Board of Trustees

Felipe B. Miranda Chairperson (politicaIScience) .Nestor N. Pilar Vice-Chairperson (Public Adrninistration) Carmelita N. Ericta Treasurer (Statistics)

Members

NestorT.Castro ElenaLSamonte (Anthropology) (Psychology)

JaimeL.Ca~atoy StellaP.Go (Communication) (Sociology) ZeldaC.Zablan AonabelleeC.Singzoo (Demography) (Social Work) FelipeM.MedaIla EduardoT.Gonzalez (Econotnics) (Associate Members) Meliton B. Juanico AuroraE. Perez (Geography) (Associate Members) OscarLL Evangelista JoseN.Eodriga (History) Ex-officio EdilbertaC.Bala Virginia A. Miralao (Linguistics) Secretary Editorial

e are pleased to feature in this issue four articles contributed by colleagues to Social Science Information in the last quarter of 1997. Two are complementary articles on WASEAN-China Relations. The first of these, Dr. Lu Jianren's "At the Turn of the Century: China's Foreign Strategy Toward ASEAN:' tackles ASEAN-Chinese relations from China's perspective; while the other prepared by Undersecretary Rodolfo Severino, Jr. of the Department of Foreign Affairs and titled "The Relations between the ASEAN and China: Converging and Diverging Interests" discusses ASEAN's own views and evolving foreign relations strategies towards China. Both papers were presented at separate lectures sponsored by the Philippine-China Development Resource Center (PCDRC-for Dr. Lu'slecture) and the Philippine Association for Chinese Studies (PACS-for Undersecretary Severino's lecture): Both PCDRC and PACS are PSSC Associate Members. Dr. Lu who is a Professor and Assistant Director of the Institute of Asia-Pacific Studies of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences visited the Philippines earlier as an exchange scholar of PSSC, while his most recent visit in December 1997 was on the invitation ofPCDRC. The symposium on China and her relations with ASEAN which featured Undersecretary Severino's paper and held on 13 November 1997 was PACS' contribution to the PSSC Lecture Series Program.

The third article was also prepared for a lecture by Dr. Walden Bello on the largely unforeseen currency crisis that hit Southeast Asian countries in July 1997. He argues in his article, "Needed: A Strategy to Seriously Address the Financial Crisis," that the crisis owes to the model of development embraced by Asian countries in recent decades but which made their economies too dependent on huge infusions of foreign capital. To reverse the currency crisis, Dr. Bello proposes more emphasis on the development of domestic economies, particularly agriculture and local manufacturing. Dr. Bello is Professor of Sociology and Public Administration at the University of the Philippines-Diliman, and Co-Director of Focus on the Global South based at Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok.

The fourth article was contributed by Dr. Michael A. Costello and is similarly based on a lecture delivered by him at a Conference on MultidisciplinaryResearch in Region X. Dr. Costello's article titled "Look Before YouLeap: Some Reflections on Hypothesis Formulation in the Social Sciences" reviews the processes entailed in hypothesis-formulation which appear to have been reduced over time to rather "mechanistic" steps or procedures. To counter this tendency, Dr. Costello proposes useful guidelines for identifying research problems and for constructing thoughtful and appropriate research hypothesis/hypotheses. Dr. Costello gave this article to Social Science Information in late 1997 and we deeply regret that this issue is being released only after his untimely passing on 2 February 1998. Dr. Costello leaves behind him many fruitful years of teaching and advising students and of furthering social science research both nationally • and in Mindanao. He was Professor of Sociology and Demography at Xavier University in Cagayan de Oro City. From 1992 to 1996, he served as Director of the University's Research Institute for Mindanao Culture (RIMCU), also an Associate Member of PSSC. Even when heavily loaded with his own teaching and research assignments, Dr. Costello conscientiously contributed his time to furthering social science organizations. He was an active member of both the Philippine Population Association (PPA) and the Philippine Sociological Society (PSS) ~~;~~~ s:~:~ i~o~l:;;: ~?cta~:re~~~t various times. In bidding him farewell, we also give our .f,i

This issue also carries the organizational profiles offour PSSC Associate Members, namely the American Studies Association of the Philippines (ASAP), Philippine Association of Chinese Studies (PA.CS), and U.P. School of Urban and Regional Planning (SURP) based in Metro Manila; and the Peter Gowing Memorial Research Center in Marawi City.

To update the annotation of graduate theses/dissertations completed with assistance from PSSC'sResearch AwardProgram, the abstracts of S9 theses/dissertations successfully defended between 1990 to 1997 are also included in this issue. We hope that these abstracts will serve as useful reference to students and scholars engaged in Philippine studies. Cl

4 Vol. 25 No. 2 July-December 1997 ..t. CONTENTS

1I~~~~l~l~ili~1 Lu Jianren At the Thrn of the Century: China's Foreign Strategy Toward RodolfoSeverino,Jr. The Relations between the ASEAN and China: Converging and Diverging Interests 16 • WaldenBello Needed: A Strategy to Seriously Address the Financial Crisis 21 • MichaelA. Costello Look Before You Leap: Some Reflections OnHypothesis Formulation in the Social Sciences 26

American Studies Association of the Philippines 37 38 • Philippine Association for Chinese Studies 39 • Schoolof Urban and Regional Planning-U.P. Dillman 41

PSSC Nominees Win Social Science Awards 43 • Annual Conferences ofPSSC 44 • Regional Social Science Conferences 45 • Development of General Education Courses in the Social Sciences 45 • Announcements of Forthcoming Events 46

47

50

THEPSSC SOCIALSCIENCEINFORMATION

The PSSC Social Science Information is published twice a year by the Secretarist, Philippine Social Science Council (PSSC), with offices at PSSCenter, Commonwealth Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City, U.P. Post Office Box 205, Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines. The PSSC Social Science Information primarily seeks to serve as a clearing house for the exchange of information, documentation, research activities, and news on people involved in the social sciences. Since 1973,ithaaendeavoredto be a regular and comprehensive inventoryofinformation and acstalyatof discussions. The viewscxpressed by the authors of articles in thispubJication do not necessarily reflect the policies of the Philippine Social Science Council. Editorial VirginiaA. Miralao, Lorna P. Makil, Elvira S. Angeles, Faith Anemone O. Estrella

Circulatfon: Milagros J. Tolentino,Ernesto S. Acosta

Proper acknowledgementshould be given to quotes taken from this publication. I~

AttheTumof the Century: China's Foreign Strategy Toward ASEAN·

Lu Uanren

LTheStarting and FocalPointof China's high per capita GNP are genuine economic ForeignStrategy powers, as for example the G-7 members. Therefore, a one-sided conclusion will be th The 20 century is coming to an end, and drawn from China's economic scale when the first light of the new century has appeared disregarding its per capita GNP. In terms of at tlhe horizon. At the turn of this century, gross economic scale, China might be ranked China's rise has attracted worldwide attention. among the economic powers; but calculated by World media reports, related articles and the composite indices, China is not an specialized works on China might fill a house economic power. Seventy percent of China's to the rafters. Different countries observe the population, are still rural residents; its rise of this giant eastern dragon with different industrialization and modernization are yet to psychology. Some international economic be accomplished; 60 million Chinese still live institutions overestimate China's economic in poverty; and despite the largely raised living development, saying China has 'surpassed standard, China still lags behind developed Japan in economic scale and will surpass the countries. Hence, before China genuinely U.S. in the 21st century. On this account, some becomes one of the world's economic powers, people spread the theory of a "China threat" it stillhas at least half a century or even a whole with ulterior motives, describing China as a century to go. threatening element to the Asia-Pacific and to world security. At the 15th Communist Party of China (CPC) Congress convened not long ago, The fact is that China is far from being an General Secretary Jiang Zemin estimated in his economic power. Although since the beginning speech that, only when modernization is of reform in the early 1980s, fast economic realized in the mid-Zl" century, i.e., the 100th development, and lasting high growth through anniversary of the founding of the People's the 1990s has elevated China's ranking in the Republic of China (2049), will China become world, its per capita GNP remains low. In a prosperous, strong, democratic and culturally 1996, China's GNP was RMB 6,770 billion advanced country,' He also clarified that China yuan, or US$825.6 billion; but divided by 1.2 is still in the primary stage of socialism and billion people, it has only US$688 for every this stage usually lasts at least one hundred person, ranking China near the end of nations. years, which is just the time China needs to The economic scale of a nation is only a get rid of its under-developed situation and reflection of the quantity ofits production and bring modernization into reality. For this labor, whereas the per capita GNP is an reason, during the entire primary stage, China indication of its life quality and income level. must take the development of social productive Onlynations with both big economic scales and forces as its fundamental task and give priority to economic construction." Beyond doubt, European nations are the world's most China's policies, either internal or external, will advanced nations in economy, science and take this as a starting point. technology; while China could not proceed with the construction of modernization without At the present stage, China's internal policy capital and technology. Japan, the US and is directed at deepening economic reform while Europe are China's major trade partners sustainiing a stable political environment and respectively ranking as its first, second and social order. The country's foreign policy is fourth largest trade partners in 1996. In 1996, oriented towards creating a durable, peaceful China's trade volume with these three trade international environment, a good surrounding partners represented 49 percent of China's total environment in particular, so as to guarantee trade volume. Russia is China's biggest the smooth construction of modernization. This neighbor who shares with China a border line point was made clear in General Secretary Jiang of 4,300 km. It is China's eighth largest trade Zemin's speech.' partner and a major country ·from which China gets its technology. In sum, China in the coming new century will face the fundamental challenge of In China's foreign strategy, Sino-U.S. developing productive forces and realizing relations rate as the most important. America, modernization. To transform China into a real the sole superpower in to day's world, leads in economic power, Chinaneeds durable, peaceful economic, military, scientific and technological international environment. The goal of China's strength. China is the world's largest foreign policy is to create such an environment. developing country, and a rising Eastern In this effort, China needs to develop sound country with a socialist system. Against a relations with countries all over the world, background where economies are becoming especially the big powers and its neighboring increasingly interdependent globally, economic countries. This is not an expediant measure, and trade relations are expanding rapidly but China's long-term foreign policy and the between China and the U.S. who need each starting point of its foreign strategy. other in many aspects. China needs the U.S. for capital, technology and a market; and the The post-Cold War era has seen the world American people need Chinese products in develop toward multipolarization. At the turn their daily life. As regards international affairs, of the century, this trend has become clearer. a peaceful and stable new international order Globally, the US, Japan, EU nations, Russia cannot be established without the cooperation and China are all big powers, making up the of both the U.S. and China, because the major elements of the multipolar framework. cooperation between these two countries is In the case of the Asia-Pacific region, the US, not only between two big powers but also China, Japan and ASEAN constitute the major between two social systems representing elements of the multipolar framework. While Western and Eastern civilizations. Either out in Northeast Asia, Russia is the country of consideration for defending a durable, exerting major influence. Against such an peaceful international environment or international background, the emphasis of accelerating economic construction, China China's foreign strategy is to develop sound needs to maintain a sound relationship with the relations with every "polar" and all U.S.. Of course, this relationship must be based surrounding neighbors. on mutual respect, mutual non-interference into each other's internal affairs, and complete It is of great importance that China handles equality. Of late, during President Jiang appropriately its relations with the US, Zemin's visit to the U.S., the two sides reached Japan, Europe and Russia. The US, Japan and a consensus on establishing a "constructive strategic partnership," thus ushering Sino-U.S. and ranks the fourth in the world, only after relations into a new stage. the U.S., Germany and Japan."

Developing good-neighborly relations with Under the world t.endency of economic surrounding nations is another emphasis of regionalization and grouping, ASEAN is China's foreign strategy, and it is of equal stepping up its pace of building a free trade importance as conducting sound relations with area. "ASEAN Free Trade Area" or MTA big powers. Surrounding countries include not will become the most important trade group only China's 15 bordering countries but also in East Asia, serving to further boost the other neighboring countries, of which ASEAN economic development of ASEAN members are the most important ones. countries.

II. the PosItioning of ASEAN In China's Foreign Southeast Asia is a region with the highest Strategy economic growth rate in the world. Although the economic growth of ASEAN countries has Due to ASEAN's increasingly important been affected by recent monetary turbulence, role in the Asia-Pacific and in world affairs, it from a long-term perspective, economic occupies a very important position in China's development in this region will remain faster foreign strategy. than other regions of the world.

Thirty years have passed since ASEAN's ASEAN not only rises rapidly economic­ inception and its membershiphas enlarged from ally, but positively advocates participating in five countries to nine. Sooner or later, it will regional and international affairs and speaking take in Cambodia to cover the entire Southeast with one voice. This is an indication that Asia. Even in the present scale, the nine ASEAN is an important polar in the Asia­ ASEAN states cover 470 million people and Pacific region. 4.3 million square kilometers of land, constituting a sub-regional organization with ASEAN initiated and led the formation of a relatively big population. As a comparison, the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), now a the 15 EU countries cover a population of multi-lateral security forum in the Asia-Pacific merely 360 million. region which is composed of21 states including such big powers as the U.S., Japan, EU Viewed from an economic scale, the gross members, Russia, China and India, plays an GDP of the 9 ASEAN members has reached active role in promoting mutual understanding US$I,600 billion in total if calculated by PPP and enhancing security dialogue between the (parity purchasing power). That is to say, Asia-Pacific nations. ASEAN's economic scale is tantamount to 60 percent of that of Japan, the second largest ASEAN likewise initiated the Asia-Europe economic power of the world, whose GDP is Meeting (ASEM) and has made it an important US$2,660 billion." bridge between East Asia and the EU, serving to enhance all-round cooperation between them Viewed from the scale of foreign trade, the and helping the 25 Asian and European commodity trade volume of the 9 ASEAN countries to build up their new-type partnership members totaled US$636.6 billion in 1995, oriented toward the new century. which is about 10 times that of India, or 82 percent of Japan's trade volume of the same ASEAN also sponsored the Non-official year (USS779 billion). It has surpassed such East Asian Summit meant to reinforce Western countries as France, the UK and Italy cooperation between the nine ASEAN

,Jil countries and China, Japan and the Republic potential of expanding this trade in the future. of Korea in an all-round way. Despite their competition nnthe export market, they enjoy more opportunities of cooperation ASEAN participates in Asia-Pacific in the economic field. Economic Conference activities positively and assumes an independent role in it. Geo-politically, China's neighbors Russia in the north, Japan in the east and India in the ASEAN pursues a strategy of balancing south, are all big powers. Only the countries between big powers namely, elevating China in the southeast are mid-and-small-sized, and Russia to dialogue nations, admitting India posing no threat to China. ASEAN is not a as dialogue partner and seeking to keep rivalry,nor an enemy.It is China's natural friend balanced relations with China, the U.S. and and partner with whom China may conduct Japan. In so doing, ASEAN has raised its long-term cooperation, and a major protective prestige in regional affairs. screen for a stable surrounding environment. And this is the basic positioning of ASEAN in ASEAN also spearheaded some political China's foreign strategy, on which all proposals, among them buildingthe "Southeast Chinese foreign policies toward ASEAN are Asia Nuclear-Free Area" and the "Southeast based, and on which, Sino-ASEAN relations Asian Area of Peace, Freedom and Neutrality". will be built.

III short, today's "greater ASEAN" has III. HowChinaViewsthe -Creater ASEAN- developed to be completely not the one of the and the BasicPrlndples In Its Foreign past. It has become a polar of force not to be Strategy toward ASEAN neglected in the Asia-Pacific region, either economically or in international politics. For To ASEAN's rise and expansion, China has China, the "greater ASEAN" as a whole is a always lent understanding and support. When big power as well as a neighbor. Hence, its ASEAN admitted Viet Nam in 1995, the position in China's foreign strategy is naturally Western media agitated with ulterior purposes unusual. that it was targeted at China. And when ASEAN took in Myanmar and Laos in 1997, More importantly, China and ASEAN are they once again agitated that, by so doing, both Asian developing countries who share ASEAN isto get rid of China's influence. Some something in common as far as their cultural people also expect that the rising "greater backgrounds are concerned, and thus share a ASEAN' will become antagonistic to China. strong sense of identification. On many But China does not perceive things like that. problems such as social values, human rights, views on democracy and international issues, China observes that Viet Nam's admission they share identical views and are cooperative to ASEAN marks the end of prolonged and supportive of each other. And they jointly confrontations and turbulence in Southeast resist hegemonism and power politics. Asia. China believes that mutual understanding Evidently, ASEAN is an indispensable and cooperation between/among Southeast cooperative partner of China. Asian countries will benefit regional peace and stability and will render China a stable Gee-economically, China and ASEAN, as surrounding environment, a situation which is near neighbors, strongly complement each very favorable to China. China and Viet Nam other in resources, technology and capital. have ended their disagreement and restored a ASEAN has been China's fifth largest trading normal relationship. The two countries share partner and still possesses an enormous many commonalities in social system and

10 :~

ideology and are devoting efforts to rebuilding Considering that the starting point of a good- neighborly relationship. Sino-Viet Nam China's foreign strategy is to build a durable confrontation not only destroyed bilateral and peaceful international environment, a relations but also jeopardized regional sound surrounding environment in particular, stabilization and did no good to the "greater and with ASEAN's important position in ASEAN." About this point, ASEAN is very China's foreign strategy and China's above clear, observation of ASEAN's rise in mind, the author's opinion is that, in China's foreign China and Myanmar have enjoyed a good­ strategy toward ASEAN, the basic principles neighborly relationship for a long time. China should be to "eliminate misgivings and enhance does not interfere in Myanmar's internal affairs trust; expand consensus and reinforce and opposes that Western countries impose cooperation; promote unity and seek common sanctions on Myanmar in the name of "human development." rights." China appreciates and supports ASfEAN's admitting Myanmar against the Firstly, eliminate misgivings and enhance pressure exerted by Western countries. Viet trust. ASEAN regards China as a giant right Nam, Myanmar and Cambodia's joining or by its side and has a sense of insecurity intention to join ASEAN means ASEAN will psychologically. It worries that China's military become a bordering neighbor of China, and that strength will grow along with its rapid Simo-ASEAN relations will be even closer. economic development, posing a compre­ After its expansion of membership, ASEAN hensive threat to it. The "China threat" theory becomes one of China's neighboring countries spread by the West has its market in ASEAN. in !thereal sense of the word, instead of only a Additionally, it is not hard to understand that near neighbor. China perceives ASEAN as a the disputes on the South China Sea issue also group mainly composed of mid-and-small-sized make ASEAN harbor some misgivings to developing countries. Instead of targetting China. This demands that China does some China, the main purpose of its expansion is to work to iron out the misgivings and mis­ enhance its own strength. Although ASEAN understanding. Actually, over these recent has some misgivings toward China, this will years, China has spared no efforts in building not develop into an "anti-China alliance" as up mutual trust. For example, China supports expected by some people, either viewed from the "ASEAN Regional Forum" and gives full its motive or from its strength. This is indicated affirmation to the dominant role of ASEAN bf the post-Cold War political, economic and countries in the forum. With regard of military situation in the East Asian area. The proposals raised by the forum, such as to rise of the "greater ASEAN' is conducive to develop preventive diplomacy and establish boosting the multipolarization drive in the Asia­ trust measures, China has carried these out very Pacific region, striking a balance between positively. The transparency of China's policy regional forces and maintaining stability in the on national defence also improved gradually. region, And for ASEAN to play a balancing The "white paper on arms control" has been role in Sino-US-Japanese relations is issued. Lately, China decided to cut 5 million conducive to the stability of this triangle. from its army. All these will help to dispel Meanwhile, as a new checking force, the misgivings and enhance mutual trust. In the "greater ASEAN' will constrain the Western meantime, China wishes it could be understood powers' hegemonic practice in the Asia-Pacific by ASEAN countries that China's enhancement region, and will thus help reduce the pressure of national defence strength is completely for on China's diplomacy and ameliorate China's a defensive purpose. China's defence surrounding environment. expenditure is far below those of other big

11 powers land will constitute no threat to any The two sides have common interests other country. Most importantly, China needs withrespectto regionalsecurity. If'China a peaceful International environment. To is jeopardized by Japan or Americaor if conduct military threat is completely splitting happens in China, ASEAN incompatible with China's foreign policy of would not feel any safety. Therefore, peace. ASEAN cherishes an understanding and sympathy for China's criticisms on the Undoubtedly, to eliminate misgivings and . US-Japanese guidelines on Defensive build up trust will be a long-range process Cooperation. To China's stand of which demands cooperation from both sides. opposingTaiwanindependence,ASEAN For its part, China is availingofa multitude of also demonstrates a supportive attitude. diplomatic channels and mechanisms to promote this process. These identical views and common interests lay an important foundation for the two sides Secondly, expand consensus and to develop good-neighborly partnership. China reinforce cooperation. Both China and treasures its consensus with ASEAN countries ASEAN are Asian developing countries. At the and will do its utmost to expand the consensus turn of the century, both of them shoulder the and highlight the commonality so as to historical undertaking of developing their consolidate the foundation for bilateral economies and proceeding toward moderni­ relations. zation. In regional and world affairs, China and ASEAN share many identical views and At the same time, on the basis of expanded common interests. For example: consensus, China will further reinforce its cooperation with ASEAN in an all-round way. Both of them endeavor to promote This kind of cooperation will be long-range, regional and world peace, resist equal and mutual beneficial cooperation which hegemonisrn,defendnationalstabilityand is of strategic significance. Through such underline economic construction; cooperation, the two sides will forge real good­ neighborly partnership. The so-called all-round Both of them observe the principle of cooperation refers to: firstly, multi-areas non-interference into the internal affairs cooperation, including exchange, coordination of other countries; and cooperation between the two sides in all areas of politics, economy and trade, Both of them advocate enhancing finance, industry and business, science and dialogue, promoting trust and solving technology, culture and education, poverty­ inter-state disputes in a peacefulway; alleviation, security, etc.; secondly, multi-tier cooperation, including that between their Both of them devote efforts to central governments, local governments and safeguarding the rights and interests of non-governmental organizations; thirdly, developing countries and jointly cooperation in regional and international promoting equal and mutuallybeneficial affairs, e.g., mutual support and cooperation cooperation in regionaland international in the ARF, ASEM, APEC and the UN, and affairs; sub-regional economic cooperation, e.g., the joint development in the Lancang-Mekong The two sides shareidenticalviewsinthe' River area and the construction of the Pan-Asia ideological field, e.g., on values, railway network; fourthly, cooperation in democracy and human rights, etc.; dealing with transnational issues of common concern, e.g., environment protection, common development in the multipolar world. transnationally organized maritime security, Unity is the prerequisite for common. illegal immigration, and financial crisis, etc.. development. Conflict and confrontation on any issue between the two sides will benefit It is encouraging that over the past several neither China nor ASEAN, but only those not years, several channels of cooperation and with the best intentions. Therefore, both China exchange have been established, which include and ASEAN ought to do what they can to avert high-level (summit) reciprocal visits, dialogues such things happening. between foreign ministers, political consulta­ tions between senior officials, ARF and other The above are the basic principles in "first track" exchanges as well as all kinds of Chinese foreign strategy toward ASEAN. By non-governmental "second-track" exchanges. carrying out these principles, China and In addition, related mechanisms are set up one ASEAN will build up a good-neighborly after the other-the China-ASEAN Joint partnership oriented toward the 21st century, Committee on Economy and Trade, the China­ and this will be a huge contribution to peace, ASEAN Joint Committee on Science and stability and development in the Asia-Pacific Technology, the Beijing Commission and the region. China-ASEAN Joint Committee on Coope­ ration, among others. On the informal ASEAN IV. Disputeson South ChinaSea summit scheduled in December 1997, China and China'sStand and ASEAN will sign a statement on establishing a good-neighborly partnership, It is obvious that between China and some thus pushing forward their cooperation into the ASEAN countries there exists disputes on the 21st century. This will undoubtedly usher sovereignty over the Nansha Islands. This is a Sino-ASEAN relations into a fresh stage of problem left over from history which does not development. lend itself to quick and easy solutions. It has adversely affected the relations between China Thirdly, promote unity and seek common and concerned ASEAN countries, but basically, development China and ASEAN share many the above-stated principles in China's foreign consensus, but there inevitably exist some strategy toward ASEAN will not be affected. divergencies between them. For China's part, its guideline is to expand consensus, surmount Nansha Islands and its near water areas divergencies and promote unity. In regional and are part of China's territory from ancient international affairs, Asian developing nations times. During a long period in history, the often meet pressure from developed nations in international community did not express any the areas of human rights, democracy, trade, different opinions on this. Some 198 map labor, environment and other problems. Under collections and authorized encyclopedias such circumstances, for China and ASEAN to issued by major countries before the 1970s give" mutual understanding and support and show clearly that Nansha Islands and the enhance their unity is of increasing importance surrounding waters are part of China's for the elevation of the international status of territory. developing nations and the establishment of a new international order. The disputes began in the 1970s when it was verified that the Nansha Islands are rich in Development is a common task facing both oil and natural gas. And because the Nansha China and ASEAN. The purpose for China Islands are an important sea passageway linking and ASEAN to enhance their unity is to seek the Pacific and Indian Oceans as well as East Asia .and Oceania, the disputes aroused islands back by force; another is to set aside concerns among related big powers and the the question of sovereignty and develop them international community. jointly. By so doingwe can make the problems that have piled up over the years disappear. As early as in the 1950s, the government This question will have to be settled sooner or of the People's Republic of China has issued later. There are many international disputes of announcements on different occasions that this kind. We, Chinese stand for peace and wish China has legal sovereignty over the Nansha to settle all disputes by peaceful means." And Islands and will allow no other country to he also made it plain that "peaceful means to infringe on this. Unfortunately, from the early develop jointly,"? 1970s to the early 1990s, most of the islands have been occupied successively by the In 1989, when talking about the ways of Philippines, Viet Nam and Malaysia. To date, solving the disputes between China and Viet Nam has occupied 27 islands; the Japan on the sovereignty over the Diaoyu Philippines, eight; and Malaysia, three; while Island, Mr. Deng Xiaoping said: "The problem Brunei even claimed its sovereignty over the could be shelved and if our generation could Nantong Island. Some occupying nations not solve it, the next generation would be station armed forces, construct defence and wiser and would eventually find a way to do purchase warships on islands. Resultantly, so. To settle similar disputes, we proposed tensions have emerged on the South China Sea later that such place be exploited jointly." for a number of times. Needless to say, "similar disputes" mentioned here include Nansha disputes. Nansha disputes are complex international disputes. Apart from the disputing parties The present Chinese leaders have inherited some major powers interfere in the back­ this idea from Mr. Deng Xiaoping. When ground, and over ten international oil visiting Malaysia in August 1997, Premier Li companies are involved in the exploration of Peng said: "On Nansha problem, there exist Nansha's oil and natural gas resources. divergencies between China and some ASEAN countries. The policy of the Chinese When the Chinese government re-stressed government is to shelve disputes and develop its sovereignty over the Nansha Islands and the jointly, and in accordance with the related surrounding waters, it set forth a principle of internatiorial law of the sea, find proper solving disputes by peaceful means so as to solution through peaceful and friendly ease the tension on the South China Sea. And consultation. The questions which could not if the disputes could not be settled now, they be solved for the time being might be set aside might be set aside so as to conduct joint for our next generation to solve."? development. "Set aside disputes and develop jointly" is China's most fundamental stand in In short, the basic stand of the Chinese seeking peaceful solution to the Nansha government on the Nansha disputes consists problem. This stand has been stressed time and of the following five points: first, Nansha again by the late Mr. Deng Xiaoping. He Islands and the surrounding waters have been pointed out in 1984 that: "World maps have part of China's territory since ancient times and always shown the Nansha Islands as part of the Chinese government has sovereignty China. Now one of the islands is occupied by over them; second, the Chinese government Taiwan, while others are occupied by the advocates settling the Nansha disputes by Philippines, Viet Nam or Malaysia. What is to peaceful means; third, if the disputes on be done? One alternative is to take all these sovereignty cannot be solved for the time

14 "i

being.. they might be set aside so as to develop was officially reached in 1979, but did not go jointly; fourth, the Chinese government into effect until 23 years later, in 1994. A wishes to consult and negotiate with other similar agreement also cost Australia and sides of the disputes in accordance with the Indonesia 20 years. And even these two basic principles and legal system cherished in agreements which cost the time of a whole international law and the law of the sea generation had to avert the disputes on inclusive of "The UN Maritime Convention"; sovereignty. fifth, if our generation cannot solve the problem, we could bequeath it to our next Generally speaking, the Nansha disputes generation. will not retard China and ASEAN's estab­ lishment of good-neighborly partnership, At present, the Chinese government is because they share common interests which are positively seeking ways to settle the Nansha of greater importance than the territorial problem. In the Asia-Pacific, there have been disputes. It is obvious that, to play down the successful precedents of jointly developing disputes, maintain the present situation and disputed areas, but these usually entail a long seek joint development is not only beneficial time. For example, Thailand and Malaysia to all sides of the disputes but also to the have begun consultations on jointly deve­ peace, stability and prosperity on the South loping natural gas resources on their China Sea as well as the Asia-Pacific region disputed waters since 1971. An agreement at large. C

Notes

·Paper prepared for a lecture sponsored by 3i.d., p. 45. the Philippine-China Development Resource "Statistics from "A SEAN: A Major Step Genter (PCDRC) on 9 December 1997 in toward Stability," an article carried on "The Manila. The author is Professor and Assistant Yomiurio Shimbbunn," April 7, 1997, by Director, Institute of Asia-Pacific Studies of Moordin Soopee, Director of the Malaysian the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences in Institute ofInternational Strategy. Beijing and was a visiting exchange scholar qf 5According to the calculation in Asian PSSC in 1993. PCDRC, a PSSC Associate Member hosted Dr. Lu's recent visit to Manila Development Outlook 1996 and 1997." in December 1997. 6C'SelectedWorks ofDeng Xiaoping," Vol. Ill, pp. "The Fifteenth National Congress of the 87-88. Communist Party of China (Document 'i.d., p. 88. Collection)," People's Publishing House, 8i.d., p. 293. September 1997, p.4 go'People's Daily", Aug. 27, 1997. 2i.d., p.16to 17.

15 The Relations between theASEAN and China: Converging and Diverging Interests-

Undersecretary Rodolfo Severino, Jr.

thank the Philippine Association for It was supported by China in its war against Chinese Studies and the Philippine Social the United States and then fought a brief war Science Council for invitingme to take part with China at their common border and a losing I skirmish with Chinese forces in the Spratlys. in this symposium on China and her relations with the ASEAN. Taken in its totality, there Brunei Darussalam's relations with China have can be no more important subject than this in been minimal. terms of our foreign policy and foreign relations. Since I certainly cannot do justice to In the 1950s and the 1960s, Malaysia, the this weighty and important topic, I am glad to Philippines and Thailand had serious security have such an eminent group of commentators concerns about China, which encouraged and to help me explore it. supported Communist insurgencies in those countries. Singapore had the same fear. As a Already,I can thank Aileen Baviera and her reaction, the Philippines and Thailand sought shop at the Foreign Service Institute for helping shelter in SEATO and in their respective me with the data, as did the people at the Office alliances with the United States; and :Malaysia of ASEAN Affairs in the Department of and Singapore had British and Australian Foreign Affairs. I thank them, too. support. Indonesia tried to handle China through non-alignment and friendly gestures There are two ways of looking at this toward that northern neighbor. However, subject. The first is to view it in terms of the Chinese-Indonesian relations hit a low point relations between China and individualASEAN with the coup attempt of 1965, a plot traced countries. The second is to examine the to Beijing, with the Indonesian army then relations between China and ASEAN as a moving against suspected Communist group. sympathizers and the Chinese in general. . Diplomatic relations were suspended and were I will focus on the second perspective. But restored only in 1990. as background to the ASEAN-China relationship, and in order to understand it Diplomatic Shifts better, we should begin with China's relations with individual ASEAN members. By the early 1970s, China had put the worst excesses of the Cultural Revolution I will restrict the discussion of those behind her, especiallythose aimed at foreigners relations to the original five members of and at other countries. Beijing had begun a ASEAN. Laos and Myanmar are too new. smiling diplomatic offensive with an eye on Vietnam is a relatively new member and has China's seat in the United Nations, which was had a different kind of relationship with China. finallyturned over to the People's Republic by

16 a vote of the General Assembly in 1971. This in October 1990 and finally by Brunei was preceded and followed by a wave of Darussalam in September 1991, completing the countries in Europe, Latin America, Africa and individual ASEAN countries' formal relations Asia deciding to recognize the People's with China. Republic as the legitimate government of China. Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand Meanwhile, ASEAN and China had were part of this wave. Malaysia established drawn closer together in regional affairs, diplomatic relations with the People's Republic taking the same side in the Cambodian in May 1974, the Philippines in June 1975, and conflict. As recently as 1988, ASEAN stood Thailand in July 1975. silently by as China used force to expel the Vietnamese troops that occupied the Spratly For Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand, Islands. it was time to deal with their China-related security concerns no longer through hostility Expanding !Relations and with suspicion but through increased contact and improved relations. Relations of Overall relations thus continued to expand. the three countries with China expanded Trade figures are a useful indicator. Total trade progressively, so that, for each of them, the between China and the six ASEAN countries relationship with China became one of the most rose from US$4,5 billion in 1987 to US$6.6 important of its relationships with the rest of billion in 1989 and US$6.9 billionin 1990, and the world. Trade expanded, with the two sides then rocketed to US$18.44 billion in 1995 and flaunting their intention to increase trade to more than US$20 billion in 1996. Over the further through highly publicized annual trade same period, ASEAN investments in China­ protocols. Similarly, science and technology mainly from Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and cultural agreements flourished as did and Thailand-swelled from US$819.64 "executive programs" and the visits and events millionin 1987 to US$2.65 billionin 1995, with that took place pursuant to those agreements Singapore investing heavily in and developing and programs. Certainly, China had become entire industrial estates. the major factor in the three countries' calculations of their national and regional This was made possible partly by the security interests. opening of China's economy to the world in general and partly by deliberate Chinese efforts Singapore, too, did. much business with to cultivate ties with her southern neighbors. China. Although Singapore vowed to be the Whatever the reason, the expansion in last ASEAN country to establish diplomatic economic relations brought China and ASEAN relations with China «in fact, Brunei closer together. The texture of the entire Darussalam was the last), China did maintain relationship became denser, with science and a large official "commercial" presence in technology and culture heavily weighted with Singapore, and Singapore's leaders and political content. Overtly political were the businessmen visited China with increasing officialexchanges at all levels,with Chinabeing frequency. one of the first countries visited by every new ASEAN leader. Although Indonesia and Indonesia continued to maintain her Malaysia continued to be wary of contacts distance from China, as she nursed the wounds made by Chinese-Indonesians and Chinese­ of 1965. Gradually, however, Indonesian­ Malaysians with China, ethnic Chinese in Chinese relations improved, with Indonesia re­ Southeast Asia became a vital link between establishing diplomatic relations with China in China and ASEAN, as well as among the August 1990, followed quickly by Singapore Southeast Asian countries themselves.

17 In the light of China's rapidly expanding security configuration in East Asia. In 1993 ties with each ASEAN country,and her explicit in Singapore, the senior officials of ASEAN policy of opening up and reaching out, and its dialogue partners-the so-called PMC particularly to her neighbors, clearly the next (Post-Ministerial Conferences) SoM (senior stage in the relationship was the forging of officials meetingj-e-convened to discuss Formal and highly visible relations between regional security. It became immediately China and ASEAN as a group and not only as apparent that it was absurd to be discussing individual states. regionalsecurity without the presence of China - and Russia. Thus was born the ASEAN The first step was the Chinese Foreign RegionalForum (ARF), consisting, in addition Minister's attendance at the opening and to ASEAN members, of countries which closiag ceremonies of the annual ASEAN happened at that time to be dialogue partners, Ministerial Meeting in 1991 as "guest of the observers (papua New Guinea, Vietnam and host," Malaysia. The next was his participation Laos) and consultative partners (China and in the annual meeting in 1992 as "guest of the Russia). Chairman of the ASEAN Standing Committee," the Philippines, also the host of ARF meets annually,the first time in 1994, the meeting. On that occasion, China, together between the ASEAN Ministerial Meetings and with Russia, became a "consultative partner," the Post-Ministerial Conferences. ARF has a specially minted category in ASEAN's seen the gradual evolution of China's approach external relations. From then on, the Chinese to multilateral discussions of regional-security Foreign Minister met at least twice a year with questions-from delivering set pieces in his ASEAN colleagues-at the ASEAN Chinese via interpreters to more relaxed Ministerial Meeting and on the occasion of the participation, occasionally in English, in the regular sessions of the United Nations General free-wheeling give-and-take that has Assembly in New York. characterized ARF ministerial exchanges. China has participated actively in ARF "inter­ In January 1993, the ASEAN Secretary­ sessional" activities, that is, meetings, General led an ASEAN delegation to Beijing workshops and similar events that take the for the purpose of setting up a Joint place between annual ministerial meetings, Consultative Committee. Instead, the Chinese particularly the Inter-sessional Group on and ASEAN sides decided to set up two Confidence-Building Measures, which China separate committees-theJoint Committee on co-chaired with the Philippines in March Economic and Trade Cooperation and the Joint 1997. These have been useful not only in ~. Committee on Scientific and Technological working out measures for building confi­ Cooperation-whichwere formallyestablished dence and contributing to the charting of at the ASEAN Ministerial Meeting in July ARF's future direction but also in smoking 1994. So far, however, these committees have out differences between China and other been largely symbolic, with the Joint powers, primarily the United States, and Committee on Economic and Trade openly airing them. Cooperation meeting only twice, in August 1995 and in September 1997, and the Joint Sinceitsbeginningin 1990, China also has Committee on Scientific and Technological been taking active part in the workshop Cooperation meeting only in March 1995. series sponsored by Indonesia on managing potential conflict in the South China Sea and EngagIng ChIna its related meetings and projects. Because these are portrayed as "Track II" activities At the same time, ASEAN recognized the with the participation of officials in their need for China to be engaged in the evolving "private capacity," China has been able to 18 expose some of its thinking on the South China the conduct of the relationship. The ICC had Sea that would be expressed with more its first meeting in Beijing in February 1997, circumspection in an official setting. at which it approved three cooperation projects proposed by China-personnel exchange, a PCllltical Consultations workshop on ASEAN-China economic and trade cooperation, and ASEAN-China On the occasion of a senior officials information exchange. The first phase of the preparatory meeting for ARF in Bangkok in personnel exchange took place last month, with 1'994, a proposal, originating with the an ASEAN delegation visiting Beijing and Philippines, for regular ASEAN-China senior holding substantive and practical discussions political consultations was put forward with a broad range of Chinese officials. informally to the leader of the Chinese delegation, who promptly accepted it. Three As other dialogue partners have done, such consultations have taken place-in China has agreed to the establishment of an Hangzhou in 1995, in Bukittinggi in 1996 and ASEAN-China Cooperation Fund, which is in Huangshan in 1997. The consultations to be used for projects approved by the ICC. immediately took on a critical role. Not only are they occasions for senior officials to get to ASEAN has made it a point to engage know one another better and take one another's China through the Mekong Basin Development measure; not only are they forums to exchange Cooperation Project, which ASEAN proposed viewpoints on the state of the region and of in 1995 in anticipation of the admission of the world and of ASEAN-China relations; not Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar into ASEAN. only are they venues for working out measures ASEAN purposely included in the scheme to strengthen those relations. They are also China's Yunnan province, where the Mekong opportunities for ASEAN to send collective originates. China's enthusiasm for its messages to China, and for China to show the involvement is reflected in the impatience of world her close and friendly relations with some Chinese officialsover what they perceive ASEAN and to make clear her positions on as the slow progress of the project. The source issues that are important to her. The Hangzhou of China's enthusiasm is obvious-the meeting, which took place in April 1995, importance of the project for China's ties with presented an opportunity for ASEAN to ASEAN, particularly in the light of the impress upon China its collective disapproval membership of Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar, of and concern over her occupation of Mischief as well as of Thailand and Vietnam, all Mekong Reef, discovered just a month before, and its riparian countries. solidarity over this issue. The Bukittinggi consultations became a forum for ASEAN to Supporting ChIna dispute China's drawing of baselines around the Parecels. The Huangshan meeting was the ASEAN has been generally supportive of occasion for China to push for ajoint statement China's core concerns. All ASEAN members to lay down the principles governing ASEAN­ adhere to a one-China policy, although China relations. occasional-and inevitable-contacts between ASEAN and Taiwan officials have invariably The next 'step in formal ASEAN-China raised low-key objections from China. ASEAN relations was the elevation of China to full members of the United Nations Commission dialogue status at the ASEAN Ministerial on Human Rights have refrained from Meeting in Iuly 1996. As in the case of some supporting anti-China resolutions introduced other dialogue partners, the establishment of by the United States and European countries dialogue relations led to the organization of a at the Commission. ASEAN countries Joint Cooperation Committee (ICC) to oversee unanimously welcomed Hong Kong's return to

,~, 19 Chinese sovereignty. All ASEAN members of Shortly before that, Deng Xiaoping had WII'Qsupport the early admission of China into proposed to then Vice President Salvador that body, although ASEAN members have Laurel, also Secretary of Foreign Affairs, the quietly complained about China's barriers to subsequently famous principle of "shelving their exports. For its part, China has expressed differences, expanding common ground and support for the Southeast Asia Nuclear going for joint development" in the South Weapons-Free Zone Treaty, although it wants China Sea. ASEAN went along for a while to make sure that its accession to the Treaty's and tried to manage the situation, which, of Protocol does not prejudice its claims in the course, remained delicate, by such devices as South China Sea. In any case, among the the Indonesia-sponsored workshops. nuclear-weapon states, China seems to have the least problem with the treaty. However, the discovery of China's occupation of Mischief Reef in March 1995 The steady growth of China's relations with shook ASEAN's complacent assumptions and ASEAN as a group, as well as with individual marked a defining moment in ASEAN's ASEAN members, has made those relations as attitude toward Chinese policies in the South good as relations can be between a giant power China Sea. Mischief Reef demonstrably firmed and smaller neighboring states with which it up ASEAN solidarity on the issue, as has territorial disputes. manifested at the first ASEAN-China senior officials political consultation in Hangzhou. It PDlnts of Contention made ASEAN wary of China's joint­ development proposals in the South China Sea. There have been two major points of It placed even China's ratification of the United contention between China and ASEAN. One Nations convention on the Law of the Sea is nuclear testing and the other is, of course, under close ASEAN scrutiny. the South China Sea. Nevertheless, it is clearly in the interest of Chinese nuclear tests aroused vehement both ASEAN and China to expand and protests from some ASEAN members. deepen their relationship. An important However, this issue has all but disappeared with occasion in which to move this process China's announcement in June 1996 that it forward are the summit meetings to which would observe the moratorium on nuclear ASEAN has invited the leaders of China, testing after a final test in September of the Japan and the Republic of Korea as part of ~~~~~~~~~ i~:S~~:~:~a~:.ma signed the ~i~~;r~~:~~~~EAN summit in Malaysia in ~

Even the South China Sea issuelay dormant This promises to be a significant milestone for seven years, with an apparent freeze on new in ASEAN-China relations, albeit a largely occupations since China forcibly expelled symbolic one. But symbols are an important Vietnamese troops from some islands in 1988. part of what foreign relations are all about.C

Endnote

*Paper.presented by Rodolfo C. Severino, PSSCenter, Quezon City. The symposium was Jr., Undersecretary of Foreign Affairs at the sponsored by the Philippine Association for "Symposium on China and Her Relations with Chinese Studies and forms part of the PSSC the ASEAN' on 13 November 1997 at the Lecture Series Program.

20 Needed: AStrategy to Seriously Address the Pmandal Crisis·

I~ walden Bello

'In the last three and a half months, the when a massive inflow of capital from Japan Philippines and Southeast Asia have been flowed into the region, lifted it out of recession gripped by a crisis from which there seems and triggered a decade of high speed growth. to be no relief. The Philippine peso has lost dose to 30 percent of its dollar value, the Thai Between 1986 and 1990, some $15 billion baht about 47 percent, the Malaysian ringgit in Japanese direct investment flowed into the '32 percent, and the Indonesian rupiah 54 region, bringing with it not only billions more percent. in Japanese aid but also an ancillary flow of capital from the so-called "newly industrializing The Ramos administration is paralyzed in economies" of Taiwan, South Korea, and Hong the face of this crisis, its policy response Kong. By the early 1990s, however, Japanese seemingly reduced to that of telling foreign direct investment inflows were levelling off or, investors to come back, guys, we are not like as in the case of Thailand, falling off. But by Thailand, or at least we're better off. then, the ASEAN countries had, to borrow the title of Meg Ryan's latest film, addicted to The crisis hitting Southeast Asia today is foreign capital. no mere transient event from which the region will soon recover, as capital flows back to the The challenge was how to bridge the gap tiger economies. The crisis is that of a model between the limited investments of the ASEAN of development, one dependent on huge countries and the massive investments they infusions offoreign capital, one guided by the needed for their strategy of "fast track illusion that, as the Business Times of capitalism" which, in their view, would bring Singapore puts it, "countries could leapfrog the about the happy union of prosperity for them, normally long and arduous course to advanced development for all, and political stability. country status simply by maximizing their access to foreign capital inflows." A second source offoreign capital opened up in the early 1990s, and this was the vast Let us examine this model in detail, for in amounts of personal savings, pension funds, fully understanding it lies the key to corporate savings, and other funds that were surmounting the current conjuncture. deposited in mutual funds and other investment funds that were designed to maximize their More than in the case of the newly value through their being placed in highly industrializing countries of Northeast Asia, the profitable enterprises. These funds were largely Southeast AsianNICs have been dependent for American. In the early 1990s, noted an Asian their economic growth on foreign capital Development Bank report, "the declining inflows. The first phase of this process returns in the stock markets of industrial occurred between the mid-1980s and 1990s, countries and the low real interest rates

21 compelledinvestors to seek higher returns and Of course, the mix of financial op:en their capital elsewhere." And that liberalization,interest rate policy,and exchange elsewhere was a Southeast Asia that was rate policywas different in different countries, moving into middle-class prosperity. and it was greatly nuanced by the varying appreciation of the other factors such as These funds were not, however, going to inflation and recession, but the thrust in the come in automatically, without a congenial manipulation of these policy tools was in the climate. To attract these funds, financial same general direction. managers throughout Southeast Asia devised the same strategy, one which had the following This policy was wildly successful in three key elements. achieving its objective of attracting foreign investment and finance capital. In the case of First, financial liberalization, or the Thailand, net portfolio investment in the last elimination of foreign exchange and few years came to around $24 billion, while other restrictions to the inflow and another $50 billion came in the form ofloans outflow of capital, fully opening up via the Bangkok International Banking stock exchanges to the participation of Facility (BIBF), which allowed foreign and foreign portfolio investors, allowing local commercial banks to make dollar loans foreign banks to participate fully or at much lower rates of interest than those partly in domestic bank operations, and on baht loans. opening up other financial sectors, like the insurance industry, to foreign Manila, as a number of observers have players; noted, followed the example of Bangkok fairly closely,with similarresults. Between 1993 and Second, maintaining high domestic 1997, some $19.4 billionworth of net portfolio interest rates relative to interest rates investmentflowed into the country. And dollar in the US and other world financial loans via the Foreign Currency Deposit Units centers, in order to suck in speculative (FCDU's) rose, according to some estimates, capital that would seek to capture the from $2 billion at the end of 1993 to $11.6 spread between, say, returns of five to billion as of March 1997. As one investment six percent in New York and 12 to 15 analyst put it, with the peso "padlocked" at percent in Manila or Bangkok; and 26.2 to 26.3 to the dollar since September 1995, "they are not fools inManila. They were Third, fixingthe exchangerate between offered US dollars at 600 basis points cheaper the local currency and the dollar to than the peso rates along with currency eliminate or reduce risks for foreign protection from the BSP. They took it." investors stemming from the fluctuations in the value of the region's The samefrenzied movements of portfolio "soft currencies." This guarantee was investors and finance capital taking needed ifinvestors were going to come advantage of extremely attractive interest in, change their dollars into pesos, baht, rate differentials swept Kuala Lumpur and or rupiah, play the local stock market Iakarta. or buyhigh-yieldinggovernmentbonds, and transform their capital and their Had these foreign capital inflows gone into profits back into dollars and move to the truly productive sectors of the economy, other markets. like manufacturing and agriculture, the story

22 ~

might have been different. But they went deficit that came to 8.2 percent of GDP (a instead mainly to fuel asset-inflation in the figure similar to Mexico's at the time of that stook market and in real estate, which were country's financial meltdown in. December

I seen as the most attractive areas in terms of 1994); an export growth rate of zero in 1996; providing high yields with a quick turnaround and a burgeoning foreign debt of $89 billion, time. In fact, the predictable boom in real half of which is due in a few months. estate acted to siphon away capital from manufacturing in Thailand and the Philippines, This move to get the hell out of Thailand as manufacturers, instead of plowing their meant a massive demand for dollars, resulting profits into upgrading their technology or the in tremendous downward pressure on the baht, skills of their work force, gambled much of providing a fertile ground for speculators trying them in real estate or stock market to make profits from expectations that speculation. devaluation of the baht would take place.

The inflow of foreign portfolio investment The same scenario repeated itselfin Manila, and foreign loans into real estate led to a Jakarta, and Kuala Lumpur, where the same construction frenzy that has resulted in a macro-economic strategy had produced the situation of serious oversupply of residential same flaws and weaknesses. It was these flaws and commercial properties from Bangkok to of a macro-economic development strategy Jakarta. In Manila, the question is no longer if built on attracting huge infusions of foreign there will be a glut in real estate. The question capital that created the currency crisis. is how big it will be, with one investment Speculators merely took advantage of the analyst projecting that by the year 2000, the developing crisis that was largely self-created. supply of high rise residential units will exceed There was no grand Jewish conspiracy led by demand by 211 percent while the supply of George Soros. .ccmmercial development will outpace demand 'by 142 percent. In their efforts to cut their So we come to the current conjuncture and losses inthe coming glut, real estate developers what to do about it. are now pouring billions of pesos into resorts and golf courses! We have an emergency situation, but the government prefers to downplay the All this has sp elled bad news for seriousness of the situation. We are where the commercial banks in the four countries since Thais were around February or March of this they are heavily exposed in terms of real estate year, when the government's fundamental line loans. As a percentage of commercial banks' was that the situation was not serious and that total exposure, real estate or real-estate-related it was manageable. And we can end up in the loans come to 15 to 20 percent in the case of same place. the Philippines and Thailand and 20 to 25 percent in the case of Malaysia and Indonesia. Indeed, the government is bereft of any strategy to deal with the situation. Instead, The massive oversupply in the real estate propaganda has become a substitute for policy, sector in Thailand compelled foreign investors with the administration, as noted above, to reassess their position in the country, and denying that the Philippines is like Thailand or they panicked and began to move out when that the exposure of the banks to real estate is they saw it in the context of weak macro­ that high. And we are told for the nth time that economic fundamentals, like a current account the worse is over. And when the government

'. 23 does: fumble for a strategy to deal with the that are not clearly earmarked as direct situation, itis to propose a greater dose of the investment would help slow down the frenzied same, old formula that brought on the crisis in and increasingly irrational movements of the first place, as when President Ramos told finance capital. A slowing down of the the recent East Asian Summit that the movements of speculative capital would also resolution to the crisisis "not to turn awayfrom be accomplished by a measure used by the the world but to embrace it more closely." Chileans and advocated by University of the Philippines Professor Solita Monsod: require The country badly needs a strategy and we portfolio investors to make an interest-free in the Campaign Against Poverty (CAP) think deposit of an amount equal to 30 percent of that the place to start is for the economic their investment that they would not be able to leadership that is responsible for bringing us withdraw for one or more years. This would to the current impasse, through its policy of make them think twice before pulling out at reliance on huge infusions of foreign capital, the scent of higher yields elsewhere. to resign. Mr. Ramos' term will be ending in a few months, but our economy cannot wait that The aim is not to discourage foreign direct long for a change in leadership. We cannot investment. Such measures would create a afford to have the same old hands on deck that strong disincentive for speculative capital to have sailed us to these treacherous waters. A arbitrarily enter and exit, with all the sine qua non for any meaningful effort to deal destabilizing consequences of this movements, with the current emergency is the resignation but would not penalize direct investors that are of Finance Secretary Roberto de Ocampo and making more strategic commitments of their Central Bank Governor Gabriel Singson, the capital. Or as analyst William Greider puts it, key architects of our monetary policy. mechanisms like these "would not destroy globalized markets, but should greatly reduce However, the resignation of Mr. de the unproductive daily turnovers in currencies Ocampo and Mr. Singson would be the easiest and other assets, thus increasing stability in move in a complex endeavor to translate crisis money values." into opportunity, an effort that must involve not only short-term measures to cope with the Such measures, however, would bejust the crisisbut also strategic moves to transform our beginning. Enacting and imple-menting economic fundamentals. progressive tax legislation is a medium-term measure that must be seriously undertaken, for Controls on capital flows are the first step as the Business Times has, among others, in any strategy, a defensive move that is a sine stressed: qua non for the success of an alternative development strategy. For as Singapore's The lesson that emerges with increasing Business Times, a paper which is not exactly clarity from all this is that developing noted for radicalism has pointed out, "Short­ nations, especially those that aspire to term capital inflows are of highly dubious rapid development, must give priority to benefit when all they do is to finance asset domestic resource mobilization. This inflation (stocks and real estate) and a nation means developing efficient (and honest) is arguably better off without them." tax collection systems as well as promoting long-term savings (through The so-called "Tobin Tax" (named after its provident funds and the like). proponent, the US economist and Nobel Laureate Jame Tobin), a transactions tax Measures of domestic resource mobili­ imposed on all cross-border flows of capital zation like these must, in turn, be part of a

24

• larger program of asset and income reform, to make a detailed listing and analysis of these. including effective land reform, that is part of But one cannot leave out of this brief discussion aistrategy of enlarging the domestic market to the principle of ecological sustainability. For serve as the main engineof growth-something the now discredited model of foreign capital­ absolutely necessary now that chasing after fueled high-speed growth is leaving behindlittle export markets is being shown as a strategy that is of positive value and much that is with no exit except draconian efforts to negative. As any visitor to Bangkok these days cheapen wages and living standards in a race would testify, 12 years of fast-track capitalism to the bottom that benefits only international is leaving behind few traces except industrial investors. Again this is not to turn away from plants that will be antiquated in a few more the world, but to place export markets in their years, hundreds of unoccupied high-rises, a proper role as an adjunct to the domestic horrendous traffic problem that is only slightly market. mitigated by the repossession of thousands of late-model cars from bankrupt owners, a There is in this, of course, the unfinished rapid rundown in the country's natural social justice agenda of the progressive capital, and an environment that. has been movement, but it is an agenda that is now irretrievably, if not mortally, impaired, to the impelled by the added logic of economic detriment of future generations. Ecological sustainability, Achieving economic sustain­ sustainability, like equity, must be central to ability based on a viable and dynamic domestic any alternative strategy of development that market can no longer be divorced from rises on the ruins of the old. measures that promote equity. The post­ Keynesian illusion of economic growth based These are some elements of an alternative on the formula of opening up export markets strategy for growth and development. We in and beggaring one's labor force must be CAP have no illusions that it will be a long, banished once and for all, and this is the time hard, and complex road. But we must start to do it. right now to try and turn things around before they get even worse and we end up There are many other elements to a where Thais are today. There is no time to development strategy, and this is not the place lose. n

Endnote

·Paper prepared for a lecture and Public Administration, U.P.-Diliman and Co­ contributed to Social Science Information by Director of Focus on the Global South based Walden Bello, Professor of Sociology and at Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok.

25 Look Before You Leap: Some Reflections onHypothesis Permutatlon in theSocial Sciences·

MichaelA. Costello

Introduction At present, it seems to be pretty much a he process of hypothesis formulation standard practice in our graduate theses and representsa standardpart of the thesis! dissertations for the studentto outlinehisor her disse~ation study process. Few, if any, researchhypothesesinthefirstchapter,whereas T the secondchapteris devotedto a more-or-less !extbooks diSCUSS the means by which this unportantstepmaybe taken,however. It seems ~~:~tt~Z ~~t~r~t:;;r:~~:~~~~~ ~e~u~~~~~ as thoughthe authorsof our ResearchMethods texts assume that the question of hypothesis strategyis to conductthe literaturereviewfirst, formulationwill be taken up in the books on ~d to carrythi~ outat,asomewhatleisurely pace, Statistics,justasthestatisticians arethinkingthat with enough time being providedfor personal thetopicbelongsmostnaturallyto themethodo­ reflectionand synthesis. Keepin mindthat it is logists.Soalltoo oftenthereisno oneto tellthe notJust a matter of tellingthe reader, in serial beleagueredgraduatestudentwhat to do, until fashion,that AuthorA foundthis, and Authors that dreadeddaywhenhe or shehasto "facethe B, C, D and E found that. A good literature music"at a thesisdissertationproposalhearing. .reviewshouldgo farther still than this, e.g, by suggesting additional variables for the Thispaperisaddressed torelatively advanced conceptual framework; by hinting at certain graduatestudents,whichisto saythosewhohave limiting conditions, without which the done wellenoughin their courseworkbut now hypothesizedrelationshipwill not hold' and stand alone, a bit nervousand a bit confused perhapsmost importantly, by helpingto ~larth facing the uncertain prospect of going out t~ concepts. conducta thesisor dissertationstudy.Thereare, of course, no easy recipesin this lineof work, . T~ give but a singleexampleof the latter but I will try to givea fewhelpfulsuggestions. situation, take the well-worn demographic hypothesisthat workingwiveswillhave fewer Let me.beginwitha fewdissentingopinions, childrenthan those that are not employed(i.e. one of which concernsmy less-than-complete house~ves). ~~evious studies have generally acceptance of the term "formulation." This ~ound littleempirical supportforthisproposition soundsso mechanical, asthoughhypothesesmay In the Less Developed Countries (LDCs). A be churned out in some sort of assembly-line careful review of the literature might help to fashion.Thismaybe done, of course.Wehave furtherexplainthis,however,by pointingto the all constructed quick-and-easy conceptual largenumberofLDC womenwhoareemployed frameworks inwhichthestandardsocioeconomic in th~ ~ormal sector(e.g.vendors,labanderas, variables-age andsex,education,occupationand manicuristasi.The nature of such employment income-are allfittedtogetherandinterconnected maymake it fairlyeasy to combinework with bymorearrowsthanRobinHoodevershot. But childbearing, thereby reducingthe pressure to is thisreallythe bestapproachto take? adoptsomeformoffamilyplanning. In contrast,

26 l~

the expected relationship may well be expected never get to your destination, no matter how fast to holdamong formalsector employees(e.g. bank you are traveling. tellers, factory workers). These considerations show the need for refining our original concept Someillustrative Examples (employment status) by making a further distinction between formal and informal sector Of course, you'll never walk alone in all of employment. Thus, instead of one vague and this, at least not if you are a graduate student unlikely hypothesis about working women in who hasprogressed far enough to at least come general, we now have two quite specific (arid up with a first draft of your thesis proposal. It's hopefully more accurate) hypotheses about the at this point that you can start getting helpful independenteffectsofformal and informalsector inputs from your mentor and other panel employment upon childbearingbehavior. members.No doubt these advisorswillfocus very intently on your research hypotheses, so as to The late American sociologist, C. Wright see how clearly they have been formulated. Mills (1959, pp.195-226) once wrote an essay Exhibit 1 gives some insight into this process by entitled, "On Intellectual Craftsmanship," in reproducing Somepropositions which have been which he argues for this sort of careful and drawn from actual thesis or dissertation reflective approach to social science. Mills proposals. The "Before" column shows the advised budding scholars to set up a "file" for hypothesis as originallypresented by the student; the particular research question which they have the "After" column gives the alternative selected. Into this file may go notes from formulation suggested by the panel. professional papers or monographs, insights gleaned from relevant personal experiences, The first exampte in Exhibit 1 shows a newspaper/magazine clippings, conversations hypothesis which suffers from excessive with one or another "man in the street." vagueness. Try to avoid this in your own work. Eventually, the researcher must sit down to Good science and good writing ( both of which pursue allthis carefullyin the hope of comingup you ought to strive to attain) are built more upon with some sort of theoretical synthesis, out from concrete realities than upon shimmering and whichwill emergethe research hypotheseswhich unsubstantiated abstractions. will serve to guide the study. Example No.2 is not only too colloquial At this point the hard-pressed graduate ("some sort of relationship")but alsofailsto state student is no doubt ready to ask where he or she the nature of the expected association. This latter will ever find enough time for this sort of slow­ fault, of course, might be defended by some on paced approach to research. After all, isn't his the grounds that the null hypotheses used for financial support only good for one or two statistical tests also do' not predict direction. summer breaks? Or isn't it critical for her next This, however, is not precisely correct since promotion that she graduate by March? To tell every null hypothesis also has an alternative, the truth, I've heard all these rationalizations at least some of which (in the case of one-tailed before and I'm really not very impressed. Yes, tests) do show directionality. In any event, a there may be very real constraints to carefully study's millhypotheses (as would be used for planning out the research topic, but these must statistical tests) ought not to be equated be overcome, just the same. This is so, not only uncritically with its research hypotheses. The for the idealistic goal of improving our scientific latter statements ought to give a predicted output but also for very personal and practical direction, sometimes with an associated series purpose of-helping the student finally get his of intervening variables which make it clear just degree. After all, if a hasty start makes you take why this particular type of relationship ought your first few steps in the wrong direction, you'll to come about.

27 EXhibit L -"Before" and "After" Versions of Five Research Hypotheses

"Before" "After"

I. "Perceptions and attitudes positively relate 1. "Fisherman who have a more positive to the manner in which the occupational activities attitude towards environmental preservationwill are conducted." also be less likely to use environmentally destructive fishing practices."

2. "The education oftheperson has some sort 2. "The mortality rate found among highly of relationship with mortality rate." educated persons will tend to be lower than that obtained for persons with a low level of educational attainment."

3. "Single persons have a lower death rate 3. "Controlling for age, single persons have than those who are widowed." a lower death rate than those who are widowed."

4. "There is significant correlation between 4. "Madrasah graduates will have a more the respondent's preference ofMadrasahtype of favorable perception of job opportunities in the .~ education and the ... perception of job Middle East." opportunities in the Middle East." 5. ''Farmer-recipients under the surplus land 5. "Farmer-recipients under the surplus land programme will have higher income than those programme will have (a) higher incomes than farmers who do not come under the the landless agricultural workers not covered by programme." the programme but (b) lower incomes than farmer-owners who already have their own land (and who are therefore not covered by the program)."

Most hypotheses have an implied ceteris age. This hastherefore been made explicit in the paribus clause, which is to say that they are modified version of the hypothesis. based on the assumption that all relevant factors will be held constant statistically. In Example No. 4 is stated in what would at some cases, though, one or another variable first appear to be a quite acceptable fashion. will be obviously crucial, so that it helps to Unfortunately, though, the student in question did state explicitly that this factor will be controlled not include an item on "preference for Madrasah during the course of the statistical analysis. In education" in his questionnaire. He did not have the third example from Exhibit 1, for example, a measure of Madrasah attendance or the mortality experience of single people is nonattendance, though, so the hypothesis was being compared to that of the widowed. Since therefore re-formulated to reflect this variable. persons in the former category are almost More generally, this example demonstrates the universally youngerthan those in the latter, and need for carefully operationalizing your intended since mortality rates are higher in the older study variables once you get to the data collection years, it will therefore be critical to control for stage of your study.

28 Our Iast example is taken from the planning use affects current (recent) fertility dissertationproposalof one of our studentsfrom rather than vice versa. India. He planned to study an agrarian.reform program in his country which gives unused Thesevariablesmaybe interrelatedinseveral ("surplus") land to landless peasants. As such, differentways, as depicted in Figure 1. (We are he wanted to comparefarmer-beneficiaries with eliminating inthiscasethe possibilityof statistical thosenotservedbytheprogram.Butwhatexactly interactions,againfor the purpose of simplifying do we meanby"not intheprogram"?Aftermuch the discussion.) The eight diagrams found in reflectionand discussionwith the panel, it was Figure 1maybe interpretedas showingwhether finallyagreed that there were two types of non­ or not any two variables in the model are beneficiaries: (1) the very poor, landless significantly associated. A connecting arrow householdswho didnot receiveanyfreelandand indicatesthat this is the expected outcome; the (2) households who did not get any new land absenceof the samemeanswe are hypothesizing because they already owned some. Now, since that a nonsignificant relationship will emerge. surplus lands are the "left overs," so to speak, VariableX standsfor Religion(whetherCatholic they are probablynot as fertile as those held by of Protestant), Y for FamilyPlanningUse andZ the farmerowners.Wethereforeendup withtwo for Current Fertility. hypotheses,as have been listedin the right hand columnof Exhibit 1. The mainpoint whichI wish to illustrateby means of Figure 1 is that you should think fIIIulthraD1ate Models carefully before drawing any arrows in your study'Sconceptualframework.Each of the eight In most studies, especially those utilizing frameworks depicted in Figure 1 implies a surveydata, it willbe moreprofitableto thinkin correspondingset of distinct hypotheses.Thus, term of modelsthan of hypotheses.The former you shouldset up that particularframework(or term implies a system of multivariate multivariatemodel)whichgeneratesthat precise relationships,thelatter a seriesof discretely(and set of hypotheseswhichyou actuallywishto test. simplistically) bivariate linkages. Actually, our Similarly,once you have a given framework! utilizationofmultivariateconceptualframeworks model, you ought to be able to draw out from bringsus right up to the thresholdof the model­ this the proper set of hypotheses. buildingprocess;it'sjust whenwestarttranslating these frameworks into their corresponding A discussion of the eight different models Ihypotheses that old habitstake over again. foundinFigure 1mayhelpto illustrateallofthis. Case (a), of course, predicts a total absence of The:purposeofthissectionofthepaper,then, anysignificantrelationshipamongreligion,family will be to illustrate the process by which the planninguse andfertility.Thestudy's hypotheses hypothesesimplicitin a multivariatemodel may maythereforestate preciselythis in a simpleand be extracted and presented to the reader. Let's straightforwardmanner. limit our discussion to the simplest case: the interactionofonlythreevariablesinwhichcausal Situations(b), (c) and(d) are unproblematic, priorityis easilydetermined.Asanexample,take though in these cases the existence of at least religion,familyplanninguse,andcurrentfertility one bivariate relationship means that some behavior.Religion(Catholicvs.Protestant)might considera-tion must be given to introducing a be expected to affect family planninguse, but control (or "test") variable.In situation (c) and there is little likelihoodthat the opposite is also (d) this will be the remaining independent true. Similarly, we can assume that family variable,i.e. Y for case (c) and X for case (d).

29 Figure lL Hypothetical relationships for a three-variable model of religion 00,family planning use 00, and fertility(z) x x z ~z y y (a) no relationships (e) A spuriouscorrelation x x 1 z L>: y y (b) Religionaffectsfamilyplanning (t)Acausalchain

x~z

y (c) Religionaffectsfertility :>z(g) Fertilityaffectedby both factors

x x ->: y J>z ~I (d) Familyplanningaffectsfertility (h) Direct and indirectpaths from religion

Note, however,that incase(b)wedonotcontrol With case (e) we have an example of a for current fertility as a means of testing the "spuriouscorrelation."Thisrefersto a situation initiallysignificant bivariaterelationship between in which a certain factor is initially found to religionand familyplanninguse. This example correlatesignificantly withthe study'sdependent illustratesamoregeneralprinciple,whichis that, variable,only to have this relationshipbecome when two variablesin a model are found to be insignificant once controlshavebeenintroduced significantly correlated,there is no need to test fortheothercausalvariable(s) inthemodel.Thus, thisrelationshipbycontrollingfora thirdvariable for model(e) onemightfirsttake notethat there which is causallydependentupon (to the right is no connectingarrowbetweenfamilyplanning of) both of the originaltwo variables. use and fertility. Just the same, we hypothesize

30 aninitial,bivariaterelationship betweenthesetwo arrows into their proposed conceptual variables, a relationship brought on by their frameworks.Perhaps theywould not do this so indirect connection through religion. After readilyif they realizedthat they would be held controllingforreligion,however,thisrelationship accountablefor testingallthe directandindirect will dlsappear,' relationshipimpliedbythis!

Situation(f) is similarin that we againhave Since we have so bravely drawn in every aninitialcorrelation(religionandfertility)which possiblearrowin case (h),whyis it that we now disappearsaftera thirdvariable(familyplanning seem so unsure of ourselves with regard to use) has been controlledfor statistically. In this hypotheses 2.a., 2.c, 3.a and 3.c? After all, case,though,we speakofa "causalchain,"or an predictingthat religion"mayor maynot" affect iaterveninglinkageviafamilyplanninguserather fertilityisprettymuchakinto predictingnothing than of a spurious relationship. The difference at all. Just the same, that is what we must do, hereisthat religionreallyis affectingfertility, but giventhe possibilitythattherewill bean indirect onlyinanindirectfashion, Firstit raisesorlowers relationship(i.e.onewhichoperatesthroughthe family planning use, with this variable then presence of a third variable) which differs in bringingabout a changein currentfertilitylevel. directionandmagnitudefromthe corresponding two-variable(i.e. direct connection).Thisbeing Models with intervening variables are of the case, the zero-order correlationmay either considerable interestto socialscientistssincethey be insignificant, statisticallysignificantthough help to fulfill one of the prerequisites for smallin size,or stronglysignificant. demonstratingacausalrelationshipbetweentwo variables, Thisimportantfunctionis to providea In orderto demonstratethepossibility ofeach convincingexplanation,or theoreticalrationale, of these outcomes, it will be necessary to as to why the firstfactor is affectingthe second introduce one more complicatingfactor. This I(LabovitzandHadgedorn, 1971,Chapter1).Why concernsthedirectionoftherelationship between are thechildrenofpoorlyeducatedmothersmore two variables, whether positive or negative. likely to die in infancy? Because they are Actually,I have alreadytouched on this in the malnourished, or moreexposedto germs,or less first sectionof mypaper, in whichI arguedthat likelyto be taken care of by a modem medical the nature (or direction) of the hypothesized practitioner. Why do Catholics bear more relationship oughtto beformallypredicted.Ithen children? Becausetheyarelesslikelytousefamily proceeded,however,to violate my own rule in planning.The factors highlightedin these types thisregardbyleavingoutanypositiveor negative of"because"statementsareexamplesofthe sort signsfromFigure 1. This was done in order to ofinterveningvariableswhichwe will needifwe simplifythe discussion,but now we cannot do are to go beyond mere hypothesistesting into without them. So here they come, back into the the realmof theorybuilding. picture.

Case (g) introducesno new insightsintothe The"picture"inthiscaseturnsout to involve present discussion.I therefore pass directlyto eightseparatediagrams,as depictedinFigure2. case (h), in which all arrows have been drawn, We will not discuss each of these in any great therebyindicatingthe existenceof no less than detail,butitwillbeworthwhileto comparecases five(andnot three,asit wouldoriginallyappear) (a), (d), (f), and (g) with situations(b), (c), (e) noteworthy relationships.! Given the rather and (h). The former group consists entirelyof complicatednatureof this particularmodel,it is "reinforcing" systems, so termed because the interestingtonotetheeagernesswithwhichmost indirect"path" connectingreligionand fertility graduate students proceed to draw all possible (via familyplanninguse) operates in the same

31 Figure:2. Hypothetical relationships for a model of religion 00, family planning use 00, and fertility (Z) in which all relationships are hypothesized to be significant. xf;>z ~C>z y y (a) (e) X{:::~.z ~C>z

y y (b) (f) X+I:>z X-l>z y y (c) (g) Xt:>z -X[::>z y y (d) (h)

direction as does the direct path between religion a hypothetically positive, direct association and fertility. For example, in situation (f), between these two variables, as indicated by the Catholics use less family planning (thus the positive sign over the arrow running from X to negative sign between X and Y), just as family Z. Thus, Catholicism is viewed by this model as planning use results in fewer births (note that the generating some additional pro natal influences, sign between Y and Z is also negative). The result over and above those associated with the ban on of these two inverse correlations is an overall artificialcontra-ceptives. Perhaps Catholics many (indirect) positive correlation between Cathell- earlier or actively desire larger families. In any cism and fertility.' At the same time we also have event, both the direct and indirect paths are

32 .;j. operating in the same direction. As such, we theory and the findings of previous studies, would expect the initial, zero-order correlation rather than upon our desired convenience for between religion and fertility to be quite strong. hypothesis testing.

In other cases, the direct and indirect "paths" What about the statistical tools which might may appear to cancel one another out so that the best be used for testing multivariate models? gross association between X and Z will at first Various types of regression analysis (e.g. OLS, be quite small. For example, if Catholics did Multiple Classification Analysis) have often been indeed use familyplanninglessfrequently,thereby used for this purpose since they allow for ease of raisingtheir fertility,but they were simultaneously comparison between zero-order and partial marrying at later ages (or practicing some other coefficients. Path analysis is another variant of fertility-constrainingbehavior so as to bring about regression which can be particularly effective for a direct, negative impact on their current fertility) studies in which one wishes to measure the the result might be an initially miniscule magnitude of both the direct and the indirect correlation between X and Z. This is illustrated linkages ("path") between variables. by situation (h) in Figure 2. comparlngl\vo (or More)Models Models in which the direct and indirect paths operate in opposite directions may be termed If'it is generally a good idea to think in terms "suppressing systems." These are exemplified in of presenting a multivariate model, rather than a Figure 2 by cases (b), (c), (e) and (h). Suppressing mere list of two-variable hypotheses, it is often systems will sometimes result in initially better still to come up with two (or in some rare insignificant correlations, in those situations cases, three) competingmodels. when the magnitudes of the direct and indirect paths are approximately equal. In other cases, Again, our strict guidelines on thesis/ though, a weak but statistically significant dissertation format may lead us astray in this relationship may initiallytum up, because one of regard. Hypotheses, we are told, should be the two paths is considerably stronger than the presented before the literature review; thereby other one. For example, Catholics may marry leading to the impression that you hypothesize slightlylater thanProtestants (resulting ina gentle first and then pick up a few justifications for the tug toward smaller families) but, if this is same at some later date. Or, in this case, the completely overshadowed by a very strong student is told to present her "conceptual impact via nonuse of family planning the result framework" (in the singular) to the panel; it will show a modestly positive association, at the therefore never occurs to her that a plurality of zero-order correlation level,between Catholicism equally plausible frameworks might be lying and current fertility. around waiting to be tested.

As a simple way of summarizing the above The idea ofa "crucial experiment," in which discussion one may therefore conclude that two major theoretical explanations are pitted multivariate models which have been built along against each other during the course of a single the linesof reinforcingsystemsallowus to predict empirical study, may be mentioned at this point. directionality with regard to the zero-order Studies of this type lie at the very center of the correlations involving the dependent variable. process of theory building. Somewhat more Models with built-in suppressing systems do not. pragmatically, they may also be of considerable This, of course, does not mean that we should utility to government planners and policy makers refrain from incorporating suppressor-type insofar as they help these functionaries to choose relationships into our models, since our between two equallydefensiblecourses of action. decisions in that regard ought to be based on This being the case, there can be little doubt but

33 that we ought to be making more use of this rural-urbanresidence (T). We may arrange the approachinourresearchundertakings. As Arthur resulting five variables in literally hundreds of Stinchcombe (1968, p. 28) once observed, "a ways depending upon our decisions about strong.estheticreactionto crucialexperimentsis including or excluding arrows and predicting the centralmark of a true scientist." positiveor negativerelationships.Surelywe will not want to bore the reader with a discussionof Let's go back to our exampleof religionand each of these manifold possibilities. A better fertility, adding in this case two additional strategy,therefore, will be to focus on two or "background"variables:wife'seducation(S) and threeoutcomeswhichseemmostlikelyto be true

Figure 3. 1\vo Models of Religion and Fertility.

Legend: S Wife'sEducation T Residence X Religion Y FamilyPlanningUse Z Current Fertility , S ~~==:::/z ----~/ Y

(a) The "Doctrinal"Model

x (b) The "SocioeconomicEffects"Model 34 (as based on previous experience) or most planninguse and (2) religionandfertilitythat are appropriate for comparing a few of the most reduced towards insignificanceonce residence importanttheoreticalperspectivesin the field. andwife'seducationareheldconstant.Ourinitial findingof high Catholicfertilityis thus found to Figure3 illustratesbypresentingtwopossible bedueentirelyto the influenceof"socioeconomic paradigmsfor the relationshipbetween religion effects" rather than to the independenteffectof andfertility.The first ofthese maybe termedthe anyreligiousdoctrineassociatedwithCatholicism­ i "doctrinal" model insofar as it predicts that the and Protestantism. fertility behavior of our respondents will be influenced by their religious affiliation, The construction of competing multivariate particularlywith regard to the interveningrole models serves the analyticalfunction of helping playedbyfamilyplanninguse. Thismodelposits the researcher to take explicit note of the an initially significant relationship between predictions(hypotheses)whichlie hiddenwithin religionand fertilitythat willbe reduced toward differenttheoreticalsystems.For the reader,too, zero oncecontrolshavebeeninstitutedforfamily theycanbe ausefulvisualdevicewhichorganizes planninguse(cf.our earlierdiscussionofa causal what may be a long and complicatedliterature chain). Furthermore, statisticalcontrols for the reviewinto a few,fairlysimplediagrams.Better two background variables (S and T) will not still, this approach enables the reader (and the eliminateeitherofthetwo relationshipsinvolved theorist, for that matter)to seejust how well,or inthiscase(i.e.the correlationsbetweenreligion how poorly, each of the two models will fare, and family planning use and between family once the empiricalresults are in. As such, the planninguse and fertilitywill remainsignificant constructionofcomparativemultivariatemodels even after wife's education and rural-urban serves as important-role in the rarely practiced residence have been introduced as controls). art of theory building. Incidentally,the dotted arrows involvingS and T in the "doctrinal" model are meantto indicate Conclusion that this modelmaystillbe said to hold whether or not significantrelationshipswill be found in By way of summingup, then, let me again these instances.Our main concern,therefore,is reiterate that the process of hypothesis reallywith the connectionbetween religionand formulationis not a merelymechanicalstep that fertilityvia familyplanninguse. maybe carriedout inunediatelyuponundertaking your research study. A good hypothesisis one The second model depicted in Figure 3 may whichisbased on theory,previousstudyfindings be termed the "socioeconomic effects" model. and/orpreliminaryempiricalresults(e.g. froman This name has been· chosen as a means of exploratoryfield studyof the problemat hand). emphasizingthe way in which suchbackground This being the case, we should think carefully factors as wife's education and rural-urban and in a reflectivefashionduringthis earlystage residence are bringing about an apparent (but of the analysis.Furtherstill,we shouldbe willing spurious) association between religion and to constructtwo Ofthree hypotheticalmodelsas fertility. This might occur, for example, if baseduponwhat seemto be the majorparadigms Catholicsare somewhatless well educatedthan in the field.Oncewe havepresentedthese to the Protestants.or morelikelyto be residingina rural reader and extractedfromthem a corresponding barrio.Now,sincewe knowthatpoorlyeducated, set of affiliatedhypotheses we will be well on rural women have more children (and are less our wayto initiatinga richer,moreaccurateand likely to use family planning) than their better more practicallyuseju/ study than would have educatedcounterpartsinthe city,theresultcould been the case if these important steps had been very well be a pair of significant zero-order passed over quicklyand superficially. C correlations between (1) religion and family

35 References

Labovitz, Sanford, and Robert Hagedorn. Stinchcombe, Arthur L. 1968. Constructing 1971. Introduction to Social Research. Social Theories. New York: Harcourt, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Brace and World, Inc. Mills, C. Wright. 1959. The Sociological Imagination. New York: Oxford Press.

Notes

*Revised paper based on an earlier order (or higher-order) correlation differ from presentation made by the author at the Regional those of a zero-order correlation, one's final Conference on Multidisciplinary Approaches to decision as to the existence of a "true" Research, Philippine Association of Graduate relationship ought to be based upon the first of these two statistics. Education, Region X, Cagayan Capitol College, 24-25 January 1992. "I'hese are as follows: (1) a direct link ITo clarify the above, let's assume that between religion and family planning use, (2) a Catholics use less family planning and beat more direct link between religion and fertility, (3) a children, on the average, than Protestants. As direct link between family planning use and such, we ought to find an initial tendency for fertility,(4) an indirect link (causal chain) between familyplanning users to have fewer recent births. religion and fertility viafamily planning use and This is actually a misleading finding, though, (5) an indirect (spurious) link between family brought on by the preponderance oflow fertility planning use and fertility via religion. Protestants among the family planning users. Once we limit the analysis to each of the two 3'fhe general principle is that we can predict religious groups taken individually, the original the sign of an indirect causal linkage by family planning-fertility relationship disappears. multiplying the signs of the intermediate bivariate relationships. In this case, therefore, one negative Case (e) may also be said to illustrate a second sign multiplied by another produces a positive general principle. When the results from a first- correlation.

36 American Studies Association of thePhilippines (ASAP)

The American Studies Association of the roundtables by visiting exchange scholars and Philippines (ASAP) is a non-stock, non-profit, lecturers, both American and Filipino. private organization established in 1964 by Filipino scholars representing various discip­ ASAP held its latest General Assembly on lines for scholarly, cultural, and educational November 15, 1997, with the theme "Latest purposes. Principally, it endeavors to foster a Trends in Education". Special emphasis was scholarly interest in American life, culture, placed on Civic (Citizenship) Education, in institutions, science and technology and to keeping with the growing concern of encourage, stimulate and support scholarly promoting and strengthening democratic explorations and multi-disciplinal research on practices globally. Eminent speakers and the relations between the Philippines and the resource persons were invited to share their United States, with the end inview of improving expertise on the subject. The Conference these. To accomplish these purposes, the also featured a live electronic video dialogue Association undertakes various activities between resource speakers in Washington highlighted by an annual General Assembly and D.C. and a panel of selected Filipino scholars Conference during which elections are held and in Manila. a special topic of current relevance or theme of major significance is discussed. Other ASAP draws its membership largely from activities include setting up American Studies the academe. Its members are mostly teachers Programs, holding seminars and workshops, and students from Metro Manila colleges and and distributing books and periodicals to universities, with a number coming from nearby members and educational institutions. It also provinces. ASAP has some 300 active members co-sponsors with the Thomas Jefferson at present, close to 100 of whom are ASAP American Center (TJAC) and with other life members. schools and universities, lectures and

37 •

The officers and members of ASAP's Board Members: Board for 1998 are as follows: Bernardita R. Churchill (University of the Philippines President: Shirley C. Advincula and De La Salle University) (Ateneo de Manila University) Cherry Arnor M. Escafian Vice-President: Adriel O. Meimban (De La Salle University) (New Era University) Guillermo M. Pesigan (Ateneo de Secretary: Norma D. Martinez Manila University) (Polytechnic University Milagros G. Tanlayco (University of of the Philippines) Santo Tomas) Treasurer: Belen L. Tangco Corazon D. Villareal (University of Sto. Tomas) (University of the Philippines) Auditor: Natividad Crame-Rogers Helen R. Tubangui (National (St. Scholastica College) Historical Institute) PRO: Rustica C. Carpio (Polytechnic University of the Philippines

PeterGowing Memorial Research Center­ ~ Dansalan College Foundation, Marawl City L!!J The Dansalan Research Center began its The Center engages in multi-disciplinary operations in January 1975 as one of the and development-oriented research with special program units of Dansalan College Foundation emphasis on Filipino Muslim religion, culture in Marawi, Iligan. The Center was renamed and society, particularly among the Maranaos. the Peter Gowing Memorial Research Center It also serves as a study center for scholars, in 1985 in honor of its founder and first teachers, church workers, public officials, director, the Rev. Dr. Peter G. Gowing. The students, and other interested individuals who Center focuses its work on Filipino Muslims, wish to learn more about FilipinoMuslims. The with the view of making policy-makers more Center's collection ofFilipino Muslim materials responsive to the concerns of cultural and books is the largest and one of a kind in minorities/communities in the Philippines, and the Philippines. This collection includes especially Muslims in Mindanao, the Sulu research studies, theses, periodicals, vertical Archipelago, and Palawan. The Center was files and microfilmmaterials; general reference established primarily to decrease tensions in works on Islamic religious philosophical, histo­ Filipino Christian and Muslim relations by ricaland political studies; and books dealing "expanding knowledge, improving under­ with other Islamic countries and societies. The standing and heightening sensitivityin relations Center maintains a regular publication in the between the two communities of faith." This Dansalan Quarterly which is available to major goal is carried out through a five-fold interested subscribers at P200 per year. program of research, study, education, conferences, and empowerment. Specifically The Center's current Director is Professor the Center functions as a study center and as a Fedelinda B. Tawagon. [] research institute. 38 Philippine Assoclatlon for Chinese Studies(PACS) ciaChinese Studies Program, Ateneo de Manila University, Loyola Heights, Quezon City

~.

Brief Historical Background Program Services

The Philippine Association for Chinese PACS'areas of specialization include Studies (PACS) was founded in May 1987 and China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and the Philippine was formally incorporated in October 1987. Its ethnic Chinese. founders were Theresa Cariiio, Mario Miclat, Asuncion Benitez, Teresita Ang See and Go The main program services provided by Bon Juan. PACS are conferences, publications and networking. Though not a regular program Two events at that time prompted the service, PACS encourages travels to China. A formation of PACS. One was the opening up trip to Southern China was made by PACS in of China to the outside world in 1979. By 1987, 1992. a number of Filipino professionals and academicians had gone to China to teach or PACS' achievements are: study. China however, remained a myth to most Filipinos. There was an interest to learn more • PACS provides a network for professionals, about China and its development in the post­ academicians, institutions and lay people to Reform period. The other important event was pursue their interest in Chinese studies. the EDSA revolution which enthused the Filipino-Chinese community to participate • PACS publications provide good sources of more in nation-building by fostering a better information to media, government agencies, understanding of China and its relationships in the region. and scholars, both here and abroad. Through its research and roundtable Vision and Mission discussions, PACS contributes to policy­ making.It maintains close and direct contact As a non-political and non-profit withtheDepartment ofForeign Affairs. It also professional association, PACS is open to all persons interested in studying China and the engages the Department of Labor and the Chinese. Through research, seminars, con­ Department of Trade and Industry in forums ferences, publications and other activities, to discuss issues bearing on overseas Filipino PACS seeks to facilitate contacts and workers inHong Kong and Taiwan,and trade exchanges among scholars of various relations and trade potentials with China, disciplines to enhance understanding of China Hong Kong and Taiwan. and the Chinese.

39 «

• PACS helps raise public consciousness on The South China Sea Disputes: Philippine ethnicChineseissues. Penpectives Edited by AileenSanPablo-Baviera(1991) • TheAssociationalsocontributesto RP-China China, Across the Seas/The Chinese as friendshipand understanding. Filipinos - Part I Edited by Aileen San Pablo-Baviera and N'etworklnglUnkages TeresitaAng-See(1992) Perspectives on Philippine Policy Towards PACSmembershipextendsto areas outside China of Metro Manila and also to countries outside Edited by TheresaC. CarinoandBernardita of the Philippines. Members residing abroad Reyes-Churchill (1993) include memberswho have migrated to other China, Taiwan, and the Ethnic Chinese in the countries or who have foreign assignments. Philippine Economy They also include scholars on Chinese in the Edited byEllenH. Palanca(1995) Philippines and Philippine-ChinaRelations. A distinguished foreign member is Dr. Edgar Chinese in the Asia-Pacific Century Wickberg,emeritus professor of history at the Edited byEllenH. Palanca,Ph.D. (1997) University of British Columbiawho has done Ethnic Chinese as Fnlipinos- Part n work on the Chinese in the Philippines. Edited by Teresita Ang-See (1997)

PACS' network of institutions include the Conferences and RoundtableDiscussions Chinese Studies Program of Ateneo de Manila University,the Asian Center of the University The list below also attests to PACS of the Philippines, the China Studies Program involvement in promoting public forums for of De La SalleUniversity,the Philippine-China discussing current-day issues on China and Development Resource Center, the Foreign Philippine-Chinarelations. ServiceInstitute of the Departmentof Foreign Affairs, and Kaisa Para sa Kaunlaran. 1988 SocialChangeand SoutheastAsian ChineseLiterature FuturePlans 1988 Philippine-China Relations,1975-1988: An Assessment Philippine-China Relations The Chinesein the Philippines-Part1 PhilippinePerspectiveson the South ChinaSeaDisputes:A Roundtable Publications 1992 ChineseStudiesin the Philippines 1992 Perspectiveson the PhilippinePolicy Among the publications issued by PACS TowardsChina are: 1993 China,Taiwan,andtheEthnicChinesein the PhilippineEconomy Social Change and Southeast Asian Chinese 1994 Seminar-Workshop on Philippine-China Literature Relations:AssessmentandPrognosis Edited by TheresaC. Carifio(1990) 1995 Roundtableon Hong Kong 1997: Philippine-China Relations, 1957-1988: Implicationson PhilippineLabor Assessment 1995 Roundtableon Hong Kong 1997: EditedbyBemarditaReyes-Churchill (1990) ImplicationsonPhilippineBusiness 40 1995 The Ethnic Chinese as Filipinos - Part II 1997 China and her Relations with ASEAN 1996 China in the Asia-PacificCentury 1997 The Ethnic Chinese as Filipinos­ 1997 Hong Kong After 1997: Issues of Partlll Concern to the Philippines • Schoolof Urban and Regional Planning University ofthePhilippines, Dilirnan, Quezon City

The School of Urban and Regional Planning government agencies and private organi­ (SURP) traces its beginnings to the Institute zations. of Environment Planning which was established in 1965 through Republic Act 4341 as an Craduate Programs academic unit of the University of the Philippines to assist in the study of development SURP's Graduate Programs in urban and problems and in policy-making. regional planning are ofthree types. These are:

SURP's main objectives are: (1) To A. Diploma (Urban andRegional Planning) strengthen and assist government agencies and private organizations in studying and solving The Diploma in Urban and Regional problems of planning and development; (2) To Planning is designed to enable planning facilitate the implementation of development practitioners to respond more effectively to the proposals at national, regional, and local levels; increasing demands of their positions. It caters (3) To provide assistance in the improvement especially to the needs of local government of human settlements and the environment planners, including those at the municipal, city, through coordinated and comprehensive and provincial levels, who are tasked with much development studies and plans; and (4) To broader and more detailed planning duties and make available a pool of professional urban and responsibilities under the 1991 Local Govern­ regional planners to carry out the national ment Code. Other government planners policy of comprehensive planning and involved in the use, regulation, and rehabili­ development. tation of land are also expected to benefit significantly from the Program. The Program SURP's functions are: (1) To conduct can be completed in two semesters. academic programs in planning; (2) To provide training courses, seminars and workshops in B. M.A. (Urban andRegional Planning) planning cooperation with other government agencies; (3) To carry out research activities The M.A. Program is designed particularly designed to solve problems of development, to produce capable professional urban and particularly on settlement patterns and regional planners whose training and outlook environmental studies; (4) To prepare and will fit the needs of a developing country like publish planning materials; and (5) To extend the Philippines. The program offers two consultative and technical assistance to options: thesis and non-thesis. Thefirst option

41 requires twenty-sevenunits of course work and land use change and policy in urban, regional six unit.sof thesis. The second option requires and other areas; housing; and related aspects thirty-nine units of course work and a of settlement planning, environmental comprehensive examination. management, transport planning and infrastructure development. The School also C. Ph.D. (Urban andRegional Planning) publishes the Philippine Planning Journal which comes out biannually. The Ph.D. program is designed to equip students with better qualifications and highly Training andExtension Services specialized skills to enable them to assume responsible planning and planning-related During its initial years, the School positions in academe, government and the conducted short orientation seminars and private sector. roving seminars on urban planning, public works and highways planning and regional The Ph.D. program has two streams: one development planning in selected cities and for holders of"a master's degree in planning, regions. The Special Course in Urban and and another for those who hold a bachelor's Regional Planning (SCURP) was developed degree or a master's degree in non-planning in response to the need for government fields. The former requires only twenty-four agencies to prepare long-term plans. units of course work and the latter requires Nowadays, the School designs and forty-eight. Both options require-twelve units implements short courses ranging from one of dissertation. day to one month on subject areas related to planning either by request or' to Research disseminate the results of its researches. The School remains active in training and The School actively engages in research extension work and maintains a working whichit undertakes independentlyor in cooper­ relationship with government inter-agency ation with government and private institutions. committees including the National Land Use Research areas include population and Committee and the Local Development employmentgrowth patterns and distributions; Planning Program. C

PSSC offers thefollowing desktop publications assistance:

For: Regulara AssociateMembers NOR-Members Ratesper page

ERcodlngllay-outlng(2proofsl PU.OO/page P 35.00/page L1ghtedltlRg/proofreadlng 25.00/page 50.00/page Laser-printing:finalcamera ready copy 15.00/page 15.00/page Supervision/coordination for presswork 50f0oflhetotal 10% oflhe printing cost printing cost

Toavailoftheseservices, pleasecallV 922-9621 local318(askforJayneor Elvie) orvlsllusat 2ndFloor, PSSCenter Commonwealth Avenue, Dillman, Quezon City, PhilippInes.

42 PSSC NOMINEES WIN SOCIAL SCIENCEAWARBS

NAST is busycompleting chaptersin severalbooksfor Outstanding the Centennialcelebration(e.g. 100 ~ars of Young Scientist PhilippineForeignRelations;100 Yearsof the ArmedForcesof the Philippines;100 Yearsof Award PhilippineLegislations,etc.). []

Dr. Ricardo T. IFSSO Fujii Award for the Best Jose, Assistant Research in the Social Sciences Professor of the Department of Dr. Michael L. Tan's book Usog, Kulam, History of the Pasma:Traditional TheoriesinIllnessCausation University of the in the Philippines(AKAP, 1987)was awarded Phflippines­ the 1997 Fujii Award by the International Diliman,won the Federation of Social Science Organizations 1997 Outstanding (IFSSO) for "Best Research in the Social Young Scientist .....="----l!-...::::= Sciences."Dr. Tan acceptedthe award during (OYS)AwardinthefieldofHistory/AreaStudies the 13th Biennial Conference and General givenby the NationalAcademyof Scienceand Assembly ofIFSSO, 5-9December1997at the .Technology (NAST)duringitsAnnualScientific NaresuanUniversity inPhitsanulok,Thailand. Meetingat theWestinPhilippine PlazaHotelon Dr. Tan, Associate Professor of the 9 July 1997. Anthropology Departmentof the Universityof Dr. Jose's fields of specialization include the Philippines-Dillman, is a medical anthro­ military history, Philippine-Japanese relationsand pologistwho is also involvedin multi-sectoral diplomatic history.Hisdoctoraldissertation was on food administration during the Japanese Occupation. He has written articlesand papers forjournalsandnewspapersandmagazines. His book titled The Philippine Army: 1935-1942 (Ateneode ManilaUniversityPress, 1992)has beendescribed as''thefirstworkbya professional historianandinacademiawhichtreatsthehistory of that organizationasa wholeandin depth." Dr. Jose completed a volume on the JapaneseOccupationfor the Kasaysayanbook Michael 1. Tan (middle) receives his award from IFSSO President serieswhichwillbe launchedin June 1998,and CarmencilaT. Aguilar (Iell) and Secretary-GeneralJosefBlahoz. • 43 work with non-government organizations insights on Filipinoculture inhis column "Pinoy (NGGs). He is the Executive Director of Health Kasi" which appears twice a week in the Action Information Network (HAIN), an NGO Philippine Daily Inquirer. established in 1985. He is likewise a member of Dr. tan is currently revising his award­ the National Drug Committee and the Philippine winning book for the Philippine Centennial National AIDS Council. Dr. Tan shares his celebration. n

Annual Conferences of PSSC Memb~f=A$soclatD@EfiJ£D

The Psychological Association of the with the need to redefine and refocus the Philippines held its 34th Annual Convention at mission and functions of national government the Philippine Social Science Center on July 3-5, agencies. 1997. It had for its theme "Advances in the Professional Practice of Psychology," featuring The General Convention of the Phlllppfne panel discussions and plenary sessions on ethical Sociological Society held at the PSSC Alip issues in the practice of psychology; industrial! Auditorium on 25 October 1997 featured two organizational psychology; psychology teaching panel discussions.These were a panel on "Urban and research; psychologists in the courts; and Issues and Concerns," and a panel 'on "Gender issues in psychological testing. The convention and Violence." A lecture on "The Philippine also featured poster sessions and continuing Centennial" was also given by Dr. Walden educationworkshops. The association's founders Bello. were honored duringthe convention;four of them attended and were presented with medals-Dr. "Statistical Manpower in Government and the Alfredo V. Lagmay, Fr. Jaime Bulatao, S.l, Dr. Scientific Career System fur Statisticians" was Aurora Miiioza, and Prof. Ma. Fe Abasolo­ the theme of the Annual Conference of the Domingo. Philippine Statistical AssodaHoHll on 30 October 1997 at the Sulo Hotel, Quezon City. The Philippine Association of Social Workers, Secretary WilliamG. Padolina of the Department Inc. held its 49th Annual Convention at the of Science and Technology gave the keynote Philippine Sports Commission (formerly address. Papers on "Statistical Manpower in ULTRA) in Pasig on 19-21 November 1997, Government" and "Scientific Career System for on the theme "PASWI: Initiatives on the Statisticians"were presented,with reactionsfrom Emerging Social Work Realities Relevant to the heads of the National StatisticalCoordination National and Global Trends." The keynote Board, National StatisticsOffice,and the Institute address was given by Senator Raul S. Roco, and of Mathematical Sciences and Physics (UP Los several plenary sessions were held on various Banos). aspects of social work such as counselling, The Ugnayang Pang-Aghamtao (UGAT) held health care, community management, industry, its 19th National Conference at the State the courts, continuing professional education, Polytechnic College of Palawan in Aborlan, women's organizations, including the re­ Palawanon29-31 October 1997. The conference positioning and re-engineering of the Depart­ theme was "Territoriality, Histories, and ment of Social Welfare and Development in line Identities" and featured papers and panel 44 discussionson territories and identities,territories presentation and a field trip were other activities 'withinthe urban context, time: space nexus, and of the 3-day event. ICI ancestral land and associated domains. A film

~EGIONAL SOCIAL SCIENCE CONFERENCES

lP'Sse was represented in two regional Indonesia, South Korea, and Sri Lanka. At conferences on the social sciences during the last the same conference, AASSREC re-appointed quarter of 1997. Dr. Miralao Secretary-General for another The 121hBiennial General Conference of the 17­ term, and PSSC will continue to serve as member Association of Asian Social Science AASSREC's Secretariat through 1999. Research Councils (AASSREC) took place The Internatlenal Federation of Sccla] in Beijing, China on 13-17 October 1997. Science Organizations (IFSSO) held its Representing PSSC at the conference were 13th Biennial Conference at the Naresuan Trustee Nestor T. Castro, anthropology University in Phitsanulok, Thailand on 5-9 representative, and Executive Director Virginia December 1997. The theme. of the conference A. Miralao. A Regional Symposium on the was "Social Integration of Regimes in theme "Globalization and Local Cultures: Transition," and featured papers written by Emerging Issues for the 21slCentury" was held European and Asian social scientists. Three of in tandem with the conference and 14 country the paper presenters were Filipinos: Remigio papers were presented on the symposium topic. E. Agpalo, Carmencita T. Aguilar, and Miriam Professor Nestor T. Castro presented the C. Ferrer. Professor Aguilar was the president Philippine paper. The conference also featured of IFSSO at the time of the conference, and a Special Panel Discussion on "Asian she was elected to serve as First Vice-President Perspectives on Social Harmony, Social for 1997-1999. The Science Council ofJapan Stability and Diversity in Globalizing is current president of IFSSO. The IFSSO Societies," featuring 4 papers from China, Secretariat is based in Rome. [J

Development of General Education Course~ in the Social Sciences

In July 1997PSSC signedan agreementwith of Ateneo de Manila University, PSSC began the Committee for the Humanities, Social work on the course materials and modules for Sciences and Communication (HUSOCOM) of these GE Social Science courses. These were the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) tested in pilot training programs in late October to implement the development of 5 General to early November 1997. Some 109 social Education courses inthe Social Sciences,namely, science faculty members from Metro Manila Basic Economics, GeneralPsychology,Philippine schools and from the regions attended the pilot History, Politics and Government, and Society tralning courses which were held in Manila. The and Culture. participants were near unanimous in giving Working with the Ugnayang Pang­ positive evaluations on the content, materials, Aghamtao (Anthropological Association) and the lecture presentations, workshops and other Philippine Sociological Society and with the aspects of the pilot training courses. The History,Economics andPsychologyDepartments implementing groups are now in the process of finalizingand producing their course materials- for andorganizingtheirnext echotrainingcourses packages for wider distribution to colleges and with the assistance of earlier trainees to be held universities.Allare alsointhe process ofplanning withinMetro Manila and the regions.n

AJI....,.. c...... ,••, F.""c.,,',,••"en'. !Jationa' Social Science Congress 91' Study and Research Center, Inc. will sponsor (fJSSC 9V) the next "International Conference on Language Education" to be held on April 3-4, The Second Pre-Congress of NSSC IV will 1998 at the Manila Midtown Hotel. Inquiries be held at the PSSC Auditorium on 20-21 March may be directed to Dr. Emma S. Castillo, 1998. Pre-Congress II will focus on "The Social Conference Director, at the Philippine Normal Sciencesand Other Branchesof Knowledge" and University, Manila. [] will consist of paper presentations synthesized from earlier roundtable discussions on the St. Paul Univereity - The Internet interface between the social sciences and nine NoaalS'ft;ation in Region 2 other branches of knowledge including Engineering, Architecture and Technology; St. Paul UniversityinTuguegarao, Cagayan Information Technology; Health and Medicine; has been chosen by the Commission on Higher Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries; Environ­ Education (CHED) as the InternetNodal Station mental Sciences; Culture and the Arts; Media for educational institutions in Region 2. S1.Paul Studies; Law; and Management. Dr.LedivinaV. University's Research and Development Office Carino, U.P. College of PublicAdministration,is is an Associate Member ofPSSC. Convenor for Pre-Congress II. The Internet Nodal Station is designed to The Third Pre-Congress will take place on accommodate a maximum of 15 schools using May 22-23, 1998also at the PSSC, on the theme dial-up connection. Webnet Philippines, Inc. "The Social Sciences and Public Policy and will provide the station with a 24-hour internet Practice." The program is being finalized by connection and access for a maximum of 200 Convenor Cynthia B. Bautista, U.P. Center for workstationsplus internetindividual accounts(E­ Integrative Development Studies. mail addresses) for students and University The main NSSC IV Congress will also personnel. P1I'&T, on the other hand,will provide serve as the Annual Scientific Meeting of the 64 Kbps telecommunicationlines for instant and National Academy of Science and Technology efficientconnectivity. The Universitywill be the (NAST) for 1998. This major event will take lone user of the line, thus, Internet access is place on 8-9 July 1998 at the Westin Philippine instantaneous. Plaza. The papers that will be presented will Wrththe Internet, teachers and students can draw from the earlier pre-Congresses and exchange ideas and studies with other teachers will highlight the contributions of the social and students around the globe through the sciences to nation-building in the last 100 Electronic-mail (E-mail). Files and computer years. [] software can be obtained and downloaded into the user's computer through the File Transfer International Conference on Protocol (FTP). Through Telnet, remote access Language Education is possible from other computer sites. And with The Language Education Council the WorldWideWeb(WWW)informationis easily (LEDCO) of the Philippines and the Language availableto the users.tt 4& THE PSSt fRAN)[ X."INto I.DRARY

NEW ACQUlSlnON5-PDlplnfaaa

Churchill, Bernardita • Antonio C. Hila-Social Engineering in Reyes (Ed.) 1997 Operation: The Case of Glenn A. May s DeterminingtheTruth;The Inventing a Hero Story ofAndres Bonifacio. Manila: Manila Studies • Ruel F. Papa-A Critique ofGlenn Anthony Association,Inc., National Mays Response to the Guerrero-Villegas Commission for Culture Critique ofMay s Inventing q Hem and a and the Arts-Committee on Further Evaluation ofSaid Book HistoricalResearch,Philip­ pine National Historical • Samuel K. Tan-Commentary on Glenn Society,Inc. 100pp. May s Inventing a Hero

Determining the Truth; The Story ofAndres Bonifacio is a collectionof sevencommentaries on Reviewof Women:v Glenn May's book, Inventing a Hero; The Studies, Vol. V No.2, PosthumousRe-creationofAndresBonifacio(New Vol. VI No.1 (1996) DayPublishers,1997).Exceptforonecommentary, "WomeninHistoryand the papers in this book were first presentedat the Revolution" Ninth Annual Conference of the Manila Studies Diliman, Quezon City: Association, Inc. held in Manila in June 1997 University Center for focusingon "The Revolutionin 1899." Women's Studies, Uni­ v~rsity The paperwritersand their contributionsare: ofthe Philippines. Edited by Thelma B. Kintanar, this double • Digna B. ApiJado-Andres Bonifacio as issueof the Review ofWomeni Studies is a special Nationalist and Revolutionary centennialofferingfeaturing 14papers on women and the Philippine Revolution. It includes an Art • Malcolm H. Churchill-Determining the Folio by 12 Filipino womenartists and poetry by Truth about ForgedDocuments in Writing the JoiBarrios. Story ofAndres Bontfacio The 14papers and their writers are: • MalcolmH. Churchill-Exposingan Exposer: A Critical Look at Glenn May i Inventing a • Ma. Luisa T. Camagay-Ang Kababaihansa Hero Tekstoat Reyalidad

• Rolando M. Gripaldo--The Logic ofGlenn • Ma. Luisa T. Camagay-Women in the Text May in Inventing a Hero and in Reality o paz Policarpio-The Filipino Womenduring results of the author's work in five Metro Manila the Revolution; urban poor communities. Dr. Berner argues that these localities are more than geographic areas; they • Digna Balangue Apilado-The Women of consistofpeoplelivinginorganizedsocialnetworks Ilocos in the Revolutionary Era which form the base for the strategic actions they take to adapt to their environment. • Maria Milagros Geremia-Lachica-Panays Babaylan: The Male Takeover The book has 6 chapters as follows:

• Ma. Cecilia Locsin-Nava-TeresaMagbanua: • GlobalizationandPolarizationinMetroManila WomanWarrior • Reflections in Urban Theory • Madrilei'ia de la Cerna-Some Sources on Women s Participation in the Revolution in • The Locality as the Center of Everyday Life Central and Eastern Visayas o The Locality i~ the Metropolis • Thelma B. Kintanar and Carina C. David­ Salud Algabre, Revolutionary • Agency and Collective Action through Local Organizations • GertieAmpiiTIrona-W1lyare SomeFilipinas Historic but not Heroic? • Opportunities and Limitations of Local Organizing. • Albina Peczon Fernandez-.lfWomen are the Best Men in the Philippines. Why are They Porio, Emma with Invisible in History? Contributors. 1997 Urban Governance and • Lilia Quindoza-Santiago-Ang Pinag­ mumulan ng Kaisipang Feminista sa Pilipinas Poverty Alleviation in Southeast Asia: Trends • Lilia Quindoza-Santiago-Roots ofFeminist and Prospects. Quezon Thought in the Philippines City: Department of Sociology and Anthro­ • Maria Teresa Martinez-Sicat-The Filipino pology, School ofGovem­ Womenand/in the Filipino Rebel ment, and Center for Social Policy and Public Affairs, Ateneo de Manila • Patricia B. Arinto-Reading Corres­ University; and Global Urban Research Institute pondences: A Critical Analysis ofthe Letters (GURl) in Southeast Asia. 203 pp. between Rizal and His Sisters This volume consists of the papers presented at the Subregional Workshops on Urban Governance Berner, Erhard. 1997 organized by GURl inNovember 1994 at the Ateneo Defending a Place in the de Manila University. GURl is a global network of City; Localities and the urban researchers in Asia,Africa and Latin America Strugglefor UrbanLand in which aims to generate interest in urban policy Metro Manila. Quezon research. The papers in this book address the City: Ateneo de Manila relationship between urban governance and poverty University Press. 243 pp. alleviation initiatives in Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam. This book draws the

48 Chapter I, written by Dr. Porio, synthesizes • JFelisa U. lEtemadi-Urban Governance and seven research papers which make up the volume. Poverty Alleviation: The Cebu City Experience The synthesis starts with the economic, socio­ political, and demographic changes characterizing • Banasopit Mekvechan-Patterns of the Asia-Pacific region in the last 10 to 15 years Development. Planning, and Governance in and focuses on the major urban policy reforms Thailand taken by societies such as decentralization and privatization in urban development and politics, • Prapapat Niyom-eritical Partnerships in and the role of civil society in initiating such Governance and Poverty Alleviation reforms. This is followed by the country papers prepared by: • Somsook Boonyabancha-Enabling Com­ munitiesThroughSavingsandIntegrated Credit • Ida Ayu Indira Dharmapatni and Budhy Schemes as a Strategyfor Dealing withPoverty Tjahjati S. Soegijoko-Urban Governance in Alleviation: The Case ofthe UrbanCommunity Indonesia: A Preliminary Assessment Development Office, Thailand

• Anna Marie A. Karaos-Urban Governance • Thai Thi Ngoc Du-Urban Governance and in the Philippines Poverty Alleviation in South Vietnam

psseis offering thePSSCSocial Science Information in exchange for the publications of other social science organizations. Those interested in entering exchange arrangements are enjoined to write to:

The Librarian Frank X. Lynch Library Philippine Social Science Council PSSCenter, Commonwealth Avenue Diliman, 1101Quezon City Philippines or U.P.P.O.Box 205 Diliman, 1101Quezon City Philippines

49

/ Abstrads Ofpsse RAP-Funded Theses andDissertations, 1990-1997"

e PSSC Research Award Program (RAP) presents the abstracts of 59 theses and was established in 1972 to assist Filipino dissertations completed with RAP assistance T:graduate students complete their M.A. from 1990-1997. Abstracts of those completed or Ph.D. degrees in the social sciences. To from 1973 to 1984 appear in two publications date, RAP has extended assistance to some (Abstracts 0 f PSSC-Funded Research 439 graduate students, 79 percent of whom Projects: 1973-1978 and Abstracts ofPSSC­ have successfully completed their graduate Funded Research Projects: 1979-1984), while studies. those finished in 1985-1990 were abstracted in a mimeographed compilation produced in This issue of Social Science Information 1991.

COMMUNICATION/LANGUAGE PAmRNS AND COGNITIVE LEARNING INTHE CLASSROOM

ACRAMAN, MEDALYNBERTUDAN. (Ph.D.• ...-cORONEL. IRMA C. (D. Ed., Department of --- Department of Language and Teaching. Educational Foundations. College of College of Education. University of the Education, University of the Philippines, Philippines, Diliman, 1992.) An Analysis of Diliman, April 1990.) The Cognitive the Non-Verbal Communicative Behavioral Outcomes ofElementary Schooling in the Patterns ofNative and Non-Native Meranao Philippines: A Secondary Analysis. Teachers With Their Learners. This study lookedinto the cognitive outcomes This study describes, documentsand compares of elementary schooling in the Philippines by the non-verbal communicativebehavioralpatterns analyzing data drawn from the 1982 Home and of native Meranao (NM) and non-native Meranao School Matching Survey. The subjects (NNM) teachers with Meranaolearnersto discover consisted of 1.989 fourth grade pupils and 116 the existence of similarities or differences in their teachers from ·100 schools in 94 communities encouraging and inhibiting non-verbal patterns of throughout the country. Findings reveal that the iIiteractionaffectingthe pupils'learning processes. core cognitive outcomes of elementary Specifically.the study tried to find out how culture schooling in the Philippines are limited to a few is manifested in the non-verbal communicative basic skills (i.e.• reading, writing, mathematics) behavioralpatterns ofNM andNNM teachers with and are influenced by factors within the control their learners. The subjects were teachers and ofthe school as well as those beyond its reach. students of selected public and private Gradeschoolers are deficient in the basic skills elementary schools. high schools and colleges needed to cope with the demands of schooling. in Marawi City and Lanao del Sur.

*The abstracts in this volume of SSI were written by Faith Anemone O. Estrella, PSSC Assistant Librarian.

50 / CUSIPAG, MARIA N. (Ph.D., Division of This study addresses the issue of the alleged Curriculum and Instruction, University of the linguistic infantilism and cognitive deficit in Philippines, 1996.) Communication bilingual education resulting from the use of a Strategies in Audience-Based Compositions foreign language as medium of instruction. It ofSecond Language Learners. hopes to contribute to the comparatively little information regarding these covert operations The study investigated the different involved in the teaching-learning process. The conununication strategies employed by Filipino study looks into the strategies employed by college students in their Englisll written secondary teachers to develop cognition and compositions.The study wasconductedamong64 metacognition among fourth year high- and low­ college students enrolled in the College of Arts ability science students in 3 high schools in Metro and Sciences and other departments of four Manila. colleges and universities in Luzon during the schoolyear 1995-96. Findingsshowno significant JAVIER, ALEXANDER G. (ph.D. Education, relationship between the students' choice of /ColLege of Education, University of the conununicationstrategies and the lengthof formal Philippines, Diliman, March 1995.) Kinship training in English. But there is a significant Relations in a Private High School. relationship between their choice of conununication strategies and their awareness of This study describes how kinship relations their intended audience. influenced the management and operation of Central Luzon Academy (CLA), a private ESPIRITU, CLEMENCIA C. (ph.D. Linguistics, institution in Nueva Ecija. Kinship relations facilitated the institutionalization of the school ? ~;~~:>at~S~;~~~~i~~~~~~~~~~~~;i~~ and offered a basis of conunitment and loyalty . in Philippine Classrooms. to the institution. The study findings suggest that kinship relations can be tapped to benefit This study investigates the pre- and post and enhance the management of schools and classroom activities engaged in by pupils that other formal institutions. influence the type and quality of behavior they display in the classroom. The study involved the development of an eclectic system for analyzing Yi~~;~~, ~~Ts~n ~J~~~ti~~~c~~:de~~ various aspects of teacher-pupil classroom ship and Professional Services, College of interaction in the Philippines. Subjects for the Education, University of the Philippines, study consisted of Social Studies and Science March 1994.) English Language Profictency teachers and their students in 2 elementary and 2 of Beginning Teachers, Classroom high schools in Metro Manila. On the whole, the Interaction and Pupil Achievement: developed system may provide avenues for Implications for the Bilingual Education discovering, understanding andanalyzing factors Policy. influencing classroom interaction and learning in the Philippines. This study was undertaken to determine the Englishlanguageproficiencyof beginningteachers ~FORONDA, BELEN R. (M.Ed. Department of of math and science subjects and the effect of this / Language Teaching, College of Education, on class interaction and pupil achievement. University of the Philippines, Diliman, April Teacher respondents were the beginning teachers 1990.) Strategies Employed By Teachers to of Grade 4 Science and Mathematics in two DevelopCognitionandMetacognittonAmong divisions ofthe National Capital Region and their Secondary Science Students. respective classes. The study found that the level

51 of English language proficiency of beginning The study describes the cultural knowledge teachers is lo~ and that they are ill-equipped to acquired by medical students, the methods of handle Math and Science subjects taught in cultural transmission and the 'meanings' students English. The findings suggest that the poor attach to knowledge of transmission processes. performance of pupils in science and mathematics Medical students imbibe the institutionalized subjects may be associated with their teachers' strains and stresses inherent in medical ~ducation inadequate comprehension of the English which are due to heavy workloads, the school's language. Hence, the continued use of English as emphasis on grades, a straight-jacket curriculum, the medium of instruction for science and and a complex and rule-oriented environment in mathematics, as mandated by the Bilingual internship. The making of the medical doctor has Education Policy, may contribute to the further three inseparable dimensions: the knowledge deterioration of instruction in these subject areas. dimension (technical and cultural), the channels or transmission processes dimension, and the LOPEZ, MELISSA LUCIA 1. (M.A., Department meanings attached to the knowledge and processes dimension. / ~~:::o~;;il ~~;~~)si~;f~:~~~~;,~e;i Arithmetic Concepts and Skills in Slow MAG GAY, MELBA PADILLA (Ph.D., Learners. .------Department of Pilipino, University of the Philippines, December 1994.) Pahiwatig: This study attempts to analyze how slow Tuwiran at Dt Tuwirang Pagpapahayag sa learners develop an understanding of arithmetic Konteksto ng Kulturang Ptltpino. concepts and skills, as the Decimal Numeration System and the operations of addition, subtraction, This is an introductory study on direct and multiplication, and division. The study indirect statements of the concept of Philippine participants were nine Grade Two students at the culture. It describes some communication patterns University of the Philippines Integrated School of Filipinos based on the "text" read from the who were considered by their teachers as the concept inscribed in the Filipino language and in slowest learners in class. The study found that the manner of interacting with one another as arithmetic learning involves a transition from observed or gathered by the researcher from mass manipulating objects to invoking relationships media and personally verified with actual between operations on single-digit numbers, and communities in the country. This study gives another transition from operating on single-digit attention to "pahiwatig" (cue/signs) as an numbers to operating on multi-digit numbers. The archetypal pattern of communicating observed in study identifies three arithmetic learning interpersonal verbal and non-verbal exchanges and difficulties which can be overcome: a) difficulty interactions. Observations were made by the in understanding the language used in teaching author while acting as participant and observer in arithmetic, b) difficulty in comprehending and selected Philippine indigenous communities. manipulating symbols and c) difficulty in Contrary to the belief that Filipinos cannot express coordinating the use of several concepts and their feelings, opinions and remarks directly it was skills. found that they use plenty of verbal and non­ verbal mechanisms to convey messages and LORIEGA, ELNORA VILLA (Ph.D., Division of feelings. Curriculum and Instruction, College of

/ ~~~::,O~a~~i;;~~;~eo~::t~:i~~:;:~; ME~~~~iu~O;~~~n~~r~:~i'~: ~~~;~;: ~: Cultural Transmission. ~ Education, University of the Philippines, May

52 1.997.)Literacy Events: Their Relationships first language. Second, the results further to Early Writing Attempts of Preschool strengthen the assertion that because cognitive Children. understanding is more extensive in one's first language, subjects were able to demonstrate deeper The study describes the nature of the early levels of comprehension for texts in their first writing attempts of preschool children and language. explores the reading, writing and other educational \t materials used at home both by the care-givers SANCHEZ, MILDRED ELUMBA (Ph.D., and the preschool child. The study was conducted ~ollege of Education, University of the in two low-income and two middle-income Philippines, Diliman, April 1993.) Lect­ preschools in Quezon City with 71 boys and girls Shifting in Spoken Filipino English Discourse aged five years old. Number of years in preschool among Highly Profictent Speakers ofEnglish: and early reading attempts are predictors of An Analysis. featural writing skills. Consistent with earlier researches, the study concludes that five-year-old The study looked into the lect-shifting patterns preschool children know what writing is; they of highly proficient speakers of Filipino English. knowthat written text productions carry messages; Lect-shifting is the tendency of speakers to change and that they can already write even before they the level of discourse from a formal or rhetorical are formally taught how to write. style to an informal or communicative style and vice versa. Grammatical and sentence structures, PRECLARO, EFLEDA RIESGO (M.A., lexical features and morphemic characteristics of ~artmentof Psychology, College of Social the speech repertoire of 20 speakers were Science and Philosophy, University of the analyzed. Half of the speakers came from academe Philippines, Diliman, October 1995.) The (senior college professors) while the other half Effects OfLanguage Use On The Acquisition were non-academics: five top-rated TV-talk show OfReading Skills among Bilingual Children. hosts, a senator, a congressman, a cabinet member, a columnist-business executive and a sportsman­ This study investigates the effects oflanguage broadcaster. Both groups of subjects shifted freely use in acquiring beginning reading skills among from rhetorical to communicative styles, and vice bilingual children in Manila. The subjects in the versa. Most speakers began their interactions in study were classified into 4 groups: (1) public the rhetorical norm although those from the school children with Filipino as their primary academic sector tended to be more communicative language and with low English proficiency; (2) when starting their discourse. Non-academic laboratory school children with Filipino as their speakers tended to be more -rhetorical than primary language and with relatively good English communicative, except for the TV talk show proficiency; (3) private school children with hosts whose program formats called for more Filipino as primary language and good English communicative speech. Leer-shifting is resorted proficiency; and (4) private school children with to by speakers in both groups as a form of English as their primary language and with low greeting and to get conversations going. proficiency in Filipino. Results of group comparisons confirm two major predictions based VICENCIO, EVELINA MAC LANG (ph.D., on a proposed model of reading acquisition. First, ~epartment of Educational Foundations, because of the more efficient transfer between oral College of Education, University of the and written language symbols in one's first Philippines, Diliman, October 1991.) Creative language, subjects were able to demonstrate better Teaching in Science and Health: Effect on performance in tasks for word recognition in their - Pupil Creativity and Achievement.

53 This study deals with the creative process and enhances pupils' creativity in the dimensions of fueeffects of introducing a creative teaching originality, abstractness, and elaboration, as model in Science and Health to 89 (first section) well as their achievement in Science and Health. 4th grade pupils in public schools in Metro Gender has no effect on pupils' creativity after Manila. Results show that creative teaching creative teaching.

ETHNIC GROUPS AND RELATIONS

ASAIN, CALBI ANJI (Ph.D. Philippine Studies, Studies education. It identifies cultural elementsl / College of Social Science and Philosophy, components embedded in the Maranao ILS. This University of the Philippines, Diliman, March study was conducted in communities of Lanao 1993.) The Katakata: A Study of Culture del Sur. Findings show that the Maranao ILS Change in Tausug Folktales. Vols. 1 & 2 derives from the basic socio-cultural, political, economic, and religious institutions in Maranao This study explores the extent of culture society. Maranao ILS comprises of the indigenous change in Tausug society as reflected in the beliefs, practices, and rituals which are orally people's folk narrative particularly the Tausug handed down from generation to generation. katakata (folktales). Folktales are consldered as Existing curricular offerings in the educational cultural documents which record modifications, system contradict the indigenous learning styles augmentations or improvements taking place in of theMaranao. Tausug culture as a result of possible invention, diffusion and acculturation. On the basis of 200 LASACA, FLORENTINA Z. (Ph.D. Anthro­ folktales collectedfor the study, observations point pology, Graduate School, University of San to the validity of the assumption that folktales ~arlos, October 1990.) Crisis, Social Change indeed record culture change. The tales yield data and Development Among the Salugnon on various aspects of Tausog life: agriculture, Subanun: The Case of a Political Refugee language, slavery, social structure, and trade. The Settlement in Josefina, Zamboanga Del Sur. folktales show that Tausug culture is in transition while steadfastly staying true to its Islamic This study describes the various socio­ heritage. Tausug folktales, produced and economic, political and cultural changes transmitted in an Islamized society, can serve as occurring among the Salugnon Subanun who cogent records of culture change. have settled in a refugee settlement in Josefina, Zamboanga del Norte. They were forced to DISOMANGCOP, NAINOBAI D. (Doctor of abandon their ancestral lands due to the political upheaval brought about by the / i::;~~~~~,c~~~:r~~~~~C:~i::'o~::~~~~~ insurgency. The study explores the role of of the Philippines, Diliman, May 1991.) NGOs involved in development programs in the Indigenous Learning System Among the community and evaluated their projects. Maranao: Its Implications to Social Studies Included is a historical background of the Education. Subanun before the advent of Spanish colonization to the present, a brief account of This ethnographic study investigates, the traditional culture of the Subanun based on describes, and analyzes the Maranao Indigenous previous anthropological researches, and the Learning System (ILS) and draws some recent changes affecting the Subanun in the educational implications for elementary Social resettlement area.

54 NEPOMUCENO-VAN HEUGTEN, MARIA against the Muslims than the Muslims have for __LINA CABRERA (Ph.D. in Philippine Christians. Muslims are more willing to accept Studies, College of Social Science and Christians as associates than vice-versa. On the Philosophy,Universityof the Philippines,June cause of the Mindanao Conflict, Christians 1994.) Mga Pagpapa-halagang Amerikano believe that Muslims want to control Mindanao sa Values Education Program ng DECS: even if they are the minority. The Muslims Pagsusuri sa mga Teksbuk sa Mababang believe that the problem is caused by the unjust Paaralang Pampubliko. treatment of Muslims by government. Both Muslims and Christians agree that the manner This study reviews the textbooks and in which Muslims and Christians behave toward supplementary reading materials used by public each other has an impact on the Mindanao elementary schools from 1901 to 1932. It takes Conflict. They both agree that the relationships note of six values mentioned in these materials between Christians and Muslims leave much to andcomparesthese with the contentsof textbooks be desired. used from 1988-1994 to advance the Values Education Program of DECS. It found that the SALIC, BASHER D. (Doctor of Education, lattertextbooksstillcarry similarAmericanvalues AJepartment of Professional Education, promoted in the earlier period. The study takes / College of Education, University of the this as an indicationof the lack of attentiongiven Philippines, Diliman, June 1990.) A Content to the history and values education program in Analysis of Instructional Materials in the Philippines. Philippine History: Towards Utilization of Muslim History in Social Studies L NuNEZ, ROSALITA TOLIBAS (Master in National Security Administration, National The study sought to answer the question, "To Defense College of the Philippines, Fort what extent is Filipino Muslim history coveredin Bonifacio, June 1994.) Psycho-Cultural Social Studies I textbooks?" The seven Social Dimension of the Mindanao Conflict: Its Studies I textbooks being used in first year high Implications to National Security. school were analyzed in terms of two sets of categories: history aspects (classified into This study explores the psycho-cultural political, social, economic and cultural) and dimension of the Mindanao Conflict and how time periods (classified into pre-colonial, this is affecting national security, Respondents colonial and post-colonial). Findings reveal that include Christians and Muslim groups (Tausog, only 2% to 3% of the contents of each textbook Maranao and Maguindanao) living in General are devoted to Filipino Muslim history. Of the Santos City, Sulu, Lanao del Sur and topics that have found their way into the Maguindanao. The results reveal discrepancies textbooks, the majority are political history between the value expectations and value topics followed by cultural history topics. The capabilities of Muslim groups on all categories least covered are social and economic history of the interpersonal values. The perceptions of topics. As to time period, the textbooks devote Muslims and Christians of each other show that more discussion to Filipino Muslim history Christians have stronger biases and prejudices during the pre-colonial period.

55 FARMING AND FISHING COMMUNInES

Y.RCILLANO, MALU CRUZ (M.S. The study looks into the interpersonal / Agricultural Economics, Graduate School, communication patterns and knowledge levels of Xavier University-Ateneode Cagayan, March upland farmers in Pakil and Cavinti, Laguna. A 1993.) The Socio-Economic Conditions of total of 144 Integrated Social Forestry Program Higaonon Farmers in Naawan, Misamts (ISFP) participants in these areas serve as the Oriental, 1991-1992. study respondents. Interpersonal communication is the most available and preferred source of This study describes and analyzes the socio­ information on community organization, forest economic conditions of Higaonon farmers in conservation and agroforestry among upland Naawan, Misamis Oriental in 1991-1992. Specific farmers. The most important informationthat they aspects of their socioeconomicconditionsthat are need have to do with sources of credit and detailedly examined are their sources and levels alternative sources of income. Among the of family income, family expenditure and savings interpersonal communication variables and patterns, level of living, participation in knowledge level, only the amount of exposure to sociopolitical processes and their perceptions/ ISFP personnel and the knowledge level on forest aspirations in life. conservation are found positively correlated among the Cavinti upland farmers. CAMPOS, MARIBEC A. (Ph.D. Agricultural Economics, University of the Philippines, Los ISORENA, SALVADORV. (M.S. Environmental ~ ~afi;:~s~7~S~:~i:: g;t~~O;~;V;:;::::~ ~~~:,s'O~t:~:;s~~9~~ t~u~~~~~~~~;e~~: Regulation ofBaby Bagnets in Calauag Bay,. of Upland Farmers to Environmental Quezon. Conditions in Solong, San Miguel, Catanduanes. Economic evaluation of fish catch from baby bagnets shows that municipal fishermen lose as The study looks into the survival strategies of much as Pl,513,532 during the spawning months some 87 upland farming households in Solong, of March to June.The explanatory variables found San Miguel, Catanduanes. It describes their to have significant effects on fish yield are the cropping patterns and conservation methods/ number of boats in operation, livestock weights, practices. To meet their need for cash and food, number of industrial establishments, forest cover, the study shows that farmers resort to price offish, and domestic effluents. The level of diversified economic activities; avail of credit fishing effort (number of boats) is not positively systems and assistance from government and associated with fishing yield, reflecting the fact non-government groups; and make do with that Calauag Bay's fishery is overexploited. The whatever resources there are at their disposal. basic economic efficiency indicators show that Also discussed is the migration of upland implementation of seasonal regulation is feasible farmers. and will bring positive results for municipalboats, when projected for 15 years. MASCARINAS, ARNULFO M. (M.S. Rural /,Sociology, University of the Philippines, Los GONZALEZ, CONCEPCION S. (M.S. Banos, February 1991.) Credit Behavior of Farmers in Four Rainfed Barangays inAlbay. / ~:v;~fl~~~~~:~~n~:~~:: ~;~~~r~~~3~~ Interpersonal Communication Patterns and The study identifies and describes prevailing Knowledge Levels of Upland Farmers in credit systems located in Guinobatan and Daraga, Pakil and Cavtnti, Laguna. Albay. Data were collected from 75 individual 56 respondents and 15 key informants in four rainfed brought about by the confluence of interacting barangays, Results reveal that informal credit is variables such as environmental factors and the prevailing credit system in the study sites. population pressure. As a process, rural poverty Borrowers engage in different forms or practices is a continuous series of adaptations which enable of informal credit. Some also avail of the formal the community and its people to survive under credit system offered by banks and cooperatives. the constraints of resource scarcity. Meanwhile, Education, tenure status, farm size, annual family institutional adaptations occur as a result of the income, existing kinship system, perception of impact of development programs and projects. formal and informal credit systems are some of the variables that affect the farmers' credit MOLANO, WILMA L. (Master of Statistics, behavior. . ? :~~l~~~::~~ D:I~;~~' M~;i;;;~~;~ta~;ti~:~ MASCARINAS, ARNULFO M. (Ph.D. in Analysis of Consumption Expenditure S.ommunity Development, Graduate School, Patterns of Households in Selected -/tJniversity of the Philippines, Los Banos, Barangays in Bulacan. October 1993.) Rural Poverty and Institutional Adaptations: An Alternative The study presents a statistical analysis of Frameworkfor CommunityAnalysis. consumption expenditure patterns among 500 households in ten selected barangays in The study describes and examines the nature Bulacan. It identifies different expenditure of rural poverty and institutional adaptations functions that determine income elasticities and in a rice farming community in Bicol. Findings total expenditure elasticities. It then tries to show that rural poverty can be viewed as both develop a model which best fits the data for a condition and a process. As a condition, it is estimating elasticities.

HEALTH AND PERSONALITY DISORDER

BEARNEZA, SOL MARL ITA E. (M.A. This research studied twenty Metro Manila Sociology, Xavier University, March 1990.) adults and young adults with Bipolar Disorder, a ~cio-Economic Factors and Breastfeeding psychological abnormality generally characterized Practice in Northern Mindanao (Region X). by unpredictable alternating periods of extreme depression and elation. The subjects have The study describes breastfeeding practices undergone or are still in therapy. The study and their duration among 535 women in Northern describes the coping patterns used by bipolars to Mindanao (Region X). It shows that breastfeeding maintain functionality during periods of relative is widely practiced but of short duration. normality. The subjects were divided into two Residence, education and the employment status groups and categorized as high functioning and of mothers exhibit significant negative low functioning. Comparing the two groups, the relationships with breastfeeding, while age of wife study finds no significant differences in their in weakly associated with the practice. coping strategies. High functioning manic depressives do not have significantly stronger ENCARNACION, RUBEN L. (Master of Arts coping strategies than low functioning ones. But ~n9~sr.)ho~:;i:;en;;r~~e~::;la ~ni;:~ti~ high functioning bipolars tend to continue r: working or do work that they find fulfilling Depressives. more than low functioning bipolars. Low

57 functioning bipolars tend to protect the Social Science and Philosophy, University confidentiality of their condition more than high of the Philippines, April 1992.) Isang functioning bipolars. Panimulang Pag-aaral sa Konsepto ng mga Bata sa Panahilan ng Sakit at QUINIO, ARIEL E. (Master of Industrial Kalusugan: Relasyon sa Edad at ng Uri ng ~~:~:~~~~s;, ~~~:~r~ftyu~~a;h;n:h~~~;~~~:~ Komunidad, Diliman, January 1996.) Organizational This study compareschildren's understanding Stress and Workers Dysfuncttoning: A andconceptof sicknessand health andtheircauses .Multtvariable Analysis. in "tenant" and "enterprise" communities in Munoz,Nueva Ecija. "Tenant"communitieshave This study examines and identifies various limited sources of income, like agricultural and organizational factors that causework stress and fishing communities. "Enterprise" communities dysfunctioning among 357 Metro Manila are like urban centers of commerce and politics. respondents, 147 of whom are from the private The study found a qualitative difference in the manufacturing sector, 65 from the private children's concept of sickness and health in service sector and 145 from the government the 2 types of communities. On the causes of service sector. Findings show that the workers' sickness, the traditional concept of "init at perceived organizational stress are significantly lamig" (hot and cold) prevailed in the two related to income, educational attainment and communities, but a "biomedical" concept was occupation, but less so with age. Results provide also evident in the "enterprise community". On strong evidence that role factors such as quality the health aspect, children from the "tenant of work load, task design, or characteristics of community" were inclined to attribute these to the work itself, are significantly related with physical and emotional causes, while those in workers' level of dysfunctioning. From a the "enterprise community" attributed these to managerial perspective, this implies that job physical, social and those in mental processes. enrichment and job enlargementare important in Children's concept of causes of sickness and sustaining individual satisfaction with work. health mirror not only the level of cognitive development of these children, but also the U!.ANO-BATANGAN, MARIA THERESA "opportunity structure" prevailing in their /: DATU (M.A. Psychology, College of communities.

IMPACT OFGOVERNMENT POUCY AND PROJECTS

AT!, MACABANGKIT P. (Doctor of Public Davao City. The study reveals that both pilot Administration, College of Public barangayshadadvancedexposureto mostIALDM Administration,Universityof the Philippines, strategies. They underwent year-roundprocesses I Diliman, December 1996.) Process Assess­ of engagingin social mobilizationand community ment ofthe Implementation ofIntegrated preparation activities. Community-basedstrategy Approachto Local DevelopmentManagement marked the implementation of IALDM as (IALDM). evidencedby the participation of the people. The external factors identified to influence the This is a descriptive study of the processes implementationofIALDM strategies are external involved in the implementation of the Integrated support, existenceandcooperationof civilsociety Approach to Local Development Management partners, and socio-economic and infrastructure (IALDM) in a rural and an urban barangay in facilities.

58 BUENDIA, RIZAL G. (Master of Public capture graduates work as technicians, fishpond caretakers or operators and extension workers. On ?~=~~::::~~:riniv~r~i~~:theO:hili:;i:~~: the other hand, fish preservation graduates are Diliman, April 1993.) Ethnicity and Local hired as inspectors and supervisors by some fish Autonomy: A Re-Examination of the preservation industries. Cordillera Question (A Case Study ofthe Sumadel Tribe, Kalinga-Apayao]. LAMARCA, FERDINAND J. (Doctor of Public ~ministration, College of Pub.lic Admi­ The study focuses on the implications oflocal Onistration, University of the Philippines, Igovernment autonomy on indigenous tribes. - Dillman, April 1992.) The TobaccoContract Taking the case of the Sumadel Tribe of the Growing Project ofthe National Tobacco OCalinglil in the Cordillera, the study show that Administration in the ProvinceofLa Union: ethnic autonomy and self-government among An Assessment of the Administrative the Sumadel Kalingas is intricately defined in Capability,Participation, TradingPractices their bodong, or system of governance; pagta, and Effectiveness. the principal source of customary laws; and the bogis, the territorial jurisdiction of the tribe where This study assesses the effectiveness of the both the bodong and pagta are anchored. Tobacco Contract Growing Project (TCGP) of the Government policies, however; do not address National Tobacco Administration (NTA) in La ethnicity and autonomy issues in a Union. It sought to determine the effectiveness of comprehensive and holistic manner. For the project as was affected by NTA's indigenous peoples, the government's administrative capability, farmers' participation recognition of and respect for their system of and traders' involvement; as well as the effect of governance, customary laws, and ancestral domain socio-economic characteristics and group would be the quintessence of autonomy, self­ consciousness on farmers' participation in the government, and self-determination. project. The subjects consisted of 3 groups of tobacco farmers namely: project cooperators, non­ DELGADO, ELVIRA C. (Ph.D. in Research and cooperators and project drop-outs, and selected ~aluation, Department of Educational program implementors. Farmers' participation in Foundations, College of Education, University the project is jointly affected by their group of the Philippines, Diliman, July 1990.) An consciousness and socio-economic charac­ Evaluation of the On-The-Job Training teristics. Also, TCGP farmers seemed to have Component of the Fisheries Technical a significant edge over non-TCGP farmers with Program of the Rifts. respect to sales.

This is an evaluative study of the on-the-job MEDINA, MA. CECILIA T. (M.A. in Asian training (OIT) componentof the fisheries technical program of the Regional Institutes for Fisheries A~~I~~;:~~,s~7li;::~eric~~~:e;~i~i .)f;~: Technology (RIFTs). It sought to determine the Landless Agricultural Workers in Central extent to which OIT objectives were achieved and Luzon, Philippines and Java. Indonesia: A carried out in the different RIFTs. The Comparative Study of the Effects of respondents consisted of trainees, employed GovernmentProgramsand Policies on Their graduates, OIT trainors/supervisors -and Status. employers of seven RIFTs in Aparri, Albay, Cebu, Davao, Palawan, Samar and Zamboanga. Findings The study attempts to determine the effects of reveal that RIFT graduates are contractually government programs and policies on the status employed in either private or public fishery of landless agricultural workers in Central establishments/agencies. Fish culture and fish Luzon, Philippines and Java, Indonesia. It

59 • focuses on the 1970-1985 period when The study classifies lands in Benguet government programs and policies on land according to ownership and utilization; reform, land settlements, and the green determines the traditional practices of land revolution were carried out. The effects of ownership and use; identifies the different laws these programs on the landless agriculture promulgated through legislation, special workers are gauged by exploring their access decrees, executive orders, proclamations and to land and the labor arrangements and Supreme Court decisions on land ownership; employment conditions they participated in. and analyzes the development implications of Findings of the study reveal that landless land ownership and utilization in Benguet. The agricultural workers in both countries have a study had 240 respondents consisting of very low status compared to other sectors of government officials, community leaders, the rural population. Government programs and reference leaders and landowners. Land to the policies have at times aggravated their status. Benguet people is acquired by inheritance and The Green Revolution displaced labor at certain by forest occupation. Land is used basically for stages of agricultural production. Land reform agricultural purposes. Laws are found alsomainlybenefitedotherrural sectorsandclosed prohibitive and limiting of the socio-economic the opportunities for the landless to rise up the aspirations of respondents. The most affected social ladder. aspect of their agricultural sub-system is the kaingin, Laws are also perceived as a hindrance SJNGA,EVELYNB. (ph.D. Rural Development, to the declaration of public land for private / Benguet State' University, April 1991.) purposes; while lack of technology is viewed Analysis of Ownership and Utilization of as limiting productivity on land. Land in Benguet.

INDUSTRIES

MANALO, ZENAIDA A. (Ph.D. Urban and the early stages of sub-contracting may be Regional Planning, School of Urban and exploitative without proper guidance from government; and that the common ~:i~i~pn;~S,p~~~~:~M~~~vl~;~JT~:R~~: subcontracting arrangement in the Philippines ofSubcontracting in Accelerating Regional is non-exclusive, i.e., a sub-contractor produces Ihdustrtaltzatton. not for one but for many parent firms. A successful sub-contracting network also This study assesses whether the process of sustains export operations that have established subcontracting can be an effective vehicle for strong footholds in the international market. transmitting regional growth and eventually generating regional development.The enterprises ROSALES, MANOLlTA C. (Master of Arts in included in the case studies and their respective ..-Jfistory,Universityof San Carlos, June 1990.) product lines were confined to furniture, one of /' The Impact of Nasipit Lumber Company on the product lines found to be responsive to the the Social Classes of Nasipit Town: A process of subcontracting. The research reveals Historical Study. that subcontracting indeed has promising potentials for creating linkages among large, This study determines the impact of Nasipit medium, and small-scale industries. Spatially, Lumber Company (NALCO) on the socio­ subcontracting also has spread effects between economic developmentof Nasipit. It provides a major and minor urban centers and is a potent description of pre-NALCO society (1880-1945) tool for attaining regional development in areas and post-NALCO society (1946-1988) and with industrial advantages. The study revealsthat highlights the economic and political changes in

60 Nasipit from 1926 to 1988. Interviewing 34 other hand, the absorption by NALCO of tenants, Nasipit residents, the study revealed that many small fishermen and marginal farmers created It farm tenants went to work for NALCO, leading social group dependent on wage labor. In general, to a decline in agricultural yields which affected NALCO affected Nasipit's population growth, the status of traditional land-owning elites. On the structure, and average income.

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION EXCHANGE

DABLIO, MARIANITA DUMANGAS (Ph.D. from a perspective of how technology innovators .--€crmmunication, College of Mass Commu­ define information exchange as an experience. The nication, University of the Philippines, study reveals that information exchange as a Diliman, May 1992.) Towards a Process process revolves around three core concepts or Model ofInformation Exchange Between categories, namely: a) communicative moves; b) Technology Innovators and Their Publics. interactional conditions; and c) consequential technologies of exchange. Results show that This study generates a model of information information exchange may be conceptualized as a exchange between technology innovators and their communicative move rooted in the interaction of publics. The investigation was directed at studying innovators with their publics and developed as information exchange as a process and was derived courses of action to deal with them.

LITERACY

LALUNIO, LYDIA PEREZ (Ph.D. Linguistics, school where year level became a predictor to Graduate School, Philippine Normal College, literacy. Age, employment status and ethnicity I March 1990.) Literacy ofSchool Dropouts. were not associated with literacy performance.

This study describes the literacy performance PADO, FELICITAS E. (Ph.D. in Education, of school dropouts and the factors that affect their A)epartment of Educational Foundations, literacy in Filipino and in English. Sixty-two / College of Education, University of the dropouts, half of whom were unemployed, from Philippines, Diliman, December 1990.) Home elementary and high schools in Barangay San Jose, Environment and Literacy Behaviors of General Mariano Alvarez, Cavite, were the Preschool-Age Filipino Children. subjects of the study. The study reveals that the subjects' relationships with other people, their type This study uses a new perspective on early of work, number of years at work, interest and reading and writing which emphasizes that a young motivation, and availability of reading materials child, from very earliest stages develops attitudes helped strengthen their literacy. Bible study and abilities that contribute to eventual success sessions helped develop their reading skills. Both in reading. The study looks into the early literacy elementary and high school dropouts relied more behavior of preschool-age children and home on graphic cues in reading English text and used environment factors that relate to the development contextual cues in reading Filipino text. IQ was of this behavior. The subjects were 128 urban associated with literacy in both the elementary children aged 3 to 6 years in Quezon City. Children grades and high school. The number of years a manifested literacy in relation to book orientation, person attends school was not associated with early reading and early writing. Interest in literacy at the elementary level. It was only in high storyreading was manifested through facial

61 expressions. Majority of children participated manifest literacy behavior prior to formal ill discussions prior to storyreading. They also schooling. Their literacy behavior is related to analyzed letter features, and exhibited hand their socio-economic status and to some writing skills. Preschool Filipino children cognitive and affect factors in the home.

LOCAL HISTORY

CLIMACOSA, DAVID D. (Ph.D. in Philippine TOTANES, STEPHEN HENRY S. (M.A. Studies, College of Social Science and /'Philippine History, College of Social Science

/ ~~:f~:~~~~r~n~~~~.~tyE;:n~;i:~~~~~e;i ~fi~~~~s::~~~i;;~~~ty ~~~:;:~.ipr~e;: Laguna. 1946-1988. 1941: Principalia Politics and Economic Development. This study traces the economic history of Laguna from the immediate Post-World War II The thesis provides a broad overview of the period, through the period of recovery and developments in the province of Sorsogon during reconstruction in 1946-1965, the development the AmericanOccupation, from 1900-1941. It was period in 1966-1981, the economic crisis in 1981­ in 1900 when American troops first set foot on 1986, and finally,the period of economicrecovery Sorsogon soil to set up a colonial administration. and concomitant frustrations in 1986-1988. It By late 1941, the Japanese had entered and looks at Laguna's economic history and relates occupied a large part of the province to begin this with developments in the national economy. another administration which would last for about Laguna's economicdevelopmenthasdependedon three and a half years. The study describes the the resources of the province and the guidelines development of Sorsogon socially, politically and set forth by the national government. Laguna's economically during the years of the American resources must not only be properly used but also occupation. Vital to this developmentwas the role optimally transformed, allocated and distributed played by theprincipales of Sorsogon, the leading to all parts of the province. Proper and optimal citizens who held political office and who were transformation, allocation, and distribution are largely responsible for setting the direction of the functions that only provincial government can province's development. perform efficiently.

ORGANIZATIONS

ESPINOZA-ABADINGO, LOURDES M. capability in conducting elections, the role it /-(Doctor of Public Administration, College of plays in Philippine elections, changes in its Public Administration, University of the administrative capability through the years, and Philippines, Diliman, April 1990.) The possible improvements in the administration of Administration of Elections in the elections in the Philippines. The study found Philippines: A Study of the Commission on that under the 1935 Constitution, the Com­ Elections. mission had a strong capability to administer elections; the administrative capability of the This study "assesses the administrative poll body was further strengthened under the capability of the Commission on Elections and 1973 Constitution; and the Commission on its impact on election results and outcomes. It Elections was revitalized under the 1987 examines the Commission's administrative Constitution. 62 SOMERA, RENE D. (Ph.D. Department of Role in Philippines External Relations: The ~ Anthroplogy, Michigan State University, Philippine Chamber of Commerce and 1991.) Invisible Kin: Everyday Experience Industry (PCCI) and the Philippine Exporters ofAging in a Manila Homejor the Aged. Confederation Inc. (pHlLEXPORT).

The study exploresinteractionsbetweenaging This study examinestwo major private sector and culture by consideringthe dailyevents, social organizations. the Philippine Chamber of structure, and human bonds that prevail in a CommerceandIndustry (PCCI) andthe Philippine Filipino homefor the aged. It presents a detailed Exporters ConfederationInc. (PHILEXPORT).It description, analysis and interpretation of the soughtto determineif the activities of these major daily modes of institutional living in a Third private sector organizations. particularly those World context. Two levels of analysis guided, relating to trade promotion, are consistent with the study. On one level, the study highlights the their missions. It also assesses the cultural Home's "structure" as having a powerful, even subsystems of PCCI and PHILEXPORT in determining, effect upon human action and the order to understand the implications of their shape of events in the institution. On another organizationalperformanceto Philippineexternal level. the study brings "practice" into concrete relations.It revealsthat the two organizationsplay focus by detailing the ordinary routines of vital roles in external relations, which are everyday living that are continually molded and manifested by their linkages with international remade by social actors. The elderly person's funding and chamber organizations and bilateral conceptof self-identityarisingout of thedialectic councils; trade and investment missions; between structure and practice becomesthecrux participation in consultative bodies on APEC. .' of the study's discussion. AFTA and GATl'IWTO; and business-matching activities. This study finds the organizational ZAMORA-ROLDAN, MA. DIVINA GRACIA cultures of PCCI and PHILEXPORT /(ph.D. in Philippine Studies. Asian Center. supportive of their thrusts to promote export University of the Philippines, January 1998.) trade. The Private Sector Organizations and their

PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDIES

BARTOLOME. CLARIBELD. (Ph.D. in institutions of higher learning in the Philippines. Education. Department of Educational Findings show personality differences among innovatives across fields especially with respect --!;:~:~~;;~~l:.g~~;=~g~~~~~~~~) to the following dimensions: thoughtfulness, Psychological Characteristics of Inno­ orderliness, creativity. risk-taking. sensi­ vativeness. tiveness. obedience. intelligence and patience. Despite the significant differences among the This study attempts to characterize the three groups with respect to some personality personality and intellectual traits of creative­ traits, the results show that all groups innovative youths enrolled in various fields of consistently rated "high average" on some studies. The subjects consisted of 453 college dimensions; significant differences show up in students nominated across three major fields of intellectual capacity among innovatives with the specializations namely, Arts and Humanities. Natural/Physical Sciences at the upper extreme. NaturaVPhysical Sciences and Social Sciences. Social Sciences at the lower extreme and Artsl The students come from five well-known Humanities in-between.

63 ESGUERRA, MA. ELISA F. (Master of Science Extrasensory Perception Be Enhanced? A Proposed Training Program To Develop .: :hi.:~~~;;t~~~:~~~~o:~:~il~:~~:: Psyohic Abtlities. March 1992.) Pagdadalamhati Dulot ng Pagkawalay ng mga Batang Biktima ng This study argues that extra-sensory Karahasang Politikal. perception (ESP), just like any other human talent or ability, can be enhanced. Twenty This study looks at the whole process of subjects were drawn from undergraduate mourningand the sociological elementsthat affect Psychology classes and the Ateneo Psychology the experience of children who lose their parents Society. Differences were noted in the ESP in armed conflict. It describes the physical and performance of subjects who snderwent the emotional reaction of children to mourning, and study's ESP training program and thosewho the role of social support at every stage of this did not receive this. The study's ESP training process. Eight case studies of families with program has three essential components, children in the Children's Rehabilitation Center, namely, trance training through a relaxation Quezon City, provided the research data. It was exercise, imagery training through a found that the process of mourning is a visualization exercise, and giving of immediate complicated cycle of different physical, socio­ feedback/processing ofthe responses. Results emotional, intellectual and actual reactions shown of data analysis showed no significant by a childwho loses a lovedone. Intense reactions differences between the two groups on the per are felt such as fear, anger,grief, and slippingfrom session and overall performance scores in the the usual patterns of living. cube test. The ESP training program also was not effective as far as the restricted-choice cube ~, LOTA A. (Ph.D. Graduate School, Ateneo test was concerned. But it was effective for the I De Manila University, 1992.) Can free-response short-distance telepathy test.

RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS

ONOD, MARIAN MYRTLE F. G. (Master in and fifteen non-LA members and three elected Community Development, Department of community leaders also participated in the study. The study shows Lakas Angkan to be / ~o~u:: D~v::~::~iyC~I:~:I~~~oec~~~ numerically minor in the community. But non­ University of the Philippines, Diliman, April members assess LA to be a strong and popular 1990.) An Exploratory Study ofa Christian organization contributing positively to the Movement sApproach to Social Change: The community not only in terms of spiritual Case of the Lakas Angkan in a North awareness but also materially and economically Cotabato Rural Community. and the promotion of a peaceful and harmonious atmosphere in the barangay. The study explores the emergenceof the Lakas Angkan (LA) ministry (a Christian movement) in REBULLIDA, MA. LOURDES G. (Doctor of Katinggawan, Midsayap, North Cotabato; its / Public Administration, College of Public approach to effecting changes in the community, Administration, University of the Philippines, and its consequent impact upon individual Diliman, April 1990.) Church Development members, their families and their community. Perspective: Policy Formulation and Fourteen LA respondents and their respective .Implementation. families provided the basic data for this study,

64 '.,J- Ths study proposes to answers two basic experience of contemplative prayer. Twenty­ questions pertaining to Philippine development: 1) eight lay and religious volunteers participated Is there a development perspective emanating from in the study, half of whom came from groups Philippine society that can provide an alternative of the Meditasyong Kristiyano sa Kamaynilaan, to the development plan and practice of and the other halffrom religious contemplative govemment'l; and 2) Does the church as a sector groups in Lipa, Batangas and Quezon City. The in Philippine society have a perspective of study describes the structure and process of development? The research focused on selected group and individual contemplative prayer churches, Roman Catholic Church in the (Kontemplatibong Panalangin or KP), their Philippines and ili©Protestant National Council results as reported by the participants, and of Churches in the Philippines. The study time problems in contemplative prayer and period spans the years prior to.martial law, the corresponding solutions. Marcos years, and the Aquino administration. The selected churches provided concrete experience in SARMIENTO, RAMON FELIPE A. (M.S. formulating policies and implementing programs and projects to counter problems of under­ ~~~~~~~~:g:~c?a~~:::::~~9~jn~: development in the Philippines. The lessons from Dolor Devotion at Batong Paloway, San tinechurches' performance are useful in the search Andres, Catanduanes: A Case Study of for appropriate program content, effective Popular Religiosity. structural and organizational designs and managerial and administrative processes for This is a case study of a form of popular development work. The churches developed, religiosity - the Dolor devotion in barangay planned, and managed programs and projects Batong Paloway in San Andres, Catanduanes, following three types of approaches: welfare, It describes various social and cultural aspects community development and liberation­ of this religious activity. The study notes that development. the Dolor devotion played a decisive role in creating the barangay. Dolor devotion has clear REYES, SUSANA R. (M.S. Psychology, College animist beginnings in that its central object is ~f Social Science and Philosophy, University thought to belong to a familiar malevolent .of the Philippines, May 1993.)Ang Sikolohiya spirit. The devotion involves a set of ng Kontemplattbong Panalanging Pilipino. interrelated beliefs, rituals and practices that are a combination of elements from both the This is a study in the area of the psychology pre-colonial, animistic religious tradition and of religion; more specifically, on the Filipino the Catholic faith.

OTHER STUDIES

BAUTISTA, AURORA FE CEBA (Ph.D. in manifestations of social responsibility. Two groups E ducation, Department of Educational of fourth year students from a public .high school / Foundations, College of Education, University (PHS) and a private sectarian high school (SHS) of the Philippines, Diliman, October 1991.) in Iloilo City, served as respondents. Results The Learning Environment for Social indicated that SHS students scored higher than Responsibility. PHS students in measures of social responsibility. SHS students manifested a higher degree of love The study examines factors in the home and of country and sense ofjustice, while PHS students school environments that are associated with manifested a higher degree of sense of community.

65 mothgroups however, manifested low degrees of CONDE. MALAQUIAS A. (M.A. Sociology, autonomy. moraljudgment, andauthenticity. SHS Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Ateneo de Manila University. 1994.) Individual- and ;:~~:~o'c~~~:::h;~~ :~~a:~~~~~h~ ') Community-Level Factors of Migration concernedinterference, beliefin social integration, Intentions in Alangalang,Leyte:A Contextual acting independently. using moral content, Analysis. flexibility and fulfilling commitments. The home climate survey showed that PHS students scored This study investigates the relationship high in openness, while the SHS ones scored high between migration intentions and the background in fellowship and acceptance. In the home characteristics of individuals and selected processes survey the PHS group scored high in characteristics of their community of residence. participating in familydecisions, engaging in part This study wasconducted among individuals living time jobs. tending to younger children, performing in a highly rural-agricultural area in six barangays household chores, and discussing community in thetown of Alangalang, Leyte. Findings show matters. The SHS group scored high in discussing that all indicators of commitment to family were problems and relationships. In the school climate directly related to migration intentions. In general, survey PHS students scored high in enthusiasm, thegreater the commitmentto family,the less likely while SHS ones scored high in authority, order the intention to move. and encouragement. In the school processes survey PHS students scored high in academic LEGASPI. AUGUSTO V.C. (M.A. Psychology, .... ~:;:~~;==:;:: :o~~~;:U~ :~i /g:~:~:i: o~Ot~:lp~~~;;:e:~~:~:I~~~~~) and cultural activities. social-moral discussion, . Pagsasalarawan ng Kalektibong evaluative discussion, and sports and games. Pananagutan.

CENAL. VIOLETA BRAGA (M.A. Psychology. This study examines important elements in the College of Social Science and Philosophy. process of creating a sense of collective University of the Philippines, Diliman, July responsibility in a community, or kolekttbong /1991.) Development of Interpersonal Value pananagutan. Sixty-nine members of the Parish Scalefor Filipino Adolescents. of San Jose in Las Pifias, Metro Manila, served as respondents; 56 were actively involvedin parochial The study looks into the interpersonal values activities while 13 were not. The study shows that of Filipino adolescents and developsan instrument the process begins with a perception oflegitimate to measure these values. A total of 1152 high guidelines, or a vision for the group. which the school and college students from public and parish church provides. This vision is then private schools in Metro Manila served as the disseminated more widely under "controlled" respondents of the study. The traits considered efforts to the group members, who are also.aware by respondents as most important among friends of certain needs of the community and of are grouped into three categories: social values. individuals. Satisfaction of these needs is shown moral values, and maturity. Student respondents to be more efficient if done through group efforts. equate friendship with having someone to share Such efforts. combined with tradition and ritual, happiness. secrets and problems with. Others result in a sense of belonging to the group. All define it in terms of a relationship tied by these elements come into play in creating a feeling affection, understanding, love and commitment. of community and collective responsibility. Some mention it is a gjft from God.

66 ....

LLANES, FERDINAND C. (M.A. History, College of Social Science and Philosophy, ,...---1]niversityof the Philippines, January 1992.) Sa Indayog ng Kilusang Paggawa: Mga Hugpungan sa Pagkilos nt Bert Olalia,1917­ 1983.

t This study is a chronologyand history of Bert Olalia's involvement in the workers movement, Kilusang Manggagawa, describing the turning points and the social or institutional elementsthat influencedhis growth as a unionleader from 1917 to 1983.

SAYRE,ELMER VELASCO (Ph.D. Community ~velopment, Graduate School, University of the Philippines, Los Baiios, October 1991.) participation, understanding, freedom, creation, Human Ascent: An Empirical Investigation justice, leisure, protection and affection. These into the Complex Nature a/Human Needs and needs have different satisfiers and these are Need Satisfaction. considered important by respondents among respondents. These needs appear adequately The study explores the nature of fundamental satisfied. Need satisfiers can be categorized into human needs. Data were gathered from 120 destroyers, pseudc-satisfiers, inhibiting respondents in two locations in Northern satisfiers, singular satisfiers and synergic Mindanao representing a "rural/ local" and an satisfiers. The need for subsistence and justice "industrializing" area. Results show that are more important than other needs such as fundamental human needs consist of subsistence, leisure, protection and participation. C

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