here and Now of this ongoing tion. Theology could then be regarded as phys­ incarnation of the Son and the Inhabitation ofical, sociocultural and discursive skill rather the Spirit. than a system of purely language based her­ meneutics or a symbolic cultural pragmatics, and it would then become able to include several Theology as Arts and Skill in aspects of perceiving, acting and thinking about Atmospheres — Themes for an Open the living and acting God today and tomorrow. Future Finally, I would like to point out another direc­ tion for the future of a theology in dialogue with anthropology. In our Trondheim interdisciplin­ ary research group on «religion, motion and space», we are discussing at present the approach of the influential British anthropologist Tim Ingold, who offers a new path for naviga­ 34 Herbert Marcuse, Den estetiska dimensionen: ting between the sharp riffs, pointed out in ourBidrcig till kritik av en marxistisk estetik, Göteborg: discussion above. Röda bokförlaget 1980 (Die Permanenz der Kunst, Ingold does not offer a similarly high theory München 1977), 74. on religion as Geertz but his reflection on the 35 My definition of tradition as «the sociocultural memory of local theologies» is worked out in a dis­ physical practices and meanings of skills and cussion with Schreiter’s concept of the church’s tradi­ tion as a «series of local theologies». Cf. S. Bergmann, 33 Gustaf Aulén, Dramat och symbolerna: En bok om G od in Context, 54ff., and Robert J. Schreiter, Con­ gudsbildens problematik, Stockholm: Diakonistyrel­ structing Local Theologies, London: SCM 1985, 32, sens bokförlag 1965, 305. 93.