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The Construction of Collective Memory of State Terrorism in Mexico, Argentina, and Chile

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The Construction of Collective Memory of State Terrorism in Mexico, Argentina, and Chile Louisiana State University LSU Digital Commons LSU Doctoral Dissertations Graduate School 2017 Remembering in Spite of All: The onsC truction of Collective Memory of State Terrorism in Mexico, Argentina, and Chile Telba Espinoza-Contreras Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_dissertations Part of the Comparative Literature Commons Recommended Citation Espinoza-Contreras, Telba, "Remembering in Spite of All: The onC struction of Collective Memory of State Terrorism in Mexico, Argentina, and Chile" (2017). LSU Doctoral Dissertations. 4218. https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_dissertations/4218 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at LSU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in LSU Doctoral Dissertations by an authorized graduate school editor of LSU Digital Commons. For more information, please [email protected]. REMEMBERING IN SPITE OF ALL: THE CONSTRUCTION OF COLLECTIVE MEMORY OF STATE TERRORISM IN MEXICO, ARGENTINA, AND CHILE A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in The Interdisciplinary Program in Comparative Literature by Telba Espinoza Contreras B.A., Universidad de Quintana Roo, Mexico, 2002 M.A., Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropología Social, Mexico, 2007 M.A., Louisiana State University, 2009 August 2017 Para mi hermano Edel Para mis hijas Valentina y Natalia ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I would like to thank Dr. Laura Martins, my dissertation advisor, for her patience, guidance, and support. I am grateful for the opportunity to write my dissertation under her supervision. I also want to express my gratitude for the seminars she taught. Her stimulating lectures and class discussions inspired my curiosity, and made me question the lack of awareness in the Mexican society about a horrific period in our history. I want to express my deepest gratitude to Dr. Adelaide Russo, director of the Comparative Literature program. Without her support for our program and encouragement, every step of the way, it would have been difficult to complete this dissertation. I am also grateful for the intellectual freedom, and interdisciplinarity Dr. Russo encourages as part of the Comparative Literature program. I was able to pursue my research interests at ease, studying literature informed by my background in social science. I also want to thank the members of my committee, especially Dr. Helen Regis, and Dr. Andrea Morris. They have supported me during my time as a student at LSU; Dr. Regis since I visited LSU for the first time in 2001. I am truly grateful for my dissertation committee. They have been excellent mentors, and role models. I want to thank my family. Every current news article my father sent me about the “dirty war” in Mexico reminded me of the importance of learning more about it, and inspired me to continue. I am thankful for my mother, for her words of encouragement. I want to thank my father- in-law for helping me improve the writing of some parts of this dissertation, and my mother-in- law for her support during their visits. Finally, I want to thank my husband, Benjamin Forkner. I was not prepared for the tremendous effort it would entail to pursue my academic goals while being a mother of two loving daughters, and working full time. Words cannot express how grateful I am for all his support. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………………………………………………………………….. iii ABSTRACT.…………………………………………………………………………...…..… vi INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………………. 1 Historical Background……………………………………………………………….…... 4 State Terror to Create a New Social Order………...……………..……………….….….. 7 Approaches to Collective Memory....………………………………...…………….......… 16 Chapter Summaries………………………………………………………………….….... 21 CHAPTER 1. SILENCE IN THE MIDST OF TERROR AND IN THE AFTERMATH: THE TERRORIST STATE’S STRATEGY TO REMAIN IN POWER……………………………. 25 Creating a Collaborator in a Terrorist State………………………….…........................... 28 Self-interested Collaboration Disguised as Fear in Villa by Luis Gusmán …………...… 32 Laura’s Shame to Disclose Her Past in El Desierto by Carlos Franz .……………..……. 40 Silence in Aftermath of State Terrorism in Cementerio de papel by Fritz Glockner....……………..…………………………………………………………….….. 49 CHAPTER 2. CHALLENGING THE SILENCE OF STATE TERRORISM IN RITUALS AND PERFORMANCES: A PATH TO THE CONSTRUCTION OF A DISSIDENT NARRATIVE OF STATE REPRESSION…………………………………………………… 60 The Unknown Mexican “dirty war” ….…………………………………………….….... 63 Performances As a Place to Envision Change and Challenge Authority…………….…… 73 Performative Protests in the Construction of Collective Awareness of the “dirty war” in Mexico: Madres of Comité Eureka …..………………………………………………..… 78 Performances of Agrupación de Familiares de Detenidos Desaparecidos in Chile.......... 90 Madres de Plaza de Mayo: The Construction of a Counter-hegemonic Ritual………..… 100 CHAPTER 3. THE CONSTRUCTION OF A POLITICAL PLACE OF MEMORY OF STATE REPRESSION: EL DESAPARECIDO………………………………………….…… 116 Enforced Disappearances: The Perfect Weapon to Annihilate Political Opponents?...…. 117 Los desaparecidos: a Constructed Place of Memory..………………………………….... 120 What Exactly is a Lieu de Mémoire?.................................................................................. 121 Does Human Agency Suffice to Construct el desaparecido As a Place of Memory? …… 123 Attracting International Attention to State Terrorism………………………………….... 127 Los desaparecidos in Argentina During the “Transition to Democracy”………………... 133 Political Use of the Defense of Human Rights and los desaparecidos in Argentina ….… 139 The Continuous Construction of el desaparecido As a Place of Memory Through Photography in Argentina ……………………………………………...…………….….. 143 “Ausencias” by Gustavo Germano (2007)………………………………………….……. 146 “Arqueología de la ausencia” by Lucila Quieto (2001)………………………………….. 154 The Invisible desaparecidos in Mexico and the Eternal “Transition to Democracy”…… 161 What to Do With the Crimes of the Past?........................................................................... 167 The New and the Old desaparecidos in Mexico…………………………………………. 169 iv Los desaparecidos nos faltan a todos: a Photographic Campaign by H.I.J.O.S México… 177 CHAPTER 4. EXILE: A PLACE OF MEMORY IN THE MAKING?.................................... 184 Exile: a Forgotten State Crime?.......................................................................................... 184 Exile As a Political Tool of the Systematic Plan to Annihilate the Political Opposition in Latin America………………………………………………………………………….… 186 The Narratives of Exiles Overshadowed by the Other “Victims”………………………... 190 Asylum for Foreigner Political Persecuted as a Means to Conceal State Terrorism: the Mexican Case…………………………………………………………………………….. 194 Los retornados in Chile: A State Policy to Conceal Exile…………………………….…. 196 Reparation Policies in Argentina: the Case of Exile……………………………………... 201 Early Voices of Exile: En estado de memoria by Tununa Mercado………….…………… 206 Images of Exile: Distancias by Gustavo Germano………………………….…………… 212 CONCLUSIONS…………………….………………………………………………….…..... 223 WORKS CITED…………………….……………………………………………………....... 228 VITA…………………….……………………………………………………......................... 240 .+ v ABSTRACT This dissertation seeks to contribute to the understanding of the formation of collective memory of State violence in Argentina, Chile, and Mexico. By comparing these three cases, I pursue to discern how citizens can challenge the silence and amnesia that the groups in power want to impose on society after a period of State terrorism. In order to examine the process of formation of collective memory, this dissertation highlights two important figures from which citizens have been able to build counter-hegemonic narratives, that is, los exiliados and los desaparecidos. I will highlight how they become lenses through which citizens can construct the memory of State repression. They become the evidence of the repression that the State wants to conceal, and have the potential of becoming important symbolic figures, and sources of knowledge, from which society can challenge silence and oblivion about State terrorism. The unfolding of the objectives and arguments of this dissertation are based on the analysis of literary texts from Argentina, Chile, and Mexico; and on photography of Argentinian and Mexican photographers. I draw on performance studies, anthropological approaches to ritual, and literary criticism to examine how citizens create counter-hegemonic narratives of State repression, and how they incorporate them in the collective memory of their societies. vi INTRODUCTION A common misconception affirms that if societies know their history, they will not repeat past mistakes. Although it is true that knowing about historical events can better inform citizen’s decisions for the future, having knowledge of the past does not necessarily prevent societies from creating similar circumstances that would lead them to comparable outcomes. Moreover, the assumption that by simply remembering their past, societies make better decisions for the upcoming generations, does not take into account the complex, and permanent struggles of different groups within societies to
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