Science & Society (Cyborg 1.0, 1998) of Kevin Warwick Neodymium Magnets Biohacking who implanted a radio frequency[72_TD$IF] identifi- A wide range of species in nature Ali K. Yetisen1,2,3,* cation (RFID) tag to his arm in order to (including homing pigeons and bats) control electronic devices. In another are known to use magnetoreception Biohacking is a do-it-yourself citi- experiment, a multielectrode array was for sensing orientation and navigation ’ zen science merging body modifi- implanted in Warwick s arm to create a [9]. Inspired from magnetoreception, neural interface, which allowed controlling implantable neodymium magnets (N52 cation with technology. The a robotic arm and establishing telepathy Gauss) have been developed for in vivo motivations of biohackers include system with another human implantee via use (Figure 1A). These implantable mag- cybernetic exploration, personal the Internet [5]. Self-experimentation with nets allow feeling electromagnetic forces data acquisition, and advocating biomaterials has also been popularized by tactile sensation. They can be also for privacy rights and open-source with the performance art works of Stelarc, used to activate magnetic reed switches medicine. The emergence of a bio- who had a scaffold implanted in his arm and Hall effect sensors. Subdermal hacking community has influenced (Third Ear, 2007) [6]. The synergy of implants have been tested in seven discussions of cultural values, cybernetics, biopunk, and citizen science humans and compared to a control medical ethics, safety, and con- has led to the formation of a media-activ- groupinwhichtheimplantsweresuper- sent in transhumanist technology. ist biohacking community. Figures in this ficially attached to their skin. The transhumanist community include Amal implanted group required less force than Epidermal electronics, biosensors, and Graafstra (tagger), Tim Cannon, Lepht the control group to perceive an electro- artificial intelligence have converged as Anonym, and Neil Harbisson. These tech- magnetic stimulus (I.M. Harrison, PhD healthcare technologies to monitor nology activists, also known as grinders, Thesis, University of Reading, 2014). In patients in point-of-care settings within implant chips in their bodies or have them another case, the biohacker Rich Lee the Internet of Things (IoT) [1]. These tech- implanted. Their primary motivations implanted magnets into the tragus of nologies have created a community of include human–electronic device com- his ears to receive audio signal from a hobbyist software developers involved munication and self-quantification, and coil of an electromagnetic wire con- in the quantified-self movement [2]. The cosmetic enhancement [7]. Another over- nected to a smartphone (Figure 1B). self-experimentalist community is primar- arching goal of this community is to ily interested in tracking their daily physical increase scientific literacy as citizen sci- RFID/NFC Chips and biochemical activities to build a library entists. The biohacking community is Implantable RFID tags are powered by an of personal informatics in order to main- actively engaged in the development of external energy source [10]. However, tain a healthy lifestyle or improve body off-the-shelf protocols at low cost, open active RFID implants feature an embed- performance. The growing interest in this access research and collaboration by cre- ded battery that can communicate within ‘tech-savvy’ community has motivated ating individual pursuit of inquiry [8]. Bio- a body area network. They also have the questioning the possibility of experiment- hackers document and share their ability to connect to IoT via Bluetooth in a ing with implantable technologies. The protocols, equipment designs, and expe- continuous or on command mode at long emergence of implantables for biometric riences on the Internet (i–vii). distances. Former Verichip Corporation animal identification has encouraged self- (now PositiveID) has offered an FDA- experimentalists to chipify themselves in Implantable Technologies approved RFID chip for implantation in order to interact with computers in the IoT Commercial or homemade implants are human body to reveal biometric informa- [3]. Inspired by transhumanism, which commonly inserted to the body via tion (Figure 1C) [11]. This passive implant advocates the enhancement of human hypodermic needles or surgical incision. consisted of a RFID circuit, a capacitor, body and intelligence by technology, A common feature of these implants is and an antenna encapsulated in a medi- the overlap between self-experimentation that they are coated with a layer that cal-grade glass coated with antimigration and medical implant domains has created reduces the immune reaction (bioproof- film. This technology was designed to a vision to modify the human body and ing). These protective coatings include identify the medical history of uncon- document their experiences in social cylindrical medical-grade borosilicate scious patients in an emergency situation. media for open-source medicine [4]. glass capsules, Parylene C, polytetra- Early biohackers mainly employed fluoroethylene, titanium nitride, and sili- uncoated RFID capsules such as The movement of biohacking has begun cone. Table 1 lists implants used by EM4102 (FAREAD) and HITAG 2048S with a self-experimentation project biohackers. (NXP) (Figure 1D). The Supplemental[73_TD$IF]

744 Trends in Biotechnology, August 2018, Vol. 36, No. 8 Table 1. Implants Used by Biohackers, and Their Properties Implant Features Geometry/size Implantation method Implantation site

Neodymium magnets Coated with titanium nitride Disc (3 Â 1 mm) Surgical incision Fingers

MF1 IC S50 (NXP) 13.56 MHz (ISO14443A) Cylindrical glass capsule Hypodermic needle (9 g) Hand webbing Emulates MF1ICS50 1k chip (3 Â 13 mm) 7 byte UID & writable sectors

NTAG216 chip (NXP) 13.56 MHz (ISO14443A) and Cylindrical glass capsule Hypodermic needle (11 g)[70_TD$IF] Hand webbing NFC Type 2 (2 Â 12 mm) 7 byte UID and 880 bytes of user read/write memory

ATA5577 RFID chipset 125–134 kHz (ISO11784/ Cylindrical glass capsule Hypodermic needle (11 g)[70_TD$IF] Hand webbing (Atmel) 785) (2 Â 12 mm) EM41xx/EM4200/HID/ Indala compatible

I-CODE SLI RFID chipset 13.56 MHz (ISO15693) Cylindrical glass capsule Hypodermic needle (11 g)[70_TD$IF] Hand webbing (NXP) 8 byte UID and 112 bytes of (2 Â 12 mm) user read/write memory

Bio-Thermo LifeChip RFID 134.2 kHz (ISO11784/ Cylindrical glass capsule Hypodermic needle (11 g)[70_TD$IF] Skin near the arm pit tag (Destron Fearing) 11785) (2 Â 12 mm) Temperature sensor (25[71_TD$IF] – 43C)

DESFire EV1 RFID chip (NXP) 13.56 MHz (ISO14443A and Polymer coating 11 mm wide incision Arm NFC Type 4) (10 Â 22 Â 0.5 mm)

NTAG216 RFID chip (NXP) 13.56 MHz (ISO14443A and Polymer coating 9 mm wide incision Arm NFC Type 2) (8 Â 22 Â 0.4 mm)

Tritium lighting implants Radioluminescent tritium gas Cylindrical borosilicate glass Hypodermic needle (8–9 g) Hand webbing (Cyberise.me) and lead oxide capsule (3 Â 5 Â 21 mm)

LEDs (Northstar, Grindhouse Chip containing a processor, Polymer coating Surgical incision Hand/forearm Wetware) LED, and embedded batteries

Information online describes the implan- Additionally, Grindhouse Wetware bio- This sensor has an antimigration coating tation experience showing the proce- hackers have implanted an active optical (BioBond) and is implanted through a dures used by biohackers to implant device (Northstar V1) in their hands hypodermic needle to the arm near the active and passive devices, and it (Figure 1F). This optical device featured armpit. A Grindhouse Wetware biohacker discusses RFID communication light-emitting diodes (LEDs), an embedded surgically implanted a battery-powered technologies. battery, and a magnetically activated microchip (Circadia 1.0) in his forearm switch. Next-generation implantable devi- (Figure 1G). The implant transferred tem- Light Sources ces may offer a rechargeable battery, ges- peraturedatatoatablet computerviaBlue- Optical materials and devices have been ture recognition, and Bluetooth tooth connection. Such implants can be subcutaneously implanted for cosmetic connection. designed to measure other physical and purposes. One such implant utilizes the biochemical parameters such as pressure decay of tritium gas that emits b particles. Implantable Sensors and biomarkers in real time. This effect combined with phosphor emits Temperature sensors have been utilized to photons and produces radioluminescence measure body temperature by biohackers. Safety Implications (Figure 1E). Layers of lead oxide glass and For example, originally designed for veteri- Medical devices need to be sterilized medical-grade glass have been used to nary applications, Bio-Thermo (LifeChip, before implantation to the body to kill coat the surface of a tritium capsule to Destron Fearing) continually temperature pathogens. Sterilization of implants can minimize the emitted radiation. data with a detection range of 25[74_TD$IF] –43C. be achieved by autoclaving or

Trends in Biotechnology, August 2018, Vol. 36, No. 8 745 (A) (B) (C) (D) obtain personal information to justify secu- rity reasons within democratic principles. In the United States, laws in a few states (Wis- consin, North Dakota, and California) pro- tect citizens from involuntary or incentivized chip implantation. For example, Wisconsin Act 482 prohibits caregivers to coerce a patient to involuntarily have a chip implanted (E) (F) (G) for their safety. Furthermore, the American Medical Association drafted an ethics code (2007) for active RFID tag implants that highlighted the importance of protecting the implantees from stigmatization, social discrimination, or loss of health care or insur- ance coverage.

The Rise of Open Medicine The implications of experimenting with Figure 1. Implants Used by Biohackers. (A) A neodymium magnet in a finger. (B) Magnets in the tragus of implants and the development of new an ear. (C) A RFID tag. (D) RFID tags implanted in the webbing between the metacarpal bones of the index applications are immense to broader finger and thumb, positioned parallel to the index metacarpal. (E) Tritium lighting implants. (F) LEDs in hand. (G) Continual temperature sensor in forearm. communities. Biohacking also raises questions about the limits of medical data privacy, and it opens up the possibility of cryptography use for medical data stor- submerging them in antiseptic solutions. model studies showed that implants may age. The motivations of biohackers are Implants having an antiremoval coating (e. cause sarcomas based on foreign-body aligned with the healthcare advocates g., BioBond) attaches to the subcutane- induced tumorigenesis; however, the risk who want patients to access their own ous tissue to prevent device migration in was factor was limited to 1% [12]. implant-generated data, which are con- the body. This antimigration cap consists sidered proprietary by device manufac- of a porous polypropylene sheath, which Privacy Concerns turers [14]. Citizen scientists who are promotes the growth of fibrocytes and The increasing systematic use of personal interested in experimenting with their collagen fibers around the device. Their data surveillance (überveillance) in the inves- own bodies should not be marginalized removal is an invasive process and may tigations or mass monitoring of citizens by but supported by non-profit organiza- result in complications. Nonbiocompati- law enforcement agencies is a significant tions, research institutions, biotechnology ble implants or implant parts (e.g., neo- concern among biohackers [13].Thismay companies, and social services. Based dymium cores) may be rejected or involve real-time geotagging of an individu- on the positive outcomes of needle becoming encapsulated in highly dense al’s location and activities. The biohacking exchange scheme in HIV patients, the fibrous tissue. Such implants also pose a community actively discusses mass surveil- involvement of medical professional to risk if they are physically exchanged lance implications of implantable devices provide consultations, access and dis- between biohackers, which may lead to that may be used to control citizens. For posal of medical safety equipment to bio- the transmission of microorganisms. example, in 2017, Ross Campton of Ohio hackers will reduce the risks of infection Although at this stage, passive tags are was convicted of arson and insurance fraud and self-harm. The emergence of bio- popular, active tags with batteries are after law enforcement used heart function hacking as a citizen science initiative being increasingly used in biohacking data from his pacemaker as supporting evi- has set a remarkable precedent for our community and the potential structural dence to prosecute him. European Group understanding of what it means to be compromise and hence leakage of mate- on Ethics in Science and New Technologies human in the context of open medicine. rial from these devices is a risk factor. has published a guideline (2005) that Additionally, long-term behavior and described[75_TD$IF] the ethical and legal challenges Acknowledgments[76_TD$IF] biocompatibility of electronic and optical associated with electronic implants. Such The author thanks Lepht Anonym, Paul Turrell, Amal implants in human body is unclear. Rat implants may be used by state authorities to Graafstra, and Ryan O’Shea for discussions.

746 Trends in Biotechnology, August 2018, Vol. 36, No. 8 Disclaimer[7_TD$IF] Statement 13. Michael, M.G. and Michael, K. (2010) Toward a state of One of the most common commercially überveillance. IEEE Technol. Soc. Mag. 29, 9–16 The author does not endorse or recommend any fi 14. Michael, K. (2017) Implantable medical device tells all: applied processes that uses unde ned material, equipment, or procedures discussed in this uberveillance gets to the heart of the matter. IEEE Consum. mixed cultures is anaerobic digestion Electron. Mag. 6, 107–115 article. Licensed medical professionals may perform (AD) [1]. This process plays a crucial role the procedures described in this article. The author in waste management systems and declares no competing financial interests. produces renewable energy in the form of methane. AD entirely depends on the Resources[78_TD$IF] Forum complex syntrophic activity of microor- ihttps://sapiensanonym.blogspot.co.uk/[72_TD$IF] iihttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Ex51kc3pOs ganisms belonging to several functional iiihttps://biohack.me Designing Reactor groups. In general, this process can be ivhttps://dangerousthings.com Microbiomes for divided into hydrolysis, acidogenesis, vwww.grindhousewetware.com acetogenesis, and methanogenesis, vihttps://cyberise.me Chemical Production where most organic matter (carbohy- viihttps://futuregrind.org from Organic Waste drates, lipids, and proteins), except for lignin components, is degraded into Supplemental Information Piotr Oleskowicz-Popiel1,* methane and carbon dioxide in the Supplemental information associated with this article absence of oxygen. The main drawback can be found, in the online version, at https://doi.org/ Microorganisms are responsible of the AD process is a low market price for 10.1016/j.tibtech.2018.02.011. for biochemical cycles and methane and therefore difficulties in 1School of Chemical Engineering, University of therefore play essential roles in economic feasibility of the biogas plants, Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK especially where there are no subsidies or 2Institute of Translational Medicine, Mindelsohn Way, the environment. By using omics supporting governmental policies [2]. Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TH, UK approaches and network analysis 3 fi Institute for Measurement Systems and Sensor to understand the interaction and Diversi cation of products may help to Technology, Technische Universität München, overcome this shortcoming. Volatile fatty Theresienstrasse 90, 80333 Munich, Germany cooperation within mixed micro- acids such as acetic, propionic, butyric, bial communities, it would be *Correspondence: [email protected] (A.K. Yetisen). and valeric acids, which are key interme- possible to engineer microbiomes https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2018.02.011 diate products in AD, can be also consid- in fermentation and digestion ered as intermediates for currently References reactors to convert organic waste emerging bioprocesses such as polyhy-

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