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Home , Fief, Vassal

As chaos engulfed medieval Europe, the Vikings continued their conquests, trading with the strong and pillaging the weak. Skilled in siege operations, they sometimes captured strongly fortified towns. Often savage and cruel, the Vikings seem to have enjoyed battle. They used their axes and swords to strike terror into people everywhere. The Vikings' customs and myths centered on the pagan Norse gods. Archaeologists have Focus Questions excavated Viking burial mounds in Europe that • How did the feudal system and the manorial sys- include boats and implements to be used in tem complement each other? the afterlife. Sometimes, instead of burial, the • What was life like for the serfs and for the Vikings placed the dead person in a boat and on the manor? burned it. In 922 an Arab, Ibn Fadlan, attended the • What were the characteristics of the code funeral of a Viking chieftain on the Volga River. of chivalry? A historian wrote the following description about Fadlan's experience: On the continent of Europe, organized again disappeared within a century after 's "A gi.rl slave volunteered to be burned with. her death in 814. Europe became a continent of small, master, Ibn Fadlan relates. His ship was hauled onto independent local . We call the political land and wood placed beneath. A tent was raised on structure that evolved in Europe . This was deck and a brocaded mattress set on it. The richly a system in whichj:ing~~s!-powerfyl.nobles granted clothed corpse was seated on the mattress ... land to other nobles in return for'loyalty, military assis- On the day of the burial, ... the slave girl said, tance, and other services, and it was firmly established 'Lo, I see my and master he calls to me. Let in northern France by the end of the A.D. 900s. By the me go to him.' Aboard the ship waited the old middle 1000s, feudalism had become the way of life woman called the Angel of Death, who would kill throughout most of western Europe. her. The girl drank from a cup of nabidh and sang a long song. She grew fearful and hesitant. At Feudalism once the old woman grasped her head and led her The feudal system arose in the absence of a strong into the tent. central government. Kings held large territories, but Inside the tent the girl died beside her master by ~~they had little power to withstand the invasions of stabbing and strangling. Then the ship was fired. " Vikings and other peoples. In return for much-needed ••.• '1,.,- .• military help, weak kings gave grants of land to nobles. The nobles, who often had more land than 1. Define , medieval they needed, then granted part of this land to their 2. Identify Clovis, Merovingians, Charles Martel, own -mounted warriors-in return for mili- Pepin the Short, Charlemagne, , tary service and other forms of support. Magyars, Vikings The person who granted land was called a lord. The 3. Locate and Explain the Significance Papal person who received land in return for services was a States, Aix-Ia-Chapelle ', . The grant of land was called a . This term 4. Summarizing Ideas hI) What were the comes from the Latin word feudum, which gave rise to accomplishments of Clovis? (b) of Charles the word feudal. The granting and holding of a fief was Martel? (c) of Charlemagne? '.-. really a contract between lord and vassal. Because a 5. Evaluating Ideas Why did Charlemagne's piece of land could also be further divided-a king's disintegrate? What actions might vassal might grant land to knights, for example-a his successors have taken to hold the person could be a lord and a vassal at the same time. empire together? In time, the fief became hereditary. Legal owner- 6. Interpreting Ideas Why were the Vikings ship passed from the lord to his son, while legal feared more than other invaders? possession and use passed from the vassal to his son. By about 1100, a system called

230 I CHAPTER 10 First, it was an honorable relationship between legal equals. Only nobles could be . The greater were vassals and tenants of the king. The less powerful lords were vassals and tenants of the greater lords, and so on down. Second, the same man might be both vassal and lord-vassal to a more powerful lord above him and lord to a less powerful vassal below him. Third, the relationship was a very personal one. Each man's loyalties and obligations were owed only to the lord immediately above him or to the vassal immediately below him. Obligations of feudalism. Under a feudal contract, the vassal had more obligations than the lord. The vas- sal promised to provide the lord with a certain number of fully equipped riders and infantry soldiers. The vassal had to make special payments to help cover the lord's extraordinary expenses, such as ran- som if the lord became a captive in war. The vassal also had to house and feed the lord and his compan- ions for a certain number of days of each year and serve on the lord's court to administer justice. Feudal justice. Feudal justice was quite different from Roman justice. Decisions at trials were made in one of three ways: (1) In a trial by battle, the accused and the accuser-s-or men representing them-fought a duel. The outcome of the duel determined guilt or innocence. (2) In compurgation, or oath taking, the accused and the accuser each gathered a group of peo- (pry·moh·JE·nuh·choohr) in which the eldest son ple who swore that the man they represented was always inherited the fief, had become customary. This telling the truth. Compurgators, the oath takers, were system kept fiefs from being endlessly subdivided similar to the character witnesses who testify in among many sons. today's trials. (3) In a trial by ordeal, the accused car- Women had some influence in society and , ried a piece of hot iron in his hand, walked through but their legal property rights were limited. A woman fire, or plunged his arm into a pot of boiling water to could include fiefs in her dowry. However, her hus- pick up a hot stone. If his wounds healed rapidly, he band would take over the dowry, and she controlled it was judged innocent; otherwise, he was guilty. only after he died. Warfare. Frequent wars plagued the medieval Local lords held many of the same powers that are period. Sometimes two kingdoms fought. At other usually associated with government, and the king times, a king tried to subdue a powerful, rebellious vas- became just another feudal lord. In theory every sal. Many wars, however, stemmed from private fights holder of land became a vassal to the king, however, -.between feudal lords or between lords and vassals. in practice the king really had power only over those In the , a wore an iron who lived on the king's feudal lands. helmet and a shirt of chain mail-small metal links The church, too, became part of the feudal system. ho~ked' together to form flexible armor. The knight By the 900s the church owned vast amounts of land, carried a sword, a large shield, and a lance. Armor some of which it granted as fiefs to nobles in return became more complicated in later medieval times for military protection. after gunpowder was introduced, and metal plates Feudal relationships. There are three facts to replaced chain mail. This armor was so heavy that keep in mind to understand the relationship a knight often had to be hauled onto his horse between lord and vassal: with a crane.

THE RISE OF THE MIDDLE AGES ~ For nobles, wars represented opportunities for never be strictly enforced. Private wars continued glory and wealth, but to the rest of society wars until kings became strong enough to stop them. brought suffering and famine. The church tried to limit private wars by issuing several decrees, known The Manorial System together as the Peace of God. These decrees prohib- While feudalism was essentially a governmental and ited, under pain of excommunication, acts of violence military system, the manorial system became the eco- and private warfare near churches and other holy nomic structure in many parts of Europe. The manor, buildings. They also forbade violence against cattle a large estate that included the , pastures, and agricultural equipment, as well as against certain fields, and a village, became the economic unit of the persons, including clergy, women, merchants, and pil- early Middle Ages, just as the fief had become the grims. The church tried to get all lords to accept governmental unit. While a small fief had only one another decree, the Truce of God, which forbade manor, large fiefs had several. fighting on certain days, such as weekends and holy Because no central authority or organized trade days. Gradually other days were added to the Truce of existed, each manor tried to be self-sufficient, or able to God. Restrictions on fighting, however, could almost produce everything it needed. Most manors produced their own food, clothing, and leather goods. Only a few items--such as iron, salt, tar, or wine-were purchased. The lord and several shared the land of a manor. The lord kept about one third of the manor land, called the domain, for himself. The peasants paid to use the remaining two thirds of the land. They gave the lord a portion of their crops, helped to his land, performed other services on the manor, and paid many kinds of taxes. A typical manor village, usually on a stream that furnished water power for its mill, had houses clus- tered together for safety a short distance away from the manor house or . The land of the manor extended out from the village and included vegetable plots, cultivated fields, pastures, and forests. The cultivated land of the manor was often divided into three large fields for growing grain. Only two of the three fields were planted each year so that the third field could lie fallow, or unplanted, to regain its fertility. The three large fields in turn were divided into small strips. Peasants had their own strips in each field. If the lord's domain was divided, he too had strips in each field.

Peasant Life Most of the peasants on a manor were serfs, people who were bound to the land. Serfs could not leave the land without the lord's permission. Serfs were not slaves, however, for they could not be sold away from the land. If the land was granted to a new lord, the ''Les Tres Riches serfs became the new lord's tenants. "burg Brothers depict Some free people, too, rented land from the lord. :-DUsactivities through- Free people included the skilled workers necessary to ;.January,shows the the village economy, such as millers, blacksmiths, and rr" .: carpenters. Most villages also had a priest to provide for the spiritual needs of the villagers.

2321 CHAPTER 10 Long hours spent doing backbreaking work in the as a way to advance one's fortunes, perhaps by acquir- fields made daily life on a manor very hard. The labor- ing new lands. On the other hand, marriage usually ers' meager diet consisted mainly of coarse black produced children, who had to be cared for. A lord bread, cabbage and a few other vegetables, cheese, had to provide a dowry for a daughter. and eggs. Beer was plentiful in northern Europe, as When not fighting, the nobles and vassals was wine in the grape-growing regions of the south. amused themselves with mock battles called tourna- People rarely ate meat because they needed animals ments. In early medieval times tournaments often to help them work the fields and because they were led to loss of life, but later they became more not allowed to hunt on the lord's land. like pageants. The life of ordinary people was brief and narrow in medieval times. Because of disease, starvation, and Chivalry constant warfare, the average life expectancy was By the late 1100s chivalry, a code of conduct for about 30 years. Since people in their forties were knights, had changed feudal society. The word regarded as very old, medieval society was a much chivalry comes from the French word cheval, meaning younger society than ours. Ordinary people rarely "horse," because knights were mounted soldiers. escaped the village. They usually died where they had In the early days, becoming a knight was been born. quite simple. Any soldier could be knighted by any other knight after proving himself in battle. As The Life of the Nobility time passed, however, chivalry became much When people today think of the Middle Ages, they more complex. sometimes picture luxurious and knights in To become a knight, a boy had to go through two

1 burnished armor. However, the nobles did not neces- preliminary stages of training, supervised by a knight. 1 sarily lead luxurious or even easy lives. First, at the age of seven, a boy became a page, or A castle-the fortified home of a lord-served as a knight's attendant, learning knightly manners and .t base from which to protect the surrounding country- beginning his training in the use of weapons. Then, ;- side and enforce the lord's authority. Most people in his early teens, the boy became a squire, or n jodav picture a castle as a great stone structure. knight's assistant. He continued to study both man- >r Actually, stone castles were not constructed until late ners and weaponry. He took care of the knight's le in the Middle Ages. Throughout the early medieval horses, armor, weapons, and clothing. When he was period, castles were relatively simple structures built considered ready, the squire accompanied the knight m of earth· and wood. into battle. After the squire proved himself worthy in Iy Located on hills or in other places that were easy battle, an elaborate religious ceremony initiated him at to defend, castles were built to resist attack, not for into knighthood. pleasant living. If a castle had to be built in flat country, When a knight was in full armor, practically the a ditch called a moat, often filled with water, only way to recognize him was by his coat of arms. A surrounded the outer walls. A drawbridge across the coat of arms might be painted on a shield or an outer 1l).oatenabled people to reach the gate to the courtyard coati it might also be visible on a flag or on the trap- mside the walls. In case of an attack, the drawbridge pings of the knight's horse. Every coat of arms was dif- was raised. ferent and identified the knight. Crests were The main part of the castle was the keep-a sometimes worn on the tops of helmets. JIe strong tower that contained storerooms, barracks, Chivalry required a knight to be brave. He had to he and workshops. Sometimes the keep also included fight fairly. Tricks and strategy were considered cow- the lord's living quarters. In the great hall, the lord ardly. A knight had to be loyal to his friends, keep his received visitors. The thick walls, with their small, word, and treat conquered foes gallantly. In addition, usually glassless windows, made the rooms dark, ~.he had to be especially courteous to women. damp, and chilly. The lord spent much of his day Chivalry greatly improved the rough and crude Qking after his land and dispensing justice to his manners of early feudal lords. Behavior, however, did "{l:\§salsand serfs. not become perfect by any modern standards. The A man, whether he was a lord or the head of a knight extended courtesy only to people of his own family, depended a great deal on help from his class. Toward all others his attitude and actions were ire and children. Medieval people viewed marriage likely to be coarse and arrogant.

j THE RISE OF THE MIDDLE AGES 1233 , ,' participants received the direct favor, or grace, of God to help them ward off the consequences of sin. By the Define feudalism, vassal, fief, primogeniture, 1100s, leaders of the church recognized seven cere- manor, serfs, chivalry monies as sacraments: baptism (admission to the 2. Classifying Ideas List three aspects of the - Christian community), Holy Eucharist (Holy dal system and three aspects of the manorial Communion), confirmation (admission to church system. Then show how the two systems membership), penance (acts showing repentance for worked together. sins), the taking of holy orders (admission to the 3. Comparing Ideas How did the life of the priesthood), matrimony (marriage), and extreme unc- medieval peasant compare with the life of the tion (anointing the sick and dying). These sacraments medieval lord or lady? are still practiced today. The parish priest conducted ill 4. Evaluating Ideas What impact did the develop- church services in his parish and administered all of ment of the code of chivalry have on everyday the sacraments except confirmation and holy orders, life in medieval times? Include all classes of which were administered by bishops. He supervised i,f:

society in your answer. the moral and religious instruction of his people and I" the moral life of the community. Often, however, the l~ l~ beliefs of villagers were as much pagan and supersti- tious as they were Christian. Section 3 {T -; .! \ :.;1: The bishop. A number of parishes made up a dio- lI"l- cese, which the bishop managed. The cathedral I' t church, or official church of the bishop, was located !I. in the most important city of the diocese. (Cathedra is the Latin word for the bishop's throne, or chair.) The }Focus Questions king or great nobles usually controlled the selection of • How was the church organized? the bishop. Bishops, frequently chosen for their fam- • How did the church influence political, eco- ily connections and political power, were often feudal nomic, and social life in the Middle Ages? lords or vassals who had vassals themselves. • What major problems faced the church during The archbishop. An archbishop managed an the Middle Ages? archdiocese and had all of the powers of I~ a bishop. In addition, he exercised some authority To people living in the United States today, it may over the other dioceses and bishops in his province, seem strange to learn that the medieval church held a which censlsted of several dioceses. great deal of political power. Central governments in The and his curia. The pope had a group of 'ff medieval Europe were weak or did not exist at all. counselors, called the curia, to advise him. Cardinals, Therefore, the church performed many of the func- the most important members of the curia, advised the ~i tions of modern governments. In one way or another, pope on legal and spiritual matters. Beginning in the church touched the lives of most medieval people. 1059 it was the cardinals who elected each new pope. :~ Only in the church hierarchy could a commoner ! The Church Hierarchy move up in the world. It did not happen often, but a Members of the clergy were organized in ranks accord- man of unusual ability, regardless of birth, might rise ing to their power and responsibilities. The levels of to great heights in the church. For example, Pope this hierarchy, starting at the bottom, were as follows. Callistus I was originally a slave. He was later freed, The parish priest The parish priest, usually of peas- and in A.D. 217 he was elected pope. apt origin, had little formal education. He served, the people in his parish, the smallest division of the church:" Monasticism The poorest clergy member, the priest could hardly be The medieval church was made up of two types of distinguished from the peasants among whom he lived. clergy. Priests, bishops, and the pope belonged to what Though at the bottom of the hierarchy, the priest was called the secular clergy (from the Latin word saecu- Was in one sense the church's most important officer, lurn, meaning "the present world"), who lived among for he administered five of the seven sacraments. The ordinary people. They administered the sacraments and sacraments were special ceremonies at which the preached the gospel. A 'second group of church people,

THE RISE OF THE MIDDLE AGES 1235 Italy. Benedict (known today as Saint Benedict) drew up a set of standards to regulate the lives of his monks. Monasteries throughout Europe adopted this set of stan- dards, called the Benedictine Rule. According to the Benedictine Rule, a monk could own absolutely nothing. Everything he used or wore belonged to the community of monks. The , the elected head of the community, controlled and dis- tributed all property. The monks promised to obey the abbot in all things. Monks spent several hours every day in prayer, but they were also expected to work. The abbot assigned each monk certain tasks in and around the monastery. Monasteries fulfilled the intellectual needs of medieval society. Monks were often the most learned scholars of the time, and the monastery libraries were the main preservers of the literature of ancient civi- lizations and the early church. Several monasteries also ran schools. Over the years monasteries became very rich. As an act of piety, a noble might leave his land to a monastery. Nobles sometimes gave money or land to monasteries to safeguard their own souls or the souls of relatives. Convents also benefited from the gifts of the pious, but there were fewer convents than monas- teries, and the convents were not as rich. Monks and called regular clergy (from the Latin word regula, mean- nuns often cared for the needy. ing "rule") because they lived according to strict rules, Some monks left their monasteries to become mis- was the monastics-monks and nuns. sionaries, a practice that existed long before the time Monks and nuns believed that one of the best ways of Benedict. Saint Patrick of Ireland and Saint to live a perfect Christian life was to withdraw from Augustine of England were among those who did the world and its temptations and serve God through important missionary work. prayer, fasting, and self-denial. At first each monk lived alone. During the early centuries of Christianity, Christianity in Ireland and England some monks and nuns went to extreme lengths to Christian missionaries arrived in Ireland in the 400s. practice their devotion to God. In many cases they Patrick, believed to be the best-known missionary in inflicted alarming physical suffering on themselves to Ireland, began his work there in 432. Several monastic test their faith and to show that they valued the soul schools provided the basis of an advanced culture that over the body. In time Church authorities decided lasted approximately from 500 to 800. Missionaries and that people drawn to a life of seif-deni~1 would be teachers from Irish schools went to all parts of the more productive if they lived together in special reli- British Isles. During this time Ireland became the great- gious communities. Monks began to gather in religious est center and preserver of ancient and Christian cul- communities called monasteries, and nuns lived in ture in western Europe. convents. The way of life in monasteries a~d convents In 597 Pope Gregory I sent missionaries to England. is called monasticism. Led by a monk named Augustine, the missionaries con- Monasticism lacked organization and direction until verted many people. Eventually, all of England the early 500s. Around that time a young Roman noble accepted Christianity. Augustine, who was made the named Benedict became disgusted with worldly corrup- first archbishop of Canterbury, was canonized after his tion and lefr Rome to become a hermit. In time his rep- death and became known as Saint Augustine of utation for holiness attracted so many followers that he Canterbury. Canterbury became the center of the established a monastery at Monte Cassino in central Christian church in England.

2361 CHAPTER 10 The Church and Medieval Life pope was both the political and the spiritual ruler. Both the secular and the regular clergy played a leading Many claimed that the church was the supreme part in medieval institutions and in everyday life. political power. They decreed that all monarchs in During the early Middle Ages, the clergy were almost Europe had to obey the pope. Church leaders also the only educated people in Europe. Since printing had held positions of power as feudal lords and as advisers not yet been invented in the early Middle Ages, all to kings and nobles. The church preached that people books had to be copied by hand. Monks did most of this should obey the laws of kings unless these laws con- work. To beautify the texts and perhaps as a relief from flicted with church laws. the tedium of copying, the monks often added small .The church had its own code of law, called canon paintings at the beginning of a page or in the margins. law, and its own courts, where members of the clergy The gold leaf and brilliant colors they used brightened were tried for offenses. The church enforced its laws the pagesso much that such works are called illuminated through excommunication and interdict. manuscripts. These manuscripts were some of the finest Excommunication cut an individual off from the artistic works produced during the early Middle Ages. church. He or she could not receive the sacraments or Political role. The church also became a political be buried in sacred ground. All Christians had to force during the Middle Ages. In the , the avoid the excommunicated person.

THE RISE OF THE MIDOLE AGES 1237 ,i, '~j ., ,Jl!.\ ii k y ~·,/ti:~"/~~ ~~.:,:;,..~~",'J ' "!f;»tq- '" . ,f '·_:n "·, ,.'."\-,.-'> . ;:'~~~Ii'llu~h?(~o)iintai~erwh'lch sacred relics are kept) of St Faith. This golden image illustrates the devotion Christians had Mohe·relic·s, remains, of saints. ,: ,(. or ,

The church could also issue an interdict against free people. Monks were leaders in agriculture, and an entire region. All churches of that region were they developed techniques for making alcoholic bev- closed. No marriages or burials were performed by the erages. Some monasteries also carried on widespread church officials of the region, and everyone who lived trading activities. there was in danger of eternal damnation. When The church considered the family a sacred institu- rulers rebelled against the church, the church used tion. It forbade divorce and took responsibility for the interdict, hoping that the people of the region widows and orphans. Clergy members also took would force the ruler to conform. charge of social work, such as relief for the poor. To Like present-day national governments, the help the sick and distressed, the church established medieval church had the power of taxation. Through hospitals, usually run by special religious orders. 'j, ; the parish priest, the church collected the tithe, or one tenth of a person's income, from all Christians. In Problems of the Church England and Scandinavia the church collected At the peak of its power, the church faced several "Peter's Pence," a tax of one penny ~ ye'iIf on every problems. These problems included lay investiture, household. Also, the church received vast income the worldly lives of the clergy, simony (sv-muh-nee), from church-owned lands. By the early 1200s, when and heresy. the church reached the peak of its power, it had Lay investiture. The tremendous wealth of the become enormously wealthy. church created a problem, especially after church Economic and social role. The moral ideas of the leaders became feudal lords and vassals. Nobles often church affected all economic life. The church rewarded their loyal friends or relatives by appointing opposed people's gaining wealth by exploiting others. them as bishops and , a procedure known as lay It insisted that labor be in keeping with the dignity of investiture. No one questioned a king's or a noble's

2381 CHAPTER 10 .right to grant a bishop or an abbot a fief and to make Section 3 Review him a vassal. The church did object, however, to kings and nobles naming bishops and abbots. Church 1. Define sacraments, monasticism, abbot, canon leaders firmly believed that only a church member law, interdict, tithe, simony, Inquisition could grant spiritual authority to another member of 2. Identify curia, cardinals, Saint Benedict, the church. In the case of a bishop, a ring and a Saint Patrick crosier, or staff, symbolized this authority. A king or 3. Summarizing Ideas List the positions in the lord who granted a new bishop his fiefs often insisted church hierarchy and briefly describe the on giving him his ring and crosier as well. duties of each position. Worldly lives' of the clergy. Some members of 4. Interpreting Ideas How did the church affect the clergy lived in luxury. People criticized them political, economic, and social life in the because they seemed more interested in wealth than Middle Ages? in holy living. 5. Evaluating Ideas (a) What four major problems Simony. In feudal times, people could pay to assume faced the church during the Middle Ages? (b) high positions in the church, a practice called How do you think each problem hurt the power simony. The purchaser expected to make money and status of the church? through his position, either from church income or by charging high fees for performing religious services. Heresy. The church did not permit anyone to . ' question the basic principles, or doctrines, that . were the foundation of the Christian religion. People who denied the truth of these principles or preached unauthorized doctrines were considered "!~B~:'~~d;~I~. lm heretics-unbelievers guilty of the unpardonable sin of heresy, which brought eternal damnation. [ngland and'Frante' tians Heresy threatened the church itself, as treason does a modern government. Attempts at church reform were made by many Focus Questions church leaders and lay rulers, who tried to solve • What contributions did the Anglo-Saxons and e, and church problems through various measures. Two the make to England? IC bev- religious groups, or orders, established in the 1200s • How did Parliament and common law develop spread dedicated themselves to reform. They were the in England? Franciscans, founded by Saint Francis of Assisi in • How were the Capetian kings able to increase nstitu- 1209, and the Dominicans, founded by Saint their power? ity for Dominic in 1216. Members of these religious orders, ) took known as friars, lived and preached among the peo- In Europe before the A.D. 1000s, kings and lords ior, To ple instead of secluding themselves in monasteries as often struggled for power in a kind of feudal tug of war. olished members of most other religious orders did. Some great lords were as powerful as the kings them- s. In the mid-1200s the church ordered the selves and served them only when it was convenient. Dominicans to seek out heretics and to eliminate However, a number of kings were able to impose their heresy. During this search, known as" the will on their subjects. From this struggle gradually several Inquisition, anyone suspected of heresy could emerged such kingdoms as England and France, where stiture, be tried in secret and tortured in order to force a the king's authority grew stronger than that of the lords. a-nee), confession. Heretics who confessed that they had done wrong were required to perform penaerce. Anglo-Saxon England of the The Inquisition condemned heretics who did Around A.D. 450, not long after the last Roman church not confess and turned them over to the civil legions left Britain, several Germanic tribes invaded soften government to be punished, sometimes by burning the island. Although they first came as raiders, they ointing' at the stake. The church thought that these severe soon began to settle. Two of these tribes, the Angles 1as lay penalties were necessary to prevent the spread of and the Saxons, became so powerful that we refer JO noble's heresy throughout Christendom. their descendants as Anglo-Saxons even today. The

THE RISE DF THE MIDDLE AGES 1239