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Artisanal Gold Mining, Mercury and Sediment in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia

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Artisanal Gold Mining, Mercury and Sediment in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia Artisanal Gold Mining, Mercury and Sediment in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia by Daniel Stapper B.Sc., University of Victoria, 2006 A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE in the Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences Daniel Stapper, 2011 University of Victoria All rights reserved. This thesis may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without the permission of the author. Library and Archives Bibliothèque et Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de l'édition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre référence ISBN: 978-0-494-88400-3 Our file Notre référence ISBN: 978-0-494-88400-3 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library and permettant à la Bibliothèque et Archives Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par télécommunication ou par l'Internet, prêter, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des thèses partout dans le loan, distrbute and sell theses monde, à des fins commerciales ou autres, sur worldwide, for commercial or non- support microforme, papier, électronique et/ou commercial purposes, in microform, autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriété du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in this et des droits moraux qui protege cette thèse. Ni thesis. Neither the thesis nor la thèse ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci substantial extracts from it may be ne doivent être imprimés ou autrement printed or otherwise reproduced reproduits sans son autorisation. without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformément à la loi canadienne sur la Privacy Act some supporting forms protection de la vie privée, quelques may have been removed from this formulaires secondaires ont été enlevés de thesis. cette thèse. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires aient inclus dans in the document page count, their la pagination, il n'y aura aucun contenu removal does not represent any loss manquant. of content from the thesis. ii Supervisory Committee Artisanal Gold Mining, Mercury and Sediment in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia by Daniel Stapper B.Sc., University of Victoria, 2011 Supervisory Committee Dr. Kevin Telmer, Department of Earth and Ocean Science Supervisor Dr. Eileen Vander Flier‐Kellar, Department of Earth and Ocean Science Departmental Member Dr. Richard Hebda, Department of Earth and Ocean Science Departmental Member iii Abstract Supervisory Committee Dr. Kevin Telmer, Department of Earth and Ocean Science Supervisor Dr. Eileen Vander Flier‐Kellar, Department of Earth and Ocean Science Departmental Member Dr. Richard Hebda, Department of Earth and Ocean Science Departmental Member Abstract A field survey was undertaken in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia (Borneo) to assess the extent and practices of Artisanal and Small‐scale Gold Mining (ASGM), and to measure sediment and mercury flows in the provinces’ rivers. More than forty mining operations were visited in six of the provinces largest river basins during June, July and August of 2008. Based on the survey results, this thesis estimates that 43,000 small‐scale gold miners in Central Kalimantan produced 13.3 tonnes of gold in 2008 (426,000 troy ounces ‐ ozt) worth approximately 362 million CAD (based on 2008 international gold price of 850 CAD/ozt). Mercury use was ubiquitous for leaching gold from ores in the province. Approximately 65.3 tonnes was used for this purpose in 2008, with the majority of consumption‐ 80% by whole‐ore amalgamation operations exploiting hard‐ rock deposits, but producing only 13% of the gold. These estimates have been interpolated using (i) measurements and detailed observations at more than forty ASGM operations surveyed in five different regencies; (ii) numerous interviews with iv miners, gold shops owners and officials across these regencies; and (iii) mapping of ASGM operations using satellite imagery. Hydraulic mining methods mobilize enormous volumes of sediment and native sediment‐bound mercury. Sediment and mercury fluxes associated with ASGM activities were estimated based on a river sediment sampling campaign carried out in conjunction with the ASGM survey, and on subsequent modelling of river sediment transport. On streams and tributaries, mining activities increased sediment transport by factors between 100 and 1500, resulting in a net doubling of sediment loads on large first order river channels, on which the effects of mining are diluted in space and time by channels without mining. Particulate mercury flux sampled on six of Central Kalimantan’s largest river channels averaged 60ng/L ±33%, a high figure relative to most global rivers, despite average suspended sediment concentrations of only 75mg/L ±58%. Based on a hydrological and sediment transport model, 19.4 tonnes of mercury (±30%) transits these river systems annually, dominantly transported as suspended sediment load (95%), with the remaining 5% transported as bedload. Acute mercury exposure by inhalation during the burning of mercury‐gold amalgam represents an important health concern at ASGM camps and gold shops. In relation to mercury, sector improvements should focus on eradicating whole ore amalgamation, and open burning of amalgam. Eliminating whole ore amalgamation requires technological improvements at the gold liberation (crushing and milling) and concentration stages of ore processing. Elimination of open‐air burning can be achieved through education, and the use of retorts, fumehoods, and mercury re‐activation cells– each of these basic technologies provide mercury users with economic incentives by reducing mercury consumption. v Table of Contents Supervisory Committee ................................................................................................ ii Abstract ....................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents .......................................................................................................... v List of Tables ................................................................................................................ ix List of Figures ................................................................................................................ x List of Photography Panels ........................................................................................... xi Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................... xiv Chapter 1. Background.................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1 1.1.1 Overview ......................................................................................................... 1 1.1.2 Layout .............................................................................................................. 1 1.1.3 Study Approach ............................................................................................... 2 1.2 Background Material .......................................................................................... 3 1.2.1 ASGM in Central Kalimantan .......................................................................... 3 1.2.2 Use of Mercury in gold and silver mining ....................................................... 3 1.2.3 Gold Extraction with Cyanide ......................................................................... 5 1.2.4 ASGM and Sediments ..................................................................................... 6 1.2.5 Elemental Mercury ......................................................................................... 7 1.2.6 Mercury Geochemistry ................................................................................... 8 1.2.7 Mercury and Health ...................................................................................... 10 1.2.8 Methyl‐mercury ............................................................................................ 12 1.2.9 Biomagnification and Toxicity ....................................................................... 14 1.2.10 Research on ASGM and Mercury in the Tropics ........................................... 15 1.3 Study Area ......................................................................................................... 16 1.3.1 Physical Geography of Central Kalimantan ................................................... 16 1.3.2 Administrative Setting .................................................................................. 19 vi 1.3.3 Land Use ........................................................................................................ 21 1.3.4 Geology of Borneo ........................................................................................ 21 1.3.5 Gold Deposits of Central Kalimantan ............................................................ 23 1.4 Erosion and Sediment Transport in Borneo ..................................................... 26 1.4.1 Sediment Removal
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