DOCSLIB.ORG

The Role of Forensic Geology in the Illicit Precious Metals Trade

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Role of Forensic Geology in the Illicit Precious Metals Trade 132 by Roger Dixon1*, and Robert Schouwstra2 The role of forensic geology in the illicit precious metals trade 1 University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa; Officer for Africa, International Union of Geological Sciences, Initiative on Forensic Geology (IUGS-IFG); *Corresponding author, E-mail: [email protected] 2 Independent Consultant: Mineralogy, Roodepoort; Adj. Prof. JKMRC, UQ; Affiliated Assoc. Prof. Geology Dept, UFS; Adj. Prof, Chem Eng. Dept., UCT, South Africa, E-mail: [email protected] (Received: November 7, 2016; Revised accepted: March 7, 2017) http://dx.doi.org/10.18814/epiiugs/2017/v40i2/017015 The proceeds of the illicit trade in precious metals are leading gold supplier to the USA during 1989 (George, 2007), even used as currency to pay for, for example, other illicit goods though the country had no gold industry, as a scheme for covering up and support terrorism. Precious metals are often mined in narcotics profits. International terrorist groups also regularly use gold less developed countries and exported to and refined in as a bargaining tool. Prior to and during the US attack on Afghani- more industrialised regions. International cooperation, stan, al-Qaeda moved funds out of that country by smuggling gold, sophisticated analytical techniques, combined with repre- diamonds and other precious stones across borders, and then to Dubai, sentative databases make it possible to trace the source of from where the funds were spread across the world, including the USA (Farah, 2002). Due to the general absence of formal banking these stolen precious metals with the aim of obtaining systems in the Middle East, North Africa and Asia, the informal Hawala successful prosecution of the culprits. In this paper the system is often used to refund gold deliveries, where money is trans- problem of illicit trade in precious metal-bearing materi- ferred across large distances by e-mail or telephone calls, and all records als and the effects it has on the countries in which the are destroyed afterward. These and many other routes exist whereby material originates is discussed. Combined with geological illegal funds can be legitimised, using precious metals and precious knowledge of the origin of the material and knowledge of stones, often themselves having been obtained by illegal means. the beneficiation processes utilized, enables determina- The illegal mining of gold in the Democratic Republic of the Congo tion of the provenance of unknown materials and whether (DRC) generates profits, which are reportedly used to buy arms and the suspect material is illicit or not. Recent legislation with fund the civil war (Donovan, 2014). In the DRC, criminals rely on the regard to international trade and the need to ensure the legal- state’s inability to control its territory and borders. It is reported that ity of the material traded is discussed, and some examples around 70 per cent of the gold currently being mined in the DRC has of the effectiveness of the forensic investigation of gold been exported illegally (White, 2005), reaching up to 95 per cent in and platinum-group metal criminal cases are provided. the eastern DRC (BSR, 2010). A large volume of illicitly mined gold is smuggled into Uganda where it is bought by traders who, by com- pleting the requisite customs and export forms, export it legally and in The Problem the process launder it (Bariyo et al., 2013). Although Uganda has rela- tively little domestic gold production, it was still able to export US Illegal trade in stolen precious metals and diamonds is very profit- $60 million in gold in 2002. A large proportion of this gold is known able due to their high values and established identities as global cur- to have reached South Africa (Haken, 2011). The thriving illicit gold rencies. With high poverty levels, especially in the less developed market in South Africa is also a market for illicit gold from other parts countries, which coincidentally have substantial gold reserves, the of Africa, including the so-called “blood gold”, mined in war-torn theft and illegal mining of gold is rife. For the platinum group metals, regions in order to fund paramilitary activities (Bariyo et al., 2013). In which have fewer sources and a more complex beneficiation process, 2012, the Rand Refinery, the largest gold refiner in the world, processed theft is mainly of intermediate products in the beneficiation chain, over 440 tons of gold, almost twice the legal production recorded for from smelters and refineries. The ultimate beneficiaries of this illegal South Africa. The balance of the gold refined was mainly from South trade are often well-organised syndicates also involved in a variety of American and African sources, and submitted by a variety of parties other illegal activities, such as drug and firearm trafficking, with (Rand Refinery, 2012). wide-reaching contacts. These organisations present a global threat, The illicit gold trade is worth more than US $2.3 billion annually. and could best be monitored and opposed on an international level. Major producers of illicit gold are Peru (40% of its gold production Established money laundering systems using gold have been found in 2012 was illegal), Russia, Mali, Brazil, Uzbekistan, Papua New in many European countries, such as Switzerland and Italy, and from Guinea and Argentina. The rise in the price of gold has spurred on the there across the world, including the USA, and South and Central illicit trade, as policing the artisanal producers is often impossible or America (UNICRI Report, 2016). Reportedly, Uruguay became the very difficult (Haken, 2011). Most of the profits go to the middlemen, June 2017 133 who in many cases are syndicates, and the country of origin benefits little from this illegal trade. As a result of the extent of the illicit min- ing in Peru, and its damage to the economy, illegal mining has been criminalised and the Peruvian government is making a major effort to curb these activities, after years of inaction (Andean Air Mail and Peruvian Times, 2012). Compared to gold, world-wide platinum production is relatively small. Platinum supply in 2015 was just less than 200 tonnes (around 6 percent of the total gold production). The complexity of platinum group metal processing and refining means that illegal mining is almost unheard of in the platinum industry. The theft of products is however a much more serious problem. In 2006, the Institute of Secu- rity Studies estimated that US$ 37 million of platinum group metals were stolen and exported from South Africa in one year through the activities of one syndicate, whereas in 2008 the estimated annual value of stolen material worldwide was 150 million Euros (CIP Proj- ect Report, 2008). Mining companies have put extensive security pro- cedures and systems in place to protect the refineries where the high- grade materials are produced. However, this has forced product theft upstream, with smelter products being especially at risk, although the last few years have also seen an increase in theft from concentrators. The large loss of income to the mining industry as a result of illegal mining, as well as the theft and illicit trade in precious metals, simulta- neously results in a loss of national income to the state from revenue, as well as a loss of available jobs to mineworkers as a result of increased Figure 1. Illegal miner underground, with a mortar and pestle in production costs. The domino effect of job losses leading to a variety which concentrate is crushed together with mercury to amalgamate of economic and social problems can have crippling effects on entire the gold particles. The photograph was retrieved from a camera belonging to an illegal miner (Photo: Willem Els). communities due to the extremely high rates of unemployment. In South Africa, one worker is estimated to support an average of about 10 people who are dependent on this income (Stoddard, 2013). This successfully. On the opposite end of the spectrum, it is a relatively problem has echoes in a number of other countries (Haken, 2011). simple process to implement for “coltan”, or columbite – tantalite The circulation of illicit gold and platinum group metals is con- (e.g. Savu-Krohn et al., 2011; Gäbler et al., 2011), much of which trolled by large criminal syndicates, which are heavily involved in other derives from the war-torn areas of Africa (Lublinski et al., 2010). criminal activities within South Africa (Coetzee and Horn, 2007). Ship- Similarly, due to its nature, it is possible to fingerprint precious met- ments of precious metals from other countries can readily be assimi- als. Fast identification of illicit precious metals using certified and lated into the illicit gold circuit, and illicit precious metals from South internationally accepted methods utilising universal databases, and Africa are also shipped to refineries in Europe. identification of the original producers, would promote worldwide In South Africa there exists a legal requirement to relate recovered cooperation and trust. It should ultimately be possible to prevent ille- stolen precious metals (i.e. natural (alluvial, etc.), stolen from mine, gally obtained precious metals from re-entering the legal economic smelter or illegally processed in a backyard) to source, and also to systems, and therefore drastically reducing the profits to the smugglers. identify the process by which it was beneficiated in order to confirm or refute its origin (Precious Metals Act, 2005; Smith, 2008) (Figure 1). Section 1502 of America’s Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Legal and Forensic Requirements Consumer Protection Act requires companies listed on the US Exchanges dealing with the 3T's (tin, tungsten and tantalum), gold and also gem- Smith (2008) looked at international legislation regarding precious stones, to submit an annual report describing their measures to ensure metal mining and trade, and showed that there was no consistency in their material is “conflict-free” (Dodd-Frank, 2010).
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Forensic Geology
    Manuscript for inclusion in the Encyclopedia of Geology, Edited by R.C. Selley, L.R.M Cocks and I.R Plimer, Elsevier, Amsterdam (2004) FORENSIC GEOLOGY K. Pye. Department of Geology, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, Surrey TW20 0EW, UK Introduction Forensic geology is concerned with the application of geological data and techniques in relation to issues which may come before a court of law. It is closely related to environmental forensics, forensic engineering and forensic archaeology. Environmental forensics is somewhat broader in scope than forensic geology and involves a wider range of environmental data, knowledge and expertise. It frequently involves investigations of environmental problems such as water and air pollution. Forensic engineering also overlaps with environmental forensics and is typically concerned with such issues as ground stability, the failure of buildings and other engineering structures, flooding, wind damage, fires and explosions. All sub-disciplines of the geosciences have potential forensic applications, but sedimentology, mineralogy, petrology, geochemistry, palaeontology and geophysics have so far made the greatest contributions. Shallow geophysical prospecting methods have been widely used by forensic archaeologists and others to locate and characterize clandestine graves and buried objects such as drugs and weapons. However, probably the most widely recognized application of forensic geology is the use of geological materials as trace evidence which can be of value in linking a suspect to a crime scene. In the wider forensic and legal literature, sediment, soil, dust and rock fragments have often been grouped together under the loose term ‘soil’ evidence. 1 Some of the earliest users of geological and soil evidence were in fact not geologists.
    [Show full text]
  • Meeting Reports
    MEETING REPORTS The long arm of the (geoforensics) law A recent meeting in London Initiative on Forensic Geology (IUGS- remote sensing techniques meant that considered both the conventional IFG) and the two groups are now closely remains could be distinguished from the and unusual applications of linked. seafloor topography and other debris, and enabled the successful recovery geoscience to forensic investigation. Scope of the remains of many of the victims. Alastair Ruffell, Jamie Pringle and Forensic geology emerged in the 19th The research also highlighted just Ruth Morgan discuss the global and 20th centuries with the application how little we currently know about the expansion of forensic geoscience, of analyses of traces of sand, sediment decomposition of human remains in the and how this field is central to and soil to criminal investigations. The marine environment compared to the keeping geoscience at the forefront main questions answered by forensic terrestrial. The challenges of working in of science and public interest. geologists were in establishing whether these ‘extreme’ environments is further a suspect could have been at a crime compounded when the complexity of The term forensic geoscience often scene, or their alibi locations, and assessing the taphonomic processes draws to mind images of a scientist this type of analysis continues today. and establishing a post-mortem analysing dirt on a crime suspect’s However, geoscientific techniques have submersion interval (PMSI) in marine shoes. Important though such analyses also long been deployed in the search environments is addressed. Research are, the field has moved far beyond for buried or sunken items, as well as in in this study sought to establish the key these humble beginnings and now the sampling of inorganic materials at variables in play in this highly variable includes work on spacecraft surfaces, crime scenes.
    [Show full text]
  • IUGS's Annual Report for 2019
    Surveys” at the RFG2018 conference attended (IPA), by several national geological surveys (GSC, ◇International Association of Sedimentologists USGS, BGR, BGS, Japan, Finland, Norway, (IAS), Australia etc.); ◇IGCP council meetings, ◇a follow-up meeting of the International Consortium of Geological Surveys (ICOGS) ◇Alliance of International Science Organiza- organized at the Prospectors and Developers tions (ANSO), Association of Canada (PDAC) Convention by ◇International Consortium on Landslides (ICL), It has been several months since the outbreak organizations. The DDE program was officially GSC and USGS for directors and representa- of the COVID-19 which has put the whole world announced at the 73rd IUGS EC meeting held in tives of geological surveys attended by about 20 ◇Int. Society of Soil Mechanics & Geotechnical at risk, has claimed hundreds of thousands lives Beijing on February 26-29, 2019. The DDE delegates from Australia, New Zealand, South Engineering (ISSMGE), and caused devastating social and economic mission is to harmonize Earth evolution data Africa, Afghanistan, USA, Tasmania, France, ◇Int. Association for Engineering Geology and consequences. I would like to express IUGS’ and share global geoscience knowledge and its Germany, Republic of Senegal, the Organiza- the Environment (IAEG). sincere sympathy to those who have lost their vision is to promote Earth science transforma- tion of African Geological Survey (OAGS), and loved ones and who are still suffering from the tion. Unlike other existing databases, DDE will EuroGeosurveys; The IUGS initiatives were also discussed with spreading of the pandemic. I sincerely thank all provide the geologies and geographies of Earth ◇Sessions of Directors of Geological Surveys ISC, UNESCO and the GeoUnions.
    [Show full text]
  • Bodies of Evidence Reconstructing History Through Skeletal Analysis 1St Edition Ebook, Epub
    BODIES OF EVIDENCE RECONSTRUCTING HISTORY THROUGH SKELETAL ANALYSIS 1ST EDITION PDF, EPUB, EBOOK Grauer | 9780471042792 | | | | | Bodies of Evidence Reconstructing History through Skeletal Analysis 1st edition PDF Book Forensic Outreach. Forensic anthropology is the application of the anatomical science of anthropology and its various subfields, including forensic archaeology and forensic taphonomy , [1] in a legal setting. In addition to revealing the age, sex, size, stature, health, and ethnic population of the decedent, an examination of the skeleton may reveal evidence concerning pathology and any antemortem before death , perimortem at the time of death , or postmortem after death trauma. September Investigations often begin with a ground search team using cadaver dogs or a low-flying plane to locate a missing body or skeleton. It is also recommended that individuals looking to pursue a forensic anthropology profession get experience in dissection usually through a gross anatomy class as well as useful internships with investigative agencies or practicing anthropologists. Permissions Request permission to reuse content from this site. Assessment of the Reliability of Facial Reconstruction. In , the second of the soldiers' remains discovered at Avion , France were identified through a combination of 3-D printing software, reconstructive sculpture and use of isotopic analysis of bone. In cases like these, forensic archaeologists must practice caution and recognize the implications behind their work and the information they uncover. Practical Considerations. Taylor of Austin, Texas during the s. Historical Archaeology. American Anthropologist. Retrieved 10 September Hindustan Times. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Forensic facial reconstruction. The capability to uncover information about victims of war crimes or homicide may present a conflict in cases that involve competing interests.
    [Show full text]
  • Forensic Geoscience: Applications of Geology, Geomorphology and Geophysics to Criminal Investigations
    Forensic Geoscience: applications of geology, geomorphology and geophysics to criminal investigations Ruffell, A., & McKinley, J. (2005). Forensic Geoscience: applications of geology, geomorphology and geophysics to criminal investigations. Earth-Science Reviews, 69(3-4)(3-4), 235-247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2004.08.002 Published in: Earth-Science Reviews Queen's University Belfast - Research Portal: Link to publication record in Queen's University Belfast Research Portal General rights Copyright for the publications made accessible via the Queen's University Belfast Research Portal is retained by the author(s) and / or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing these publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. Take down policy The Research Portal is Queen's institutional repository that provides access to Queen's research output. Every effort has been made to ensure that content in the Research Portal does not infringe any person's rights, or applicable UK laws. If you discover content in the Research Portal that you believe breaches copyright or violates any law, please contact [email protected]. Download date:26. Sep. 2021 Earth-Science Reviews 69 (2005) 235–247 www.elsevier.com/locate/earscirev Forensic geoscience: applications of geology, geomorphology and geophysics to criminal investigations Alastair Ruffell*, Jennifer McKinley School of Geography, Queen’s University, Belfast, BT7 1NN, N. Ireland Received 12 January 2004; accepted 24 August 2004 Abstract One hundred years ago Georg Popp became the first scientist to present in court a case where the geological makeup of soils was used to secure a criminal conviction.
    [Show full text]
  • Forensic Geoscience: Principles, Techniques and Applications
    Number 33 Jan – Mar 2003 ISSN 1359-0820 THE FORENSIC SCIENCE SOCIETY interA forum for forensic scientistsfaces and associated professionals Forensic geoscience: principles, techniques and applications 3 + 4 March 2003 (Convenors: Kenneth Pye and Debra J Croft) Forensic geoscience is a rapidly developing sub-discipline of geoscience and is concerned Forensic Geology, the first (and only) evidence, as well as diatom analysis and was with the application of earth and wider textbook on the subject. Prof. Murray’s chaired by Prof. Tony Brown (Exeter). environmental information and techniques to keynote paper addressed the subject of Exciting work on a new automated scanning investigations which may come before a court ‘Yesterday-Today-Tomorrow’. The morning electron microscopic technique (Camborne of law (civil or criminal). It incorporates session (chaired by Debra Croft) then covered School of Mines/CSIRO, Australia) and the forensic geology and forensic soil science, but various geophysical techniques for detection analysis of potential hazards and risks from there are also important overlaps with of burial sites and disturbed ground, with space debris were also presented. The forensic archaeology, forensic anthropology, contributors from the archaeological field, as afternoon final session (chaired by Prof. forensic engineering and forensic biology. As well as the modelling of the movement of Raymond Murray) concentrated on case well as being concerned with all types of bodies in tidal river estuaries. The afternoon studies and use of
    [Show full text]
  • Geoforensics Laurance Donnelly and Alastair Ruffell on the Group’S First Decade
    SVOLUMECIENTIS 26 NO 11 ◆ DEC 16/JAN 17 ◆ WWW.GEOLSOC.ORG.UK/GEOSCIENTISTT GEThe Fellowship Magazine of theO Geological Society of London UK / Overseas where sold to individuals: £3.95 Geoforensics Laurance Donnelly and Alastair Ruffell on the Group’s first decade SOCIETY ON FACEBOOK [WWW.FACEBOOK.COM/GEOLSOC ] MENTE ET MALLEO? AFTER ABERFAN ONLINE CONFERENCING The Sedgwick’s collection You respond to our coverage Arjan Reesink weighs up the of geological hammers of the 50th anniversary new trend’s pros and cons GEOSCIENTIST CONTENTS 16 20 10 27 FEATURESFEATURES IN THIS ISSUE... 16 IF I HAD A HAMMER Douglas Palmer describes a new exhibition of the Sedgwick’s collection of famous geologists’ mighty tools. (See also Books & Arts, p22.) REGULARS 05 Welcome Ted Nield urges Trustees not to overlook an Executive Secretary’s most important duty 06 Society News What your Society is doing at home and abroad, in London and the regions 09 Soapbox Arjan Reesink sees pluses and some minuses in online conferencing 21 Letters You respond to our coverage of the Aberfan Disaster, 50 years ago ON THE COVER: 22 Books and arts Six reviews by Ted Nield, Matt Loader, Andrew 10 What lies beneath Robinson, David Edwards, Mike Bowman and Richard Wrigley Laurance Donnelly describes the 24 People Geoscientists in the news and on the move first 10 years of the Society’s 26 Calendar Society activities this month Forensic Geoscience Group 28 Obituary Norman John D’Cruz 1924-2016 29 Crossword Win a Special Publication of your choice WWW.GEOLSOC.ORG.UK/GEOSCIENTIST
    [Show full text]
  • Chemical Element Levels As a Methodological Tool in Forensic
    orensi f F c R o e l s a e n r a r u c o h J Journal of Forensic Research Gianni et al., J Forensic Res 2015, 6:1 ISSN: 2157-7145 DOI: 10.4172/2157-7145.1000264 Research Article Open Access Chemical Element Levels as a Methodological Tool in Forensic Science Gianni Gallello* 1,3, Julia Kuligowski2, Agustin Pastor3, Agustin Diez1 and Joan Bernabeu1 1Department of Prehistory and Archaeology, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain 2Division of Neonatology, University Hospital Materno-Infantil La Fe, Bulevar Sur, Valencia, Spain 3Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Valencia, Burjassot, Valencia, Spain *Corresponding author: Gianni Gallello, Department of Prehistory and Archaeology, University of Valencia, 28 Blasco Ibáñez Street, 46010 Valencia, Spain, Tel: +34697636957; Fax: +34 96 3544838; E-mail: [email protected] Rec date: Nov 10, 2014 Acc date: Dec 15, 2014 Pub date: Dec 20, 2014 Copyright: © 2014 Gallello G. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Abstract The aim of the present study was to define a methodological strategy for understanding how post- mortem degradation in bones caused by the environment affects different skeletal parts and for selecting better preserved bone samples, employing rare earth elements (REEs) analysis and multivariate statistics. To test our methodological proposal the samples selected belong to adult and young individuals and were obtained from the Late Roman Necropolis of c/Virgen de la Misericordia located in Valencia city centre (Comunidad Valenciana, Spain).
    [Show full text]
  • Science and the Criminal Law Second Edition
    FORENSIC EVIDENCE: SCIENCE AND THE CRIMINAL LAW SECOND EDITION 2858_C000.fm Page ii Monday, October 17, 2005 4:00 PM FORENSIC EVIDENCE: SCIENCE AND THE CRIMINAL LAW SECOND EDITION Terrence F. Kiely Boca Raton London New York A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc. 2858_Discl.fm Page 1 Tuesday, July 12, 2005 11:06 AM Published in 2006 by CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10987654321 International Standard Book Number-10: 0-8493-2858-6 (Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8493-2858-9 (Hardcover) Library of Congress Card Number 2005050625 This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.
    [Show full text]
  • Introduction to Forensic Soil Science and Forensic Geology: a Synthesis
    Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 26, 2021 Accepted Manuscript Geological Society, London, Special Publications Introduction to Forensic Soil Science and Forensic Geology: A Synthesis Robert W. Fitzpatrick & Laurance J. Donnelly DOI: https://doi.org/10.1144/SP492-2021-81 To access the most recent version of this article, please click the DOI URL in the line above. When citing this article please include the above DOI. Received 26 April 2021 Revised 30 April 2021 Accepted 2 May 2021 © 2021 The Author(s). This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Published by The Geological Society of London. Publishing disclaimer: www.geolsoc.org.uk/pub_ethics Manuscript version: Accepted Manuscript This is a PDF of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting and correction before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the book series pertain. Although reasonable efforts have been made to obtain all necessary permissions from third parties to include their copyrighted content within this article, their full citation and copyright line may not be present in this Accepted Manuscript version. Before using any content from this article, please refer to the Version of Record once published for full citation and copyright details, as permissions may be required. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 26, 2021 Introduction to Forensic Soil Science and Forensic Geology: A Synthesis Robert W Fitzpatrick1,2*† & Laurance J Donnelly3 1Centre for Australian Forensic Soil Science (CAFSS), The University of Adelaide, Waite Campus, Locked Bag 2, Urrbrae, South Australia, Australia 5064.
    [Show full text]
  • Introduction to Forensic Geology
    89.215 - FORENSIC GEOLOGY INTRODUCTION I. Types of physical evidence Forensic geology is that branch of the earth sciences that uses rocks, minerals, fossils, soils, and a variety of geochemical techniques to provide physical evidence in criminal investigations and trials. Forensic evidence can be of two types: 1. Individual - items that can have only one source. Examples are fingerprints, some took marks, bullets, DNA, etc. 2. Class - items that can come from a variety of sources. The value of a class item depends on its uniqueness. For example, paint scrapings from a car may identify the year, make, and model of the car but not the specific vehicle. The usefulness of the evidence would then depend on how common this car was in a particular area. Most geologic evidence is of the class type. Physical evidence is generally more reliable than human evidence (eyewitness accounts) that rely on memory, emotion, and many other factors. Besides outright dishonesty, eyewitness accounts are often unreliable because individuals may only observe certain aspects of a scene, are subject to suggestion, and often remember an event in the context of their own personal experiences. Eyewitness identifications of perpetrators of crimes are notoriously unreliable. The reliability of physical evidence, of course, depends on the competency and skill of the forensic scientist. There are also cases where physical evidence is tainted for a variety of reasons including incompetence of the investigator. II. The exchange principle Another important concept is that of the “Exchange Principle”. This principle was first articulated by the French scientist Edmond Locard and is often called the “Locard Exchange Principle”.
    [Show full text]
  • Century Stated, “Soil Samples Are So Diverse in Origin…That Rarely Are Two Samples from Different Locales Confusingly Similar Microscopically.”2
    This document sets forth background materials on the scientific research supporting examinations as conducted by the forensic laboratories at the Department of Justice. It also includes a discussion of significant policy matters. This document is provided to assist a public review and comment process of the related Proposed Uniform Language for Testimony and Reports (posted separately). It is not intended to, does not, and may not be relied upon to create any rights, substantive or procedural, enforceable by law by any party in any matter, civil or criminal, nor does it place any limitation on otherwise lawful investigative and litigative prerogatives of the Department. SUPPORTING DOCUMENTATION FOR DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE PROPOSED UNIFORM LANGUAGE FOR TESTIMONYAND REPORTS FOR THE FORENSIC GEOLOGY DISCIPLINE Background Geology, the scientific study of the Earth, has existed since man first contemplated the origin of the universe. The use of geologic materials in criminal cases to link people, places and objects of investigative interest has existed for over 100 years.1 Dr. Walter McCrone, a well-known microscopist of the 20th century stated, “Soil samples are so diverse in origin…that rarely are two samples from different locales confusingly similar microscopically.”2 Modern geoscience has evolved greatly during the last century with the development of sophisticated analytical equipment. The development of instrumental methods such as x-ray diffractometry (XRD) and electron microscopy in the 20th century enhanced the capabilities further.3 While microscopy remains the primary technique used in the analysis of geologic materials, numerous instrumental methods, including confocal Raman spectroscopy, laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS), laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), and isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS)4 may add additional discrimination potential when comparing geologic materials.
    [Show full text]