After the Fall: Libya's

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

After the Fall: Libya's 12 16 16 After the Fall TheLibya’s HeadstampThe Evolving12 Headstamp Armed Trail Groups Trail An AssessmentAn Assessment of Small-calibre of Small-calibre AmmunitionBy Brian McQuinnAmmunitionAfter Found the in Found FallLibya in Libya Libya’s Evolving Armed Groups by N.R. Jenzen-Jonesby N.R. Jenzen-Jones By Brian McQuinn A Working Paper of the A Working Paper ofSmall the Arms Survey Small Arms Survey A Working Working Paper PaperA of of Working thethe SmallSmall Paper Arms Arms of Survey theSurvey Small // Security SecurityArms Survey Assessment Assessment / Security in in North North Assessment Africa Africa project, project,in North Africa project, with supportsupport fromfromwith the the support Federal Swiss Federalfrom Foreign the Department OfficeSwiss Federalof Germany. of ForeignDepartment Affairs of Foreignand the AffairsNetherlands and the Netherlands Ministry of ForeignMinistry Affairs. of Foreign Affairs. Copyright Published in Switzerland by the Small Arms Survey © Small Arms Survey, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, Geneva 2012 First published in October 2012 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the Small Arms Survey, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organi- zation. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Publications Manager, Small Arms Survey, at the address below. Small Arms Survey Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies 47 Avenue Blanc, 1202 Geneva, Switzerland Copyedited by Tania Inowlocki Proofread by Donald Strachan Cartography by MAPgrafix Typeset in Optima and Palatino by Richard Jones ([email protected]), Exile: Design & Editorial Services Printed in France by GPS ISBN 978-2-9700816-6-1 2 Small Arms Survey Working Paper 12 McQuinn After the Fall 3 About the Small Arms Survey The Small Arms Survey is anan independentindependent research project located at the Graduate Institute Institute of of International International and and Development Development Studies Studies in Geneva, in Geneva, Swit- Switzerland.zerland. Established It serves in as 1999 the, theprincipal project international is supported sourceby the ofSwiss public Federal infor - mationDepartment on all of aspectsForeign Affairsof small and arms current and contributions armed violence from and the Governmentsas a resource forof Australia, governments, Belgium, policy-makers, Canada, Denmark, researchers, Finland, and Germany, activists. the Netherlands, AboutNorway, the Sweden, Security the Assessment United Kingdom, in North and Africa the United States. The Survey is grateful for past support received from the Governments of France, New Zealand, and Spain. The Survey also wishes to acknowledge the financial assistance it has received over the years from different United Nations agencies, programmes, and institutes. About The objectives the Securityof the Small Arms Assessment Survey are: to bein the North principal Africa source of public information on all aspects of small arms and armed violence; to serve as a resource centre for governments, policy-makers, researchers, and activ- Theists; toSecurity monitor Assessment national and in international North Africa initiatives is a multi-year (governmental project ofand the non- Smallgovernmental) Arms Survey on small that arms; supports to support those efforts engaged to address in building the effects a more of smallsecure environmentarms proliferation in North and misuse;Africa and and theto act Sahel-Sahara as a clearinghouse region. forIt produces the sharing timely,of information evidence-based and the dissemination research and of analysis best practices. on the Theavailability Survey also and spon circu- - lationsors field of smallresearch arms, and theinformation-gathering dynamics of emerging efforts, armed especially groups, in affected and related states insecurity.and regions. The project receives core funding from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs The project of the has Netherlands. an international In addition, staff with expertisethis publication in security benefits studies, from political specificscience, law,support economics, from the development Federal Foreign studies, Office sociology, of Germany. and criminology, and collaborates with a network of researchers, partner institutions, non-governmental organizations, and governments in more than 50 countries. Small Arms Survey Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies 47 Avenue Blanc, 1202 Geneva, Switzerland p +41 22 908 5777 f +41 22 732 2738 e [email protected] w www.smallarmssurvey.org 2 Small Arms Survey Working Paper 12 McQuinn After the Fall 3 Contents List of boxes, tables, and illustrations .................................................................................................................................... 5 List of abbreviations .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 6 About the author .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7 Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 8 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10 Background 10 Research objectives and findings 12 Methodology 13 Report structure 13 Typology of non-state armed groups in Libya ................................................................................................. 15 Three defining characteristics 15 The four types of armed group 17 The development of armed groups in Misrata ................................................................................................. 33 Stage 1: initial success 34 Stage 2: the occupation of Tripoli Street 37 Stage 3: the emergence of brigade structures 39 Weapons proliferation .................................................................................................................................................................................... 43 Small arms and light weapons 43 Conventional weapons 48 Internal regulation 49 Inspection visits 50 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 56 Endnotes .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 58 Bibliography ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 62 4 Small Arms Survey Working Paper 12 McQuinn After the Fall 5 List of boxes, tables, and illustrations Map Libya, 2012 Box 1 Security provision during municipal elections in Misrata Box 2 Controlling the al-Swehli Brigade Table 1 The 236 brigades by size of membership Table 2 Anti-aircraft machine guns in Misrata based on brigade size Figure 1 MoI and MMC document assigning brigades responsibility for spe- cific polling stations and checkpoints Figure 2 Weapon sign-out form and pledge of good conduct Figure 3 Number of small arms in Misrata during the first and second stages of fighting, 2011 Figure 4 Number of combatants in Misrata Figure 5 Number of small arms vs. number of fighters, 2011 Figure 6 Assault rifle individually labelled with brigade member’s name 4 Small Arms Survey Working Paper 12 McQuinn After the Fall 5 List of abbreviations MMC Misratan Military Council MoD Ministry of Defence MoI Ministry of Interior MUR Misratan Union of Revolutionaries NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NTC National Transitional Council RPG Rocket-propelled grenade (launcher) 6 Small Arms Survey Working Paper 12 McQuinn After the Fall 7 About the author Brian McQuinn is a research associate at the Geneva-based Centre on Conflict, Development and Peacebuilding and a doctoral candidate at the University of Oxford. His research investigates how organizational rituals shape the social structure and cohesion of non-state armed groups in civil wars. Prior to return- ing to academia, he worked as a dialogue specialist for more than 14 years in conflict-affected countries, with the UN and other international organizations. He serves as a lead trainer for the UN System Staff College course on applied conflict analysis for prevention and peacebuilding. 6 Small Arms Survey Working Paper 12 McQuinn After the Fall 7 Acknowledgements The author is grateful to the Berghof Foundation for its generous support of his doctoral fieldwork, which serves as the basis for this report. He is particu- larly thankful for the intellectual support provided by Véronique Dudouet at Berghof
Recommended publications
  • Libya: Protect Vulnerable Minorities & Assist Civilians Harmed
    Libya: Protect Vulnerable Minorities & Assist Civilians Harmed • The Libyan authorities should work with UNSMIL, IOM, the U.S., and other donors to provide protec- tion for displaced sub-Saharan Africans, including through the adoption of migrant-friendly policies and compliance with human rights obligations. • The Libyan authorities should work with UNSMIL, the U.S., and other donors to protect displaced dark-skinned Libyans, foster reconciliation, and provide long-term solutions for them. • The Libyan authorities should request NATO’s, the U.S’s, and UNSMIL’s long-term commitment, and technical and financial assistance to develop an effective security sector capable of protecting civil- ians. • NATO must fully and transparently investigate, and when appropriate make amends for civilian harm incurred as a result of its military operations in Libya. Similarly, the Libyan authorities should ensure all civilian conflict-losses are accounted for and amends offered to help civilians recover. With the death of Muammar Gaddafi a long-standing dictatorship has come to an end. The majority of Libyans are celebrating a new future; but certain groups, including suspected loyalist civilians, sub-Saharan Africans, and ethnic minorities remain displaced and vulnerable to violent attacks. The National Transitional Council (NTC) – the current de facto government of Libya – lacks command and control over all armed groups, including those responsible for revenge attacks. As such, the NTC cannot yet establish or maintain the rule of law. The plight of these vulnerable civilians foreshadows challenges to reconciliation, integration, and equal treatment of all in the new Libya. Further, civilians suffering losses during hostilities have not been properly recognized or assisted.
    [Show full text]
  • IMC Libya Mental Health and Psychosocial Support Assessment Report
    IMC Libya Mental Health and Psychosocial Support Assessment Report November 2011 Prepared by: Dr. Inka Weissbecker, IMC Global Mental Health and Psychosocial Advisor ([email protected]) and Colleen Fitzgerald, MSW, IMC Libya MHPSS Program Manager ([email protected]) 1 | P a g e Contents 1. Assessment Goals II. Psychiatric Services in General Hospitals 2. Assessment Methodology III. Mental Health Services through General Health 2.1. Site Visits, Interviews and Focus Group Clinics Discussions IV. Informal Service Providers 2.2. Assessment Instruments Local Non-Governmental Organizations 3. Assessment Results The School System 3.1. Sociopolitical Context and Recent Developments Traditional Healers 3.1.1. Recent Crisis in Libya V. Self-Care 3.1.2. International Medical Corps in Libya 3.4. The Educational System and Training 3.2. Mental Health and Psychosocial Context Opportunities 3.2.1. Prevalence of Mental Illness 3.4.1. Medical Professions 3.2.2. At Risk and Vulnerable Groups 3.4.2. Psychologists and Social Workers 3.2.2. Mental Health Related Problems, Coping and 3.5. International Organizations Involved in MHPSS Community Sources of Support Work 3.2.3. Attitudes Towards People with Mental Illness 4. Conclusions 3.2.4. Help-Seeking Patterns 5. References 3.3. The Mental Health System 6. Appendixes 3.3.1. General Health Care Appendix 1: MH PHC Integration Checklist 3.3.2. Mental Health Care in Affected Areas Appendix 2: Tool for Mental Health Related Problems, I. Inpatient Psychiatric Facilities Coping and Community Sources of Support 1. Assessment Goals The aim of this assessment was to: obtain an understanding of the mental health context (e.g.
    [Show full text]
  • Libya's Conflict
    LIBYA’S BRIEF / 12 CONFLICT Nov 2019 A very short introduction SERIES by Wolfgang Pusztai Freelance security and policy analyst * INTRODUCTION Eight years after the revolution, Libya is in the mid- dle of a civil war. For more than four years, inter- national conflict resolution efforts have centred on the UN-sponsored Libya Political Agreement (LPA) process,1 unfortunately without achieving any break- through. In fact, the situation has even deteriorated Summary since the onset of Marshal Haftar’s attack on Tripoli on 4 April 2019.2 › Libya is a failed state in the middle of a civil war and increasingly poses a threat to the An unstable Libya has wide-ranging impacts: as a safe whole region. haven for terrorists, it endangers its north African neighbours, as well as the wider Sahara region. But ter- › The UN-facilitated stabilisation process was rorists originating from or trained in Libya are also a unsuccessful because it ignored key political threat to Europe, also through the radicalisation of the actors and conflict aspects on the ground. Libyan expatriate community (such as the Manchester › While partially responsible, international Arena bombing in 2017).3 Furthermore, it is one of the interference cannot be entirely blamed for most important transit countries for migrants on their this failure. way to Europe. Through its vast oil wealth, Libya is also of significant economic relevance for its neigh- › Stabilisation efforts should follow a decen- bours and several European countries. tralised process based on the country’s for- mer constitution. This Conflict Series Brief focuses on the driving factors › Wherever there is a basic level of stability, of conflict dynamics in Libya and on the shortcomings fostering local security (including the crea- of the LPA in addressing them.
    [Show full text]
  • Gaddafi Supporters Since 2011
    Country Policy and Information Note Libya: Actual or perceived supporters of former President Gaddafi Version 3.0 April 2019 Preface Purpose This note provides country of origin information (COI) and analysis of COI for use by Home Office decision makers handling particular types of protection and human rights claims (as set out in the basis of claim section). It is not intended to be an exhaustive survey of a particular subject or theme. It is split into two main sections: (1) analysis and assessment of COI and other evidence; and (2) COI. These are explained in more detail below. Assessment This section analyses the evidence relevant to this note – i.e. the COI section; refugee/human rights laws and policies; and applicable caselaw – by describing this and its inter-relationships, and provides an assessment on whether, in general: • A person is reasonably likely to face a real risk of persecution or serious harm • A person is able to obtain protection from the state (or quasi state bodies) • A person is reasonably able to relocate within a country or territory • Claims are likely to justify granting asylum, humanitarian protection or other form of leave, and • If a claim is refused, it is likely or unlikely to be certifiable as ‘clearly unfounded’ under section 94 of the Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002. Decision makers must, however, still consider all claims on an individual basis, taking into account each case’s specific facts. Country of origin information The country information in this note has been carefully selected in accordance with the general principles of COI research as set out in the Common EU [European Union] Guidelines for Processing Country of Origin Information (COI), dated April 2008, and the Austrian Centre for Country of Origin and Asylum Research and Documentation’s (ACCORD), Researching Country Origin Information – Training Manual, 2013.
    [Show full text]
  • After Gaddafi 01 0 0.Pdf
    Benghazi in an individual capacity and the group it- ures such as Zahi Mogherbi and Amal al-Obeidi. They self does not seem to be reforming. Al-Qaeda in the found an echo in the administrative elites, which, al- Islamic Maghreb has also been cited as a potential though they may have served the regime for years, spoiler in Libya. In fact, an early attempt to infiltrate did not necessarily accept its values or projects. Both the country was foiled and since then the group has groups represent an essential resource for the future, been taking arms and weapons out of Libya instead. and will certainly take part in a future government. It is unlikely to play any role at all. Scenarios for the future The position of the Union of Free Officers is unknown and, although they may form a pressure group, their membership is elderly and many of them – such as the Three scenarios have been proposed for Libya in the rijal al-khima (‘the men of the tent’ – Colonel Gaddafi’s future: (1) the Gaddafi regime is restored to power; closest confidants) – too compromised by their as- (2) Libya becomes a failing state; and (3) some kind sociation with the Gaddafi regime. The exiled groups of pluralistic government emerges in a reunified state. will undoubtedly seek roles in any new regime but The possibility that Libya remains, as at present, a they suffer from the fact that they have been abroad divided state between East and West has been ex- for up to thirty years or more.
    [Show full text]
  • (4Ws) in Mental Health and Psychosocial Support Libya 2017
    WHO IS WHERE, WHEN, DOING WHAT (4WS) IN MENTAL HEALTH AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SUPPORT LIBYA 2017 WHO IS WHERE, WHEN, DOING WHAT (4WS) IN MENTAL HEALTH AND PSYCHOSOCIAL SUPPORT LIBYA 2017 This report is made possible by the generous support of the American people through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The contents of the presentation are the responsibility of MHPSS.net and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government. Acknowledgements This report was prepared by MHPSS.net in Report written by: Renata Reali and Marcio partnership with WHO Libya and The Delegation Gagliato. of the European Union to Libya. The purpose of the report is to facilitate the exchange of Reviewers (in alphabetical order): Ananda knowledge and information on available services Galappatti (MHPSS.net), Edda Costarelli information among MHPSS actors and their (Delegation of the European Union to Libya), Dr. partners in Libya. Ghassan Karem (PHC Director, Libya Ministry of Health), Malak Ben Giaber (Libyan Clinical We are thankful for the collaboration with many Psychologist), Margriet Blaauw (MHPSS.net), Dr. Mental Health and Psychosocial Support (MHPSS) Sara Zarti (WHO Libya). actors, their efforts and contributions. We are especially thankful to the Libyan colleagues Tripoli Psychosocial Support Team1 generously involved in data collection across the country. provided the image on the front cover and section pages We would like to acknowledge the Libyans colleagues participating in this study, who The Mental Health & Psychosocial Support welcomed this initiative and shared valuable Network (MHPSS.net) is a growing global information. platform for connecting people, networks and organizations, for sharing resources and for Coordination: Marcio Gagliato (MHPSS.net).
    [Show full text]
  • The United Nations Response to the Libyan Crisis
    Report No: 201, August 2015 THE UNITED NATIONS RESPONSE TO THE LIBYAN CRISIS ORTADOĞU STRATEJİK ARAŞTIRMALAR MERKEZİ CENTER FOR MIDDLE EASTERN STRATEGIC STUDIES ORSAM Süleyman Nazif Sokak No: 12-B Çankaya / Ankara Tel: 0 (312) 430 26 09 Fax: 0 (312) 430 39 48 www.orsam.org.tr, [email protected] THE UNITED NATIONS RESPONSE TO THE LIBYAN CRISIS ORSAM Report No: 201 August 2015 ISBN: 978-605-9157-05-6 Ankara - TURKEY ORSAM © 2015 Content of this report is copyrighted to ORSAM. Except reasonable and partial quotation and use under the Act No. 5846, Law on Intellectual and Artistic Works, via proper citation, the content may not be used or republished without prior permission by ORSAM. The views expressed in this report reflect only the opinions of its authors and do not represent the institutional opinion of ORSAM. Prepared by: Nebahat Tanrıverdi Yaşar, Research Assistant, ORSAM ORSAM 2 Report No: 201, August 2015 Contents Preface.................................................................................................................................................................. 5 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 7 I. UN-BROKERED PEACE NEGOTIATIONS AND THE UN’S POLICY SHIFT .......................... 9 II. WHAT DOES THE UN AIM TO DO IN LIBYA? ............................................................................ 13 a. Government of National Accord ...................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Misrata 1. Introduction Misrata Is the Third Largest City in Libya, With
    CHAPTER NINE MISRATA 1. Introduction Misrata is the third largest city in Libya, with a population of approxi- mately 517,000 inhabitants before the conflict.1 It is a port city located on the far western edge of the Gulf of Sidra along the Mediterranean Coast, 187 kilometers (116 miles) east of Tripoli and 825 kilometers (512 miles) west of Benghazi.2 The city center lies just off the coast, with the seaport to the east and the airport to the south. The center is connected by a num- ber of major roads, including Tripoli Street, the main commercial boule- vard in downtown Misrata that connects to the Libyan Coastal Highway. A number of suburbs, including Al-Ghayran and Al-Shawati, extend out from the city center.3 Misrata is traditionally regarded as the country’s business capital, serv- ing as a central locale for the exchange of commodities and materials with other cities. The city’s steel mill industry is one of its principal sources of income and employment, and the industry has been able to expand throughout the years with its owners holding considerable influence in the city. Misrata is one of the country’s most modern cities, with infra- structure that includes new roads, electricity and communication centers, 1 United Nations Inter-Agency Mission, Misrata: 10 to 14 July 2011, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs 4 (2011), available at http://reliefweb .int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_report_157.pdf. Other estimates put Misrata’s population closer to 380,000 people before the conflict. See Misratah, WolframAlpha, available at http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=Misratah&lk=1&a=ClashPrefs_*City .*Misratah.Misratah.Libya--.
    [Show full text]
  • International Medical Corps in Libya from the Rise of the Arab Spring to the Fall of the Gaddafi Regime
    International Medical Corps in Libya From the rise of the Arab Spring to the fall of the Gaddafi regime 1 International Medical Corps in Libya From the rise of the Arab Spring to the fall of the Gaddafi regime Report Contents International Medical Corps in Libya Summary…………………………………………… page 3 Eight Months of Crisis in Libya…………………….………………………………………… page 4 Map of International Medical Corps’ Response.…………….……………………………. page 5 Timeline of Major Events in Libya & International Medical Corps’ Response………. page 6 Eastern Libya………………………………………………………………………………....... page 8 Misurata and Surrounding Areas…………………….……………………………………… page 12 Tunisian/Libyan Border………………………………………………………………………. page 15 Western Libya………………………………………………………………………………….. page 17 Sirte, Bani Walid & Sabha……………………………………………………………………. page 20 Future Response Efforts: From Relief to Self-Reliance…………………………………. page 21 International Medical Corps Mission: From Relief to Self-Reliance…………………… page 24 International Medical Corps in the Middle East…………………………………………… page 24 International Medical Corps Globally………………………………………………………. Page 25 Operational data contained in this report has been provided by International Medical Corps’ field teams in Libya and Tunisia and is current as of August 26, 2011 unless otherwise stated. 2 3 Eight Months of Crisis in Libya Following civilian demonstrations in Tunisia and Egypt, the people of Libya started to push for regime change in mid-February. It began with protests against the leadership of Colonel Muammar al- Gaddafi, with the Libyan leader responding by ordering his troops and supporters to crush the uprising in a televised speech, which escalated the country into armed conflict. The unrest began in the eastern Libyan city of Benghazi, with the eastern Cyrenaica region in opposition control by February 23 and opposition supporters forming the Interim National Transitional Council on February 27.
    [Show full text]
  • DEATH of a DICTATOR Bloody Vengeance in Sirte WATCH
    HUMAN RIGHTS DEATH OF A DICTATOR Bloody Vengeance in Sirte WATCH Death of a Dictator Bloody Vengeance in Sirte Copyright © 2012 Human Rights Watch All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America ISBN: 1-56432-952-6 Cover design by Rafael Jimenez Human Rights Watch is dedicated to protecting the human rights of people around the world. We stand with victims and activists to prevent discrimination, to uphold political freedom, to protect people from inhumane conduct in wartime, and to bring offenders to justice. We investigate and expose human rights violations and hold abusers accountable. We challenge governments and those who hold power to end abusive practices and respect international human rights law. We enlist the public and the international community to support the cause of human rights for all. Human Rights Watch is an international organization with staff in more than 40 countries, and offices in Amsterdam, Beirut, Berlin, Brussels, Chicago, Geneva, Goma, Johannesburg, London, Los Angeles, Moscow, Nairobi, New York, Paris, San Francisco, Tokyo, Toronto, Tunis, Washington DC, and Zurich. For more information, please visit our website: http://www.hrw.org OCTOBER 2012 ISBN: 1-56432-952-6 Death of a Dictator Bloody Vengeance in Sirte Summary ........................................................................................................................... 1 Recommendations .............................................................................................................14 I. Background ..................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Explosive Situation
    Explosive Situation: Qaddafi’s Abandoned Weapons and the Threat to Libya’s Civilians Researched and written by: Bonnie Docherty, Senior Clinical Instructor and Lecturer on Law, International Human Rights Clinic (IHRC), Harvard Law School Anna Crowe, Nicolette Boehland, and Rebecca Richards, students in IHRC Cover Design by: Timothy Schommer International Human Rights Clinic Human Rights Program Harvard Law School 6 Everett Street Cambridge, MA 02138 Copyright © 2012 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College Explosive Situation: Qaddafi’s Abandoned Weapons and the Threat to Libya’s Civilians August 2012 Explosive Situation: Qaddafi’s Abandoned Weapons and the Threat to Libya’s Civilians TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..................................................................................................................................... i TABLE OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................................... iii GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS .............................................................................................................................v SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................................................................... 1 Responsible Parties and the Need for a National Plan ................................................................................. 2 Stockpile Management....................................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Country Information and Guidance Libya: Prison Conditions 5 September 2014
    Country Information and Guidance Libya: Prison conditions 5 September 2014 Preface This document provides guidance to Home Office decision makers on handling claims made by nationals/residents of Libya as well as country of origin information (COI) about Libya. This includes whether claims are likely to justify the granting of asylum, humanitarian protection or discretionary leave and whether - in the event of a claim being refused - it is likely to be certifiable as ‘clearly unfounded’ under s94 of the Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002. Decision makers must consider claims on an individual basis, taking into account the case specific facts and all relevant evidence, including: the guidance contained with this document; the available COI; any applicable caselaw; and the Home Office casework guidance in relation to relevant policies. Within this instruction, links to specific guidance are those on the Home Office’s internal system. Public versions of these documents are available at https://www.gov.uk/immigration- operational-guidance/asylum-policy. Country Information The COI within this document has been compiled from a wide range of external information sources (usually) published in English. Consideration has been given to the relevance, reliability, accuracy, objectivity, currency, transparency and traceability of the information and wherever possible attempts have been made to corroborate the information used across independent sources, to ensure accuracy. All sources cited have been referenced in footnotes. It has been researched and presented with reference to the Common EU [European Union] Guidelines for Processing Country of Origin Information (COI), dated April 2008, and the European Asylum Support Office’s research guidelines, Country of Origin Information report methodology, dated July 2012.
    [Show full text]