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Chapter Ii Literature Review CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This chapter is comprised of literature review of geology and petroleum geology in northeastern Thailand. The related knowledges are categorized into groups including general geology, stratigraphy, basin evalution, structural framework, petroleum provinces, petroleum prospect in Permian basin play, seismic interpretation of the Chonnabot prospect, subsurface structural map of the Permian play, petroleum geochemistry evaluation of Permian carbonate rock, carbonate reservoir characterization, and seal and trap rock characterization. 2.2 General geology The northeastern region of Thailand is located between latitudes 14o to 19o North and longitudes 101o to 106o East, covering an area abount one third of the country or abount 200,000 square kilometers. The northern and eastern border is bounded by the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Laos) and the Mekong river. The southern part is connected to the Democratic Kamphuchea and the western part is bounded by certral and northern of Thailand. The Khorat Plateau forms a part of the Indochina plate bounded by major Tertiary strike-slip faults. Althought several tectonic models indicate that the Khorat Plateau is largely underformed. It contains two fold belts; the N-S trending Loei- Phetchabun foldfold beltbelt inin thethe western western area area and and NW-SE NW-SE trending trending Phu Phu Phan Phan range range in inthe the 8 central part which divided the central plain in the northern Sakhon Nakhon basin, and the southern Khorat basin. General geology of the area and the sedimentary sequence consists of an initial rift sequence of Carboniferous to Triassic sediments and a sag sequence of Late Triassic to Cretaceous sediments that consisted of Khorat Group which is mainly sedimentary subsequence (Figure 2.1). The two sequences are separated by a regional erosive unconformity, known as the Indosinian unconformity, which represents the main collision of Indochina with its neighbours. The Khorat Plateau is the term in use for the area of outcrop of the post-Indosinian sequence. The structure of the bedding is gently tilted to the central part of the Khorat and Sakon Nakhon basins. The southern part of the Khorat Plateau is sporadically covered by the Quaternary. Based on the drilled well data, the Khorat Group has been restricted to the Late Triassic to Early Cretaceous sediments. The underlying Late Triassic Huai Hin Lat and Kuchinarai Group and the overlying Early Cretaceous-Middle Eocene Mahasarakham and Phu Tok formatioms are excluded from the Khorat Group. In addition, an uppermost unit of the Late Tertiary called Tha Chang formation is represented in lithostratigraphy in the northeastern region of Thailand. 2.3 Stratigraphy The lithostratigraphy of the Khorat Plateau is established (Figure 2.2) by the integration of the seismic stratigraphy, tectono-stratigraphy, well data, previous work, and tectonic history (Chantong, W., 2005). There are six tectono-stratigraphy units. Pre-Caledonian and Pre-Variscan Megasequences (Pre-Permian basement) are defined as Early to Late Carboniferous age. Pre-Indosinian I Megasequence is classified as 9 pre-rift Megasequence is Late Carboniferous to Late Permian age. Pre-Indosinian II Megasequence is classified as the syn-rift Megasequence and earliest post-rift Megasequence are Triassic age. Pre-Himalayan Megasequence is classified as post- rift Megasequence and post-inversion Megasequence are Late Triassic to Early Late Cretaceous age. Post-Himalayan Megasequence is Middle Miocene age. The new lithostratigraphy can be divided into two parts that the Pre-Khorat Group, and the Khorat Group. The Pre-Khorat Group has more complex structure than the Khorat Group. There are four orogenies in the Pre-Khorat Group. Normally Khorat Group is slightly folded and faulted. 2.3.1 Pre-Caledonian Megasequence (Pre-Permian basement) The Pre-Caledonian Megasequence is consisted of the metamorphic basement which is clearly differentiated from the overly non-metamorphosed sequence. These rocks older than the Late Carboniferous are considered to be basement in the Loei-Phetchabun fold belt and the Khorat Plateau area. The Na Mo Group of Middle Silurian is the oldest metamorphic basement, exposed in the Loei provivnce on the northwestern margin of the Khorat Plateau. The low-grade metamorphic rocks of the upper greenschist facies are consisted of phylite, chlorite and pelitic schist, metatuff, and quartzite. 2.3.2 Pre-Variscan Megasequence (Pre-Permian basement) The Pre-Variscan Megasequence is consisted of Pak Chom Group which underlies the Variscan unconformity. The Varican Orogeny is dated stratigraphically as the Early to Middle Carboniferous. These rocks older than the Late Carboniferous are considered to be basement in the Loei-Phetchabun fold belt and the Khorat Plateau area. 101OE 102OE 103OE 104OE 105OE SCALE 1 : 2,500,000 25 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 Kilometers 18 O N 1010. 9.9 77. 17 O N 16 8.8 55 . 44. O N 3.3 6 6. 2.2 15 O N 14 11. O N สัญลักษณ จังหวัด Changwat (Province) SYMBOLS รอยสัมผัส ถนน NAKHON RATCHASIMA Contact Road 1 นครราชสีมา รอยเลื่อน ทางรถไฟ 2 อุบลราชธานี UBON RATCHATHANI Fault Railroad 3 อํานาจเจริญ AMNAT CHAROEN รอยคดโคงร ูปประทู ุนหงายุ แสดงพลันจั แมน้ําและลําธาร แมน้ําและลําธาร 4 กาฬสินธุ KALASIN Syncline with plunge River and stream River and stream KHON KAEN เขื่อนและอางเก็บน้ํา 5 ขอนแกน รอยคดโคงรูปประทุน แสดงพลันจ เขื่อนและอางเก็บน้ํา Anticline with plunge Dam and Reservoir 6 ชัยภูมิ CHAIYAPHUM Anticline with plunge Dam and Reservoir เสนชั้นความสูงเปนเมตร จังหวัด เสนช ั้นความส้ ูงเปนเมตร จังหวัด 7 หนองบัวลําภู NONG BUA LAMPHU Contour line in meters Changwat (Province) Contour line in meters Changwat (Province) 8 มุกดาหาร MUKDAHAN ขอบเขตประเทศ๖ไมถือกําหนดเปนทาง ขอบเขตประเทศ ไมไ ถ ือกื ําหนดเปนทางการ International boundary (must not 9 นครพนม NAKHON PHANOM International boundary (must not authoritative boundary) 10 หนองคาย NONG KHAI Figure 2.1 The general geological map in the northeastern region of Thailand (Modified from Department of Mineral Resources, 1999). 10 หินชั้นและหินแปร อาย ุ AGE SEDIMENTARY AND METAMORPHIC ROCK ควอเทอรนาร ี QUATERNARY เทอรเชียร ี TERTIARY ครีเทเชียส CRETACEOUS จูแรสซิก JURASSIC ไทรแอสซิก TRIASSIC เพอรเมียน PERMIAN คารบอนิเฟอร ัส CARBONIFEROUS ดิโวเนียน DEVONIAN ไซลูเรียน SILURIAN ออรโดวิเช ียน ORDOVICIAN แคมเบรียน CAMBRIAN พรีแคมเบรียน PRE-CAMBRIAN หินอ ัคน ี อาย ุ IGNEOUS ROCKS AGE หินกีเซอไรต ควอเทอรนาร ี Geyserite QUATERNARY หินบะซอลต ควอเทอรนาร-ี เทอรเชียรี Basalt QUATERNARY-TERTIARY หินแกรนิต และหินแกรโนไดออไรต ครีเทเชียสถึงคารบอนิเฟอรัส Granite and granodiorite CRETACEOUS TO CARBONIFEROUS หินมิกมาไทต หินแกรนิต หินไนส หินชีสต หินควอรตไซต และหินทราย ไทรแอสซิก Migmatite, granite, gneiss, schist, quartzite and sandstone TRIASSIC หินไรโอไลต หินแอนดีไซต และหินทัฟฟ ครีเทเชียสถึงเพอรเมียน Rhyolite, andesite, and tuff CRETACEOUS TO PERMIAN หินไพรอกซีไนต หินเซอรเพนทิไนต และหินฮอรนเบลนไดต ไทรแอสซิกถึงเพอรเมียน Pyroxenite, serpentinite, and hornblendite TRIASSIC TO PERMIAN หินอัคนีชนิดเบส หินควอรตซแกบโบร คารบอนิเฟอรัส Basic igneous rocks: quartz-gabbro CARBONIFEROUS Figure 2.1 The general geological map in the northeastern region of Thailand (Modified from Department of Mineral Resources, 1999) (Cont.). 11 12 Figure 2.2 Lithostratigraphy in the northeastern region of Thailand and related to tectonic events (Modified from Sattayarak, N., 2005 and Chantong, W., 2005). 13 The Pak Chom Group of Late Silurian to Early Carboniferous mainly is consisted of shallow marine sediments of limestone, greywacke, shale, conglomerate, and tuff. However, radiolarian chert of deep sea facies is also recorded in the sequence, suggested allochthonous content. The Pak Chom Group unconformably overlies the Na Mo Group. 2.3.3 Pre-Indosinian I Megasequence The Pre-Indosinian I Megasequence unconformably is ovelies the Pre- Varisan Megasequence. It is below the Indosinian I unconformity which is dated as Late Carboniferous to Late Permian. It is divided into Si That Group and Saraburi Group in ascending order. The Si That Group The Si That Group is defined as the pre-rift megasequence. This formation is found only in the subsurface data (underneath the Phu Phan range). The group is consisted of sediments in shallow marine depositional environment (E-Sarn sea) which are deposited during the Late Carboniferous to Late Permian. The Si That Group can be divided into three formations: Si That, Dong Mun, and Lam Pao formations. Si That formation is defined as the Late Carboniferous to Early Permian. This rock unit has been informally named the Lower Clastics and is consisted of grey to dark grey shale interbedded with limestone, dolomite, and siltstone with some conglomerate in the lower part of the formation. Dong Mun formation is defefined as Early to Middle Permian. This rock unit is consisted of the carbonate rock which mudstone, and dolomite. The 14 limestones are pale yellow, brown, and moderate hard. The dolomire is light grey to dark grey, and moderate hard. Lam Pao formation is defined as Late Permian. This rock unit is consisted of interbedded siltstone, claystone, and limestone. Silstones are grey to dark grey, moderate hard, and argillaceous. The claystones show light grey. The limestone types are mudstone and wackstone, brown, medium grey, dark grey, hard, and calcareous. The Saraburi Group The Saraburi Group is defined as the pre-rift megasequence. The group is consisted of sediments of shallow to deep marine depositional environment (Nam Duk sea) which are deposited during the
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