AN INVESTIGATION OF CUYAMACA OVAL

BEDROCK MILLING BASINS

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A Thesis

Presented to the

Faculty of

San Diego State University

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In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Arts

in

Anthropology

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by

Kent S. Manchen

Summer 2015

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Copyright © 2015 by Kent S. Manchen All Rights Reserved

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ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS

An Investigation of Cuyamaca Oval Bedrock Milling Basins by Kent S. Manchen Master of Arts in Anthropology San Diego State University, 2015

First identified as being centered in the Cuyamaca Rancho State Park of San Diego County, California, are a number of prehistoric bedrock milling sites with unique, oval- shaped basin milling surfaces. Many of these sites lack the rounded mortars typically associated with acorn processing during the Late Prehistoric Period. Due to a number of factors, archaeologists working in the region have speculated that these sites represent a more archaic occupation of the mountains than has been previously recorded. Ethnographic information concerning the function of Cuyamaca Oval basins is also lacking. This thesis will present the results of a number of research methods utilized in an attempt to not only describe these basins in more detail, but, also to provide statistical data on where additional unrecorded sites may be located, describe the function of these unusually-shaped basins, and offer some preliminary occupation dates for a significant Cuyamaca Ovals site. Keywords: Cuyamaca Ovals, Kumeyaay, bedrock milling

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

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ABSTRACT ...... iv LIST OF TABLES ...... viii LIST OF FIGURES ...... ix ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... xi CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 Prehistoric Cultural Periods of Southern California ...... 2 Prehistoric Cultures of San Diego...... 4 Late Prehistoric/Cuyamaca Complex ...... 6 The Cuyamaca Mountains ...... 7 Geology ...... 7 Water Resources ...... 8 Faunal Communities ...... 8 Plant Communities ...... 9 Bedrock Milling ...... 10 Form Versus Time ...... 12 Forms of Bedrock Milling Surfaces ...... 13 2 BACKGROUND RESEARCH ...... 16 Protein Residue Analysis ...... 16 Obsidian ...... 18 Geographic Information Science History and Capabilities ...... 19 GIS in San Diego Archaeology...... 20 Theory ...... 20 Archaeology and the Scientific Method ...... 21 The Type Concept ...... 22

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Cultural Ecology and Environmental Archaeology ...... 25 Research ...... 30 3 FIELDWORD ...... 32 Sites Visited ...... 32 CA-SDI-14423 ...... 32 CA-SDI-879 ...... 33 CA-SDI-9538 Ah-ha’ Kwe-ah-mac’ ...... 33 Unrecorded Site at Scissors Crossing ...... 34 CA-SDI-852 ...... 35 CA-SDI-10972D/SDM-W-365 ...... 36 CA-SDI-10972 ...... 37 CA-SDI-16832 ...... 38 CA-SDI-17349 ...... 38 CA-SDI-15674 ...... 38 CA-SDI-856 ...... 39 CA-SDI-857 ...... 42 CA-SDI-858 ...... 43 CA-SDI-10585 ...... 45 CA-SDI-14326 ...... 46 CA-SDI-12591 ...... 47 CA-SDI-16294 ...... 48 CA-SDI-945 ...... 49 CA-SDI-8844 ...... 51 CA-SDI-8865 ...... 52 CA-SDI-917 ...... 53 CA-SDI-916 ...... 54 JWH-50 ...... 55 A4-S-1 ...... 55 CA-SDI-820 ...... 57 CA-SDI-835 ...... 57 CA-SDI-6847 ...... 57 CA-SDI-926 ...... 59

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CA-SDI-11198/Mitaragui ...... 60 Fieldwork ...... 61 4 RESULTS ...... 67 Protein Residue Analysis ...... 67 Results ...... 68 Obsidian Artifacts ...... 68 GIS Analysis ...... 71 Milling Statistics ...... 79 Milling at Coastal Sites ...... 85 Milling at Inland Sites ...... 85 Milling at Montane Sites ...... 88 Milling at Desert Sites ...... 90 Cuyamaca Oval Dimensions ...... 93 5 CONCLUSIONS...... 96 REFERENCES CITED ...... 99

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LIST OF TABLES

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Table 1. Protein Residue Results ...... 69 Table 2. Sites Placed in the Woodland Group ...... 75 Table 3. Sites Placed in the Meadow Group ...... 76 Table 4. Sites Placed in the Chaparral Group...... 77 Table 5. Sites Placed in the Sage Scrub Group ...... 78 Table 6. Form of Milling Statistics for Each USGS 7.5-Minute Quadrangle...... 81 Table 7. Ecological Group Assignments for Each USGS Quadrangle ...... 84 Table 8. Milling Forms at Sites within the Coastal USGS 7.5-Minute Quadrangles ...... 86 Table 9. Milling Forms at Sites within the Inland USGS 7.5-Minute Quadrangles ...... 86 Table 10. Milling Forms at Sites within the Montane USGS 7.5-Minute Quadrangles ...... 88 Table 11. Milling Forms at Sites within the Desert USGS 7.5-Minute Quadrangles ...... 92 Table 12. Measurements of a Sample of Cuyamaca Ovals ...... 93

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LIST OF FIGURES

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Figure 1. Close-up of a Cuyamaca Oval at CA-SDI-6847...... 2 Figure 2. Concentration of Cuyamaca Ovals on low, flat outcrop...... 13 Figure 3. Cuyamaca Ovals on vertical face of bedrock feature...... 35 Figure 4. Three rather elongated Cuyamaca Ovals at CA-SDI-852...... 36 Figure 5. Numerous Cuyamaca Ovals on a low-lying bedrock exposure at SDM-W- 365...... 37 Figure 6. Single Cuyamaca Oval from locus A, CA-SDI-15,674...... 39 Figure 7. Single Cuyamaca Oval at CA-SDI-856...... 40 Figure 8. Feature 4 with several Cuyamaca Ovals at CA-SDI-857...... 41 Figure 9. Cuyamaca Oval on highly weathered surface at CA-SDI-857...... 42 Figure 10. Several Cuyamaca Ovals surround a mortar at CA-SDI-858...... 44 Figure 11. This Cuyamaca Oval is ground smooth to the edge of the bedrock outcrop. CA-SDI-858...... 45 Figure 12. Cuyamaca Ovals at CA-SDI-10,585...... 46 Figure 13. Surface #15, CA-SDI-12,591...... 48 Figure 14. Cuyamaca Oval on Feature A1, CA-SDI-16,294...... 49 Figure 15. Cuyamaca Oval amongst mortars at Feature 1, CA-SDI-945...... 50 Figure 16. Feature 7 at CA-SDI-945, illustrating how these features are frequently located on low-lying, flat bedrock exposures...... 51 Figure 17. Feature 1, CA-SDI-8844...... 52 Figure 18. Feature 1, CA-SDI-8865. Single Cuyamaca Oval on a small, low-lying piece of Julian schist...... 53 Figure 19. Single Cuyamaca Oval on Feature F, CA-SDI-917...... 54 Figure 20. A4-S-1; Feature 1 with numerous, closely-spaced Cuyamaca Ovals...... 56 Figure 21. Cuyamaca Oval adjacent to mortar; CA-SDI-6847...... 58 Figure 22. Cuyamaca Oval. Single milling surface on a small feature. CA-SDI-6847...... 59

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Figure 23. Highly weathered basins, CA-SDI-926...... 60 Figure 24. Bedrock milling feature demonstrating how Cuyamaca Ovals are often found on flat, low to the ground outcrops...... 61 Figure 25. Herb Dallas and June Manchen stir ammonium hydroxide solution to aid extraction of protein residues from within microcracks in the surface of a Cuyamaca Oval at W-365. Photo by Ed Mercado...... 63 Figure 26. Samples were extracted from the Cuyamaca Ovals with sterile pipettes and placed into plastic vials immediately. Photo taken at SDM-W-365 by Ed Mercado...... 64 Figure 27. Samples were immediately frozen in the field using a liquid nitrogen spray. Photo by Ed Mercado...... 64 Figure 28. Collecting ammonium hydroxide solution from the milling surface of a Cuyamaca Oval at CA-SDI-9538. Photo by Ed Mercado...... 65 Figure 29. Obsidian flake #1 from SDM-W-365...... 70 Figure 30. Obsidian artifact #2 from SDM-W-365...... 71 Figure 31. Graph of site elevations...... 72 Figure 32. Graph of distance to water from each site visited...... 73 Figure 33. Example of a Woodland community (Jeffrey Pine Forest) at Cuyamaca Rancho State Park...... 76 Figure 34. Example of a dry montane meadow vegetation community at Cuyamaca Rancho State Park...... 77 Figure 35. Chaparral vegetation community on East Mesa...... 78 Figure 36. Sage scrub vegetation community in the San Felipe Valley...... 79

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many thanks go to my thesis committee members for helping me see this project through to the end. It took a while but I am very pleased with the final product. I greatly appreciate you all hanging in there with me. Dr. Mallios, the two semesters I spent at the Whaley House were the start of my great appreciation for being in the field and doing research. Thank you for both of those opportunities and for helping me reach the completion of this thesis from the first basic ideas. Dr. Braje, thank you for your interest in these sites and for helping me clean up the manuscript. Dr. Bizzoco, I greatly enjoyed taking one of your classes as an undergraduate and am very thankful you agreed to be on this committee. Your enthusiasm for teaching must surely explain the large, auditorium-style classrooms that your courses demand. Thank you to my mother for all of your encouragement. Ever. It is difficult to imagine finishing this project and degree without having your motivation and help. Thanks also to my little family. To Megan, thank you for being patient and understanding with me when I needed to concentrate on other things and for being such a great wife. Let’s go on a vacation! Thanks to Nick for being a great stepson and for being my survey partner on many of the site visits for this project. I love you both. Thank you to Herb Dallas, for introducing me to this topic and for a very rewarding internship. Our survey days, being in the field and going places that most people don’t get to see, and our long drives with talk of food and beverage really solidified my belief that I was going into the perfect career. I hope we can do additional research on Cuyamaca Ovals some day and get some more dates on these sites. I owe you some Phil’s BBQ! I would also like to thank friends and colleagues who have been there during this project and/or influenced me to pursue archaeology. Thank you Dr. Lynn Gamble, Scott Mattingly, Jaime Lennox, Hillary Sweeney, and fellow classmates; it has been great going to school and/or working with you all. Thanks to Angela Pham for your friendship, support and

xii encouragement during this project, and for hiring me for my first archaeology job after Collections. Thanks to Jessica Hennessey and Larry Tift for being interested in the project and taking me to see some of the newly recorded sites that I eventually used for this thesis. Thanks also to Tony Quach and Dr. Mark Becker at ASM Affiliates for their advice and assistance preparing me for the protein residue analyses. Thanks also to James Daniels at ASM Affiliates for running the Xray fluorescence analyses for me. Many thanks also to Ed Mercado – La Posta Band of Mission Indians Monitor/Consultant for volunteering to be our monitor during the fieldwork and just for being a friend I could talk to on a rough day. I also owe you some Phil’s BBQ whenever you want to collect it!

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Much as California’s climate draws people today, the region was densely populated prior to European contact in 1540 (Champagne 1994:301; Culbert 1996). Prior to Spanish missionization the indigenous occupants of what is now San Diego County were hunter/gatherers, collectively known as the Kumeyaay Nation. To collect seasonally available foods and materials they lived mobile lives, moving their familial groups from the coastal plains in the west to as far east as the deserts beyond the Peninsular Ranges that stretch north to south through the county. Throughout their recorded territory in San Diego County and northern Baja California, Mexico, the Kumeyaay left evidence of prehistoric food processing in the form of bedrock milling features. Milling stone forms varied, often with the type of material(s) being processed. Throughout southern California three basic forms of bedrock milling surface are generally observed; (1) slicks are surfaces that have been manually polished smooth without depth; (2) mortars are rounded depressions; and (3) basins are grinding elements that have recordable depth without the rounded-shape of the mortar. These forms may all vary in dimension while maintaining the characteristic traits of their type. Centered in and around Rancho Cuyamaca State Park in eastern San Diego County are a number of prehistoric archaeological sites with a distinctive type of milling surface. The elliptical form of the Cuyamaca Ovals (Figure 1) was noted during archaeological fieldwork as early as the 1960s; however, a formal description has been recently provided by Hector and colleagues (2006). They listed a number of attributes to describe Cuyamaca Ovals including their uniform, elliptical shape, consistent depth, shouldered edges, patterning of two or more ovals in either an arc or “deer hoof” shape, and the absence of typical mortars at many oval sites. Named after the Cuyamaca Complex, as described by Delbert True in 1970, these unique milling features may be found outside of the park, as well (Dallas, personal communication, Fall 2011; Freeman and Van Horn 1990:11;

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Hector 2004b:173; Hector et al. 2009). This research will attempt to answer the question of whether the ovoid shape of these milling features is related to the processing of a resource either available or exploited locally, and, if so, what the resource was. This thesis will also attempt to identify the time period in which Cuyamaca Ovals were in use in order to assign their manufacture to a specific cultural complex. The working hypothesis will be that Cuyamaca Ovals were a characteristic milling feature of the Cuyamaca Complex and were thus Late Prehistoric in age, beginning approximately 1,500 calibrated years before present (cal. BP) and continuing until European colonization in the late 1700’s. Finally, the results of this thesis should bring cohesiveness to how these milling features are recorded in the future and provide further predictions for the spaces in which they can be expected to occur.

Figure 1. Close-up of a Cuyamaca Oval at CA-SDI-6847.

PREHISTORIC CULTURAL PERIODS OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In southern California from San Luis Obispo in the north to Baja California in the south, three distinct, prehistoric, cultural horizons have been identified that cross tribal and

3 ethnic boundaries (True et al. 1979:124). These are the Archaic Period, the Encinitas/La Jolla Tradition, and the Late Prehistoric/Protohistoric Period (Chartkoff and Chartkoff 1984:99; Flemming 1997:30; Ike and Roth 1980:15; Moratto 1984:147; Moriarty and Moriarty 1971:15-17). Each of these periods may have one or more regional varieties recorded in the literature. For most of southern California, the Archaic Period that began between 9,000 and 10,000 years ago has been named the San Dieguito Tradition (Chartkoff and Chartkoff 1984:99; Rogers 1929:454-467). The Archaic Period is marked by the extinction of Pleistocence megafauna and a transition to wild vegetable foods as the primary form of subsistence for Native Americans (Sutton 1996:228; Willey and Phillips 1970:107). The second prehistoric culture period, the Millingstone Horizon, is marked by the appearance of a much greater number and variety of groundstone milling implements as well as archaeological sites that bear signs of greater population densities, beginning 8,000 years before present and lasting until approximately 3,000 years ago (Byrd and Raab 2007:219- 220; Chace and Sutton 1990:42; Cooley 1998:1; Fitzgerald and Jones 1999:67-68; Ike and Roth 1980:15; Moratto 1984:147-151; Moriarty 1967:553). Simms’ (1983) work in the eastern Great Basin cautions that scavenging and reuse of milling implements from earlier contexts could account for their greater numbers during the Millingstone Horizon. In San Diego County, the Archaic Period culture complex is referred to as the San Dieguito and the Millingstone Horizon complex as the La Jollan (Chartkoff 1989:167-170; Chartkoff and Chartkoff 1984:99; Ike and Roth 1980:15-17; Moratto 1984:146-158; Rogers 1945:171). The La Jolla tradition focused primarily on shellfish in addition to wild plant resources and sites are typically found near lagoons, bays, and estuaries (Garcia-Herbst 2009a:2-3; Ike and Roth 1980:16; Moratto 1984:147-151). At the end of the La Jolla tradition, rise in sea level, overfishing, and the natural infilling of lagoons and estuaries made procurement of the same shellfish species more difficult and subsistence modes shifted (Byrd and Raab 2007:223; Ike and Roth 1980:17; Rosenthal et al. 2001:179; Moratto 1984:154). The final period in San Diego prehistory has been named the Late Prehistoric/Protohistoric and began approximately 1,500 cal. BP (Garcia-Herbst 2009a:3; Moratto 1984:154), although scholars use a date of 3,000 cal. BP for the beginning of the Late Prehistoric for California and the Great Basin (Eerkens 2004:653; Moriarty 1967:553).

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This period ends with the beginning of the Spanish Mission Period in A.D. 1769. Ethnographies report that seasonal changes in resource availability caused the sizes and ranges of local groups to vary over the course of a year; however, they remained within circumscribed territories (Luomala 1976:246; Woodward 1968:86-87). Ethnographic records show a number of cultures in the region at the time of Spanish arrival in A.D. 1542. The desert in the northeastern corner of San Diego County was part of Cahuilla territory and just south of this is a small area traditionally belonging to the Cupeño (Dietler 2004:57; Flemming 1999:96). In the northwest of the county, extending into Orange and Riverside Counties, are the Luiseño, named for the Spanish mission in their area, San Luis Rey de Francia (Dietler 2004:57). South of the Luiseño in San Diego County and northern Baja California are the Kumeyaay, alternately known as the Diegueño after the Spanish mission in their territory, Mission San Diego de Alcala (Hoffman and Gamble 2006:8; Shackley 2004; Shipek 1991). The Diegueño were further divided into two branches, the Ipai and Tipai (Luomala 1978:599). Although there was some dialectical variation, the Ipai and Tipai all spoke Yuman languages and shared cultural similarities (Cardenas 1986:74; Gamble 2004:94; Hayden 1966:439; Luomala 1978:592). Kinship affiliations were based on patrilineal lines (Gamble 2004:94; Shackley 1980:40-41; Woodward 1968:86-87). Within the Kumeyaay territory small tribal groups of approximately one hundred people took the names of local animals, places, objects, etc. for themselves (Luomala 1978:592). Names that local groups took were often repeated in other geographic areas and, in such cases, the groups with shared names also believed that they shared kinship with one another.

PREHISTORIC CULTURES OF SAN DIEGO Malcolm Rogers (1929:454-469) defined the San Dieguito as the first cultural complex of San Diego County in 1929 (Carter 1996:104). He subsequently divided the San Dieguito into three different phases: I, II, and III (Warren 1967:168-169). The San Dieguito were present in San Diego as early as 12,000 cal. BP until approximately 8,000 cal. BP when they were replaced by the La Jolla tradition, identifiable by changes in stone tool technology as well as a greater importance of a grinding technology for processing seeds and acorns (Carter 1996:104; Ike and Roth 1980:15-17; True and Beemer 1982:234; True and Pankey

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1985:240; Vanderpot et al. 1993:301). Throughout southern California this cultural change to a subsistence focus on the collection of wild plant foods is known as the Millingstone Horizon (Ike and Roth 1980:15). Finally, the Late Prehistoric period in San Diego was similar to the La Jolla, except for the technological additions of pottery making and hunting with the bow and arrow, which began approximately 1,500 cal. BP although some researchers have placed the beginning of this period at 3,000 cal. BP (Beck 1993:165-166; Carter 1996:14; Hector 1988:55). Others set the dates of the Late Prehistoric Period as more recent, at 1,000-1,500 cal. BP (Sutton 2008:3). Chartkoff and Chartkoff (1984) refer to this time as the Pacific Period although this terminology appears to be obsolete. Obsidian is a volcanic glass frequently used in tool-making that is often encountered in San Diego archaeological deposits. Artifacts constructed from obsidian may be used to infer the age of archaeological sites, as the only source for this volcanic glass prior to about A.D. 1600 was trading from the Coso Volcanic Field in Inyo County (Kyle 1988:99). After about 400 cal. BP, stone from Obsidian Butte along the southeastern side of the Salton Sea in Imperial County was exposed and artifacts from this source became common in archaeological contexts (Kyle 1988:99). Funerary practices also changed from inhumations to cremations with the remains placed into ceramic ollas (Carter 1996:104). Of the known cultural complexes from San Diego County, the oldest are thought to have been primarily coastal-adapted and have not been widely identified at higher elevations, although Late Paleo-Indian/Archaic Period sites have been reported (Cooley 1995:233; Garcia-Herbst 2009a:2-3; Pigniolo 2005:247-254; True 1970:1-93). Much as they did during the Late Prehistoric Period, Pigniolo (2005) believes that even 9,000 years ago the people living in San Diego County were traveling between the coast, mountains, and desert to exploit seasonally available food resources. With sites of such great time depth recorded in the San Diego mountains it is conceivable that Cuyamaca Ovals could be related to an early cultural period in southern California. As a result of initial visual examinations of a number of Cuyamaca ovals in person, the highly exfoliated surfaces of some milling features also seem to suggest some antiquity for their manufacture and use. However, if it is found that the Cuyamaca Ovals are associated with the culture known as the Cuyamaca Complex as is currently assumed, the associated chipped stone artifacts (Cottonwood and Desert Side-Notched projectile points)

6 and presence of pottery would identify these bedrock milling features as being Late Prehistoric (Gross and Sampson 1990:143; Hector 2004b:173).

LATE PREHISTORIC/CUYAMACA COMPLEX Delbert True (1970:5) defined the Cuyamaca Complex as being Late Prehistoric to Protohistoric in age and recorded six types of associated archaeological sites. The categories included habitation sites (villages), small camps, temporary sites, seed grinding stations, caches, and quarrying workshops (Beck 1993:166-167; Gamble 2004:94; Garcia-Herbst 2009b:5-11; Garcia-Herbst et al. 2010:3-4). Habitation sites may have been temporarily occupied during collecting or hunting trips, or they may be semi-permanent to permanent village locations with middens, food processing locations, and an extensive artifact scatter (Garcia-Herbst et al. 2010:3-4). Like much of California, native peoples frequently had one or two large, centralized villages with subsidiary camps for collecting wild foods that could either be processed on the spot or taken back to the home village (Chartkoff 1989:21-27; Cooley 1995:233; Freeman and Van Horn 1990:4; Gamble and Zepeda 2002:72; Glassow 1985:62-63; Hector 1988:55-57; Hector 2004b:78; Hildebrandt 1997:199; Hoffman and Gamble 2006:4; Laylander 1997:193; Luomala 1978:599; Michelsen and Michelsen 1979:27-31; Minor 1976:72-79; Shackley 1980:41; True 1970:5-6; Wallace 1986:25-26; Wallace and Taylor 1955:356-357). Large villages often served as the political and ceremonial centers for the region and could be populated by up to 500 people (Champagne 1994:302; Lightfoot and Parrish 2009:253). Approximately 250 Native Californian sites have been identified and recorded in the Rancho Cuyamaca State Park (Gamble 2004:94; Parkman 1984:184). The villages, such as the type-site at Dripping Springs (CA-SDI-860), were large areas of artifact scatters consisting of ceramics and chipped stone, dense middens that indicated continuous occupation by a large population, and surrounded by milling features ground into the local bedrock (True 1970:5). Archaeological excavations of the midden at Camp Hual-Cu-Cuish (CA-SDI-945), a large Cuyamaca Complex site, recovered large amounts of acorn remains (Guerrero 2001). Shell fragments, nut meat, and attachments were the second most common artifact type recovered, by weight (Gamble 2004:98). The concentration of acorn remains as the second most common artifact, especially when compared with the large amounts of

7 pottery sherds and chipped stone flakes and tools, show how important acorns were as a staple food. The appearance of ceramics in the archaeological record of San Diego at approximately 1,000 cal. BP can be used as a time and culture-marker (Guerrero 2004:107). Since village sites associated with the Cuyamaca Complex often have large concentrations of pottery, the cultural period has been defined as Late Prehistoric to Protohistoric (Guerrero 2004:107-108; True 1970:1-92). The San Luis Rey tradition of the Luiseño in Northern San Diego County may have had a formalized strategy for seasonal relocation of settlements (True and Waugh 1982:34). Due to their occupation of similar environments, subsistence strategies for the Luiseño and Diegueño were often similar. Shackley (1980) noted that Late Prehistoric village sites were often located in ecotones, particularly at the intersection of oak and pine forests. This probably helped maximize collecting efficiency. Where sites are positioned near the intersection of two plant communities, all were found to have buckwheat (Eriogonum fasciculatum) growing nearby (Shackley 1980:44). Minor (1976:72-79) reported on a Cuyamaca Complex site on a bank above Kitchen Creek which was thought to be occupied during the spring and early summer due to the midden and high percentages of basins and slicks versus mortars, which implied a higher reliance on processed seeds than acorns. He wrote that the site was likely abandoned when the creek ceased to flow in the hottest months of the year. At this site, Minor (1976:73) described milling basins that were “elliptical depressions 3 cm or more deep” which this author assumes are Cuyamaca Ovals.

THE CUYAMACA MOUNTAINS

Geology The Cuyamaca Complex was defined by Delbert True of the University of California, Los Angeles, as centered in Cuyamaca Rancho State Park in the Laguna Mountain range of eastern San Diego County (True 1970:1-92). This mountain range rises to just over 6,500 feet and consists mostly of granite, and other metavolcanic rock uplifted from parts of the southern California Batholith which runs from the southern end of the Baja California Peninsula to Riverside County near Hemet (Cooper 1874b:90; Flemming 1997:29; Gamble

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2004:93; Gross and Sampson 1990:137; Luomala 1978:593; May 1980:55; Shackley 1980:43; True 1970:1-92). The name Cuyamaca is believed to be the Spanish version of the name they heard the Kumeyaay using, “Ahha Kweahmac” which translates to “water beyond” (Parkman 1989:36).

Water Resources The Cuyamacas receive the most rainfall and moisture in the county. As storms approach the mountains from the west, the increasing elevation induces precipitation. Much of the rainfall in southern California and Baja California, Mexico, arrives during the winter from Arctic storms (Moore 1999:21). Mean rainfall totals may reach 35-38 inches per year in the Cuyamaca area (Shackley 1980:43). A stark difference exists on the eastern slopes of the range which lie within the rain shadow, and, thus vegetation is sparse. As should be expected, archaeological sites on the eastern slopes of the mountains are, by comparison, relatively rare due to the high winds and low amounts of rainfall (Hector 2004b:173). Modern Cuyamaca Rancho State Park contains a number of permanent streams, Sweetwater River, and even a beautiful, man-made, permanent alpine water source in Lake Cuyamaca (Gross and Sampson 1990:137). Although the western slopes of this range receive the most rain in San Diego, the wooded areas are not densely packed with vegetation. Rather, a number of clearings and meadows exist where semi-permanent settlements could have been established (Flemming 1997:29; Gross and Sampson 1990:137).

Faunal Communities When compared to the rest of the San Diego region, the Cuyamaca Mountains are relatively rich in faunal resources (Parkman 1983:140). True (1970:5) wrote that the greater amount of exploitable resources that were available locally likely account for the greater density of both archaeological sites and the population of the Cuyamaca Complex (True 1970:5). Birds are reasonably well-represented. There are no less than eight species of raptors, several species of woodpecker, crows, jays, quail, as well as a number of other small bird species. In 1862, J.G. Cooper took a trip into the Cuyamacas to record the biological diversity. In total, he found 84 species of birds from the base of the mountains up to the

9 peaks (Cooper 1874a). Cooper did not find any reptiles and few amphibians which he attributed to surveying too early in the year when the temperatures were still cool. Lemm (2006) lists a number of snake and lizard species that occur in the Cuyamacas such as several species of kingsnake, rattlesnake, and rosy boa, to name some of the larger serpents. Lizards are also common among the granite outcroppings and are represented by a handful of moderate and small-sized species. Reports of bears, either grizzly or cinnamon bears were uncommon but were known from when Cooper went on his expedition in 1862. Though not common now, mountain lions, lynx, and even long-tailed spotted cats lived in the Cuyamacas up until the nineteenth century. Of the other mammals, skunks, opossum, and coyotes have been recorded. Rodents and lagomorphs were well-represented by rabbits, hares, tree and ground squirrel species, rats, and mice. Hoofed mammals included mule deer although both bighorn sheep and antelope could have been found nearby (Cooper 1874a). Hunting success of those species may have been increased during the fall when the animals were also concentrating on consuming acorns in the oak groves (Luomala 1978:599).

Plant Communities Ten years after his account of the faunal species, Cooper also recorded the floral species of the Cuyamacas (Cooper 1874b). Here I prefer to use his accounts again because plant and animal communities change over time and what is current today, as far as diversity and density of species may be different than even fifty years ago. At the time, the Cuyamacas were relatively unstudied by biologists (Cooper 1874a). Cooper listed as many species as he could find, a number of which may have been used nutritionally by indigenous people, although the archaeological record has not produced much evidence yet. The mountains of eastern San Diego County have a variety of ecological niches, and their corresponding vegetation communities result from differing amounts of rainfall, elevation, sunlight exposure, etc. (True 1970:1-92). Most common are open meadows, oak groves, pine forests, and mixed or montane chaparral plant communities throughout the Laguna Mountains (Epling and Lewis 1942:445; Garcia-Herbst 2009b:1-3; Gross and Sampson 1990:137; Noah and Culbert 1999:80). Although vegetation shifts occur in microhabitats and at different elevations, the area has beautiful oak and pine woodland forests on the western slopes (Wallace 1955:215). Oak and pine forests are often above

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4,000 feet where chaparral communities are less common (True 1970:5). Minor (1976) reported that of the local species of oak, the Kumeyaay preferred the acorns of the Black Oak (Quercus kellogi) and Coast Live Oak (Quercus agrifolia) over the less palatable Scrub Oak (Quercus dumosa). There are also reports of other Native Californian groups having the same preference of acorn species (Garcia-Herbst 2009b:3; Wohlgemuth 1996:96). The exploitation of pine nuts by Native Californians is known to have occurred in antiquity suggesting its use in the Laguna Mountains may have a long history as well (Garfinkel and Cook 1980:285). The Laguna Mountains’ diversity of plant species meant there were many other resources prehistoric people were exploiting in addition to the acorns and pine nuts. Hollyleaf cherry (Prunus ilicifolia), Manzanita (Arctostaphylos spp.), and Elderberry (Sambucas spp.) all produce small berries that could have been collected and consumed (Gamble 2004:93). Seeds from sage (Salvia spp.), wild buckwheat (Eriogonum), and sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) were also locally available and consumed (True 1970:11). Many of the vegetal species found in the Laguna Mountains could have been exploited both for nutrition as well as for making textiles (Gross and Sampson 1990:137; Hector 2006:105). In northern San Diego County the Cupeño in Lost Valley, a similar high- altitude environment, were making baskets out of several grasses, pine needles, and sumac (Noah and Culbert 1999:84; Shackley 1980:44). Willow and cottonwood trees were widespread sources of raw material for constructing bows and arrow shafts (Noah and Culbert 1999:84). Archaeological research of ancient subsistence and settlement patterns frequently involve paleoethnobotany, the scientific study of ancient plant remains left by human activities (Ford 1979:286). The results from paleoethnobotanical research, when combined with data from other aspects of an archaeological study, serve to offer a more complete set of information with which to make inferences about subsistence practices in prehistory (Ford 1979:285-288; Hastorf 1999:55; Pennington and Weber 2004:13-20).

BEDROCK MILLING Gifford (1967) wrote that archaeologists’ previous assumptions that consumption of hard seeds and grains must have left evidence in the form of grinding implements wherever it

11 was practiced may be incorrect. For example, some believe early Californians may have been leaching the tannic acid from acorns using methods that did not require milling for some time prior to the adoption of grinding technologies (Gifford 1967:403). Acorns are collected during the months of October and November when the groves can produce large harvests in good years (James 1995:242; Luomala 1978:599; Noah and Culbert 1999:83; Shackley 1980:41). In times of abundance excess acorns could be collected and stored for up to five years (Hoffman and Gamble 2006:14). Pine nuts could also be stored, at least through the winter (Simms 1985:173). Acorns are naturally high in tannins (acidic) and oils, making it necessary to grind and leach them before consumption (Haney 1992:95; Hoffman and Gamble 2006:15). The most widespread technique involved grinding the acorns into a meal which was then placed into a straining basket through which water could be repeatedly rinsed, removing the tannins (Haney 1992:95). For this reason, many bedrock milling stations are located near permanent sources of water (True 1958:255). In San Diego County there is less bedrock milling associated with coastal archaeological sites than inland areas. This research will be conducted under the assumption that differences in biological resources rather than availability of suitable bedrock account for differences in milling locations. Heading east from the coast along the San Diego River Valley and up into the mountains, sites become more heavily populated with bedrock milling features (Gallegos 1995:195-200). Coastal sites (up to 1,000 feet above sea level) in San Diego often do not contain bedrock mortars and basins. These features are more commonly found associated with the processing of vegetal foods in the mountains (Dietler 2004:57; Gallegos 1995:205; Gamble and Zepeda 2002:72; Garcia-Herbst 2009b:2; McHenry 1995:217-225; Molto and Kennedy 1991:47-50; Vanderpot et al. 1993:301-311). However, portable metates for grinding small seeds are known from coastal sites throughout southern California (Reddy and Erlandson 2012:33; Robbins-Wade 1986:42). In riparian habitat along the southern banks of the San Diego River in Mission Valley, the processing station at CA-SDI-10,148 was dated from 1,100 to 1,700 cal. BP and only portable metates were identified (Kyle 1995:27-216). Bedrock milling features at sites in the inland foothills (between 1,000 to 3,000 feet above sea level) often are represented by mortars alone but occasionally contain slicks (Cardenas 1986:63; Dietler 2004:57; McCown 1945:255-257; Wallace 1955:215). In the

12 mountains (above 3,000 feet elevation) of San Diego County, many sites with bedrock milling features contain all three forms, likely related to the greater diversity of resources available in these environments (Dietler 2004:57; Hector 2004a:78). In the desert east of the Laguna Mountains, sites with bedrock milling features are dominated by slicks. As could be expected, many of the habitation sites in the desert are located near reliable sources of water (Ritter and Coombs 1990:35). It is likely that vegetal resources from these environments were also being exploited and processed on the slicks. Ideally, bedrock and portable milling surfaces are formed in porous rock, often granite, as the surfaces need to withstand becoming so smoothed and polished as to become ineffective in grinding foodstuffs (Aschmann 1949:685; Greenwood 1969:18; Meighan 2000:64; Schneider 1996:301; True 1985:255). Unfortunately, large-grained and rough stone such as granite or sandstone has a habit of breaking off small pieces of stone during milling that then become part of the ingested food (VanPool and Leonard 2002:719). Smoothed- down grinding surfaces could be repaired and made useful again by pecking away pieces of the surface to make it rough again (Adams 1993:64; Mohr 1954:394; Schlanger 1991:462).

Form Versus Time Archaeologists such as Meighan (1954), Wallace (1954), and Wohlgemuth (1996) have argued that archaeological sites with higher numbers of milling features must correspond to a higher importance of vegetal foods rather than implying greater time depth. The forms that milling features take vary across ecological zones and plant communities and are related to the direction of repeated movements of the mano, or handstone, across the milling surface (Greenwood 1969:20). Schlanger (1991) reported that the Anasazi of southwestern Colorado were using one-handed manos predominantly in a circular grinding motion. In Ventura County, some oval-shaped basin features were reportedly formed by a forward and backward push-pull movement and were associated with oval-shaped, bifacial manos (Greenwood 1969:20). In San Diego, the Diegueño were recorded as practicing the push-pull motion, although this activity was recorded from portable milling slabs (Mohr 1954:394; Schroth 1996:57).

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Figure 2. Concentration of Cuyamaca Ovals on low, flat outcrop.

Forms of Bedrock Milling Surfaces This investigation will consider the three types of ground bedrock features associated with the processing of foods (mortars, basins/metates, and slicks). While these types of features are usually categorized as groundstone by archaeologists, it is important to note that many of these features are first formed by percussive pecking of the stone surface to create the initial depression (Schneider and Osborne 1996:30; Schneider 1993:3-6). Bedrock mortars are round in shape, may be up to 10-12 inches in depth, and are found widely across most of the prehistoric cultures of California (Hildebrandt 1997:199; Schneider 1993:6; Schroth 1996:60-61). Their appearance in the archaeological record is frequently used to date the first exploitation of acorns for different regions and cultures (Schulz and Johnson 1980:127). After a certain depth, mortar holes are reportedly difficult to use with acorns and pine nuts as those materials turn into an unworkable, oily mush at the bottom (Fenenga 1952:342).

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Bedrock metates/basins are somewhat round but generally do not have a definable shape and are usually not any more than three centimeters deep (True and Waugh 1981:102). Bedrock metates have noticeable edges or margins. The subjects of this research, the Cuyamaca Ovals, are bedrock basin metates that have been formed into a distinctive oval shape. The final form of bedrock milling feature included in this investigation is the slick. Slicks are simply that; slicked areas without a defined shape or depth (Schroth 1996:55-56; True 1993:5; True and Waugh 1981:102). Prolonged usage of bedrock slicks is not seen by archaeologists as the precursor for the manufacture of bedrock metates (True and Waugh 1981:107). As mentioned previously, archaeologists often associate the use of mortars and pestles with the collection and processing of acorns and pine nuts, while slicks and the amorphous and shallower basins are used for grinding seeds and/or small animals (Campbell 1999; Flemming 1997:33; Glassow 1996:14; Hildebrandt 1997:199; Jones 1996:243; Minor 1976:72-79; Schroth 1996:55-56; True 1993:15). The Arrowmaker’s Site, CA-SDI-913, is a well-researched site on a ridge above Green Valley in the Rancho Cuyamaca State Park. This site is odd in that it is a reasonably large habitation site that lacks Cuyamaca Oval basins. As the site is not located on the edge of a grassy meadow, archaeologists have speculated that Cuyamaca Ovals may have been utilized in the processing of hard grass seeds that were not readily available at the Arrowmaker’s Site (Parkman 1989:27). The assumption that function dictated shape may not always be the case, however. Reddy (1999) published results of paleoethnobotanical research work on Camp Pendleton in northern San Diego County. Approximately two-thirds of the milling features at CA-SDI- 5139 were well-formed mortars but the archaeobotanical remains were mostly grass seeds with few acorn remains (Reddy 1999:34). Another well-analyzed site near Lakeside, California, in an area characterized as inland foothills, completely lacked mortars amongst its slick and basin milling features, in spite of a nearby stand of Coast Live Oak (Quercus agrifolia) (Chace and Sutton 1990:42-50). Other ethnographic work in northern California showed that plant roots were being processed into flour in both metates and mortars (Couture et al. 1986:157). Schroth (1996:58) reported that other groups used metates to grind cooked meat, insects, and pigments for personal adornment.

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The following chapter will focus on the methods used in this research to gain further understanding of what substances were being processed in Cuyamaca Ovals and when they were in use.

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CHAPTER 2

BACKGROUND RESEARCH

This chapter will discuss the technologies and archaeological theories that I chose to use for this research. It will describe some of the potential methods for identifying the function of Cuyamaca Ovals with focus on the extraction and laboratory methods that were chosen, the spatial organization of Cuyamaca Oval site locations, an inferential dating technique that was used at one of the sites tested, and the archaeological theories that provided a framework for this research.

PROTEIN RESIDUE ANALYSIS A number of techniques exist for determining the substances that were processed in milling features (Buonasera 2005:957-965; Buonasera 2007:1379-1390; Cooley and Barrie 2004:43-56; Downs and Lowenstein 1995:11-16; Haslam 2004:1715; Heaton et al. 2009:2145-2154; Parker 1996:1-13; Reuther et al. 2006:531-537; Schneider and Bruce 2009:1-3; Yohe et al. 1991:659-661). Faunal food sources were frequently processed on groundstone surfaces in addition to vegetal resources (Sutton 1993:134). Protein residues and DNA, both of which degrade similarly, have been found to be absorbed into microcracks on the surface of milling implements, somewhat protecting them from natural taphonomic processes (Shanks et al. 2001:965; Shanks et al. 2005:27). Experiments have shown that the most damaging elements to archaeological proteins are exposure to microbes and micro- organisms (Haslam 2004:1721; Langejans 2010:971; Potter et al. 2010:910). As should be expected, archaeological residues are more common and in higher numbers on the actual processing surfaces of handheld tools and grinding stones than on peripheral surfaces (Langejans 2011:999). Vegetation that was processed on milling surfaces can leave behind a number of traces in the archaeological record that can be identified including pollen grains, pieces of

17 silica called phytoliths, starch, and remains large enough to be identified with or without magnification (Högberg et al. 2009:1725). Before any protein residue analyses can be conducted, a reliable method for extraction from the stone surfaces must be decided upon. Although archaeologists have recovered identifiable vegetal samples from milling surfaces with gentle brushing, it is expected that removing residues from bedrock surfaces in the Laguna Mountains will be more difficult (Babot and Apella 2003:123). Results of tests on lithics, as well as ceramics, show that sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) at 2% was the best reagent for removing the proteins (Craig and Collins 2002:1077-1081). This solution may also prove to be the best choice for use in the field as it does not require the cooler temperatures of some of the others. For milling surfaces without visible residues, 4M guanidine hydrochloride application released up to 80% of the proteins absorbed into microcracks (Shanks et al. 2001:971). For blood proteins, albumin and globulin, each has identifiable chemical and biological properties that may be analyzed, even after exceptional amounts of time have passed (Downs and Lowenstein 1995:11-13). Parker (1996) examined the milling surfaces at two different sites in central Riverside County, California, for pollens that could be identified. Schroth (1996) warned that pollens recovered from metates could be the result of processes to clean the milling surfaces with brushy vegetation rather than remains of the foodstuffs that were processed on it. As well, Downs and Lowenstein (1995) reminded researchers that the tests on thousands of years old blood proteins have not been scientifically studied for accuracy. Although the milling surfaces tested were all of the portable metate/basin type, Parker’s results showed that the plants being processed belonged to the local plant communities near each site (Parker 1996:1-13). Direct Temperature-resolved Mass Spectrometry (DTMS) is also an excellent method for identifying small amounts of organic material and can be used for substances beyond just foodstuffs such as glues, paints, and pigments (Oudemans et al. 2007:190). Stable isotope analysis of carbon-13 and nitrogen-15 has been used to reconstruct prehistoric foods that were cooked in ceramic vessels (Morton and Schwarcz 2004:503-517). Buonasera (2005) pointed out that analysis of the lipids in fatty acids could be performed on stone tools in addition to pottery, the most common usage. She did find, however, that her control sample of stones taken from contexts outside of the archaeological site under study also had identifiable lipids, presumably from

18 natural processes, which make the assignment of origin to human activities difficult (Buonasera 2005:957-965). Schneider and Bruce (2009) conducted a study for the California Department of Parks and Recreation in which protein residues were removed from the surfaces of milling features at three archaeological sites located within differing environmental communities. They used Crossover Immunological Electrophoresis (CIEP), used in forensic investigations prior to the development of DNA fingerprinting, to identify by genus the protein residues of the plants and animals processed within 17% of the surfaces tested (Barnard et al. 2007:30-32; Schneider and Bruce 2009:1-13; Sutton 1993:137-138). CIEP uses known antibodies to initiate an observable reaction with counterpart antigens (Högberg et al. 2009:1729). CIEP has proven to be an effective tool for archaeologists; even being used to identify protein residues in soil samples and human coprolites (Newman et al. 1993:94). Although using several different technologies to identify archaeological residues on milling instruments results in the most accurate results (Babot and Apella 2003:122), this research utilized CIEP as it was available at a testing laboratory within the California State University system. There is some apprehension that the 2003 Cedar Fire which burned 99% of the Rancho Cuyamaca State Park could make the retrieval of identifiable pollens or protein residues from milling surfaces much more difficult. In addition to the possibility that these remains on milling surfaces could have burned, some milling surfaces themselves were observed to have completely exfoliated off the bedrock due to the extreme heat of the fire (McFarland 2006:38, 172; Mealey 2007:64). It is possible that soil or other material inside of milling surfaces may serve to protect them from fire damage (McFarland 2006:38). Archaeological samples of protein residues over 11,000 years old and mammalian DNA over 9,000 years old have been successfully recovered and identified (Seeman et al. 2008:2742- 2750; Shanks et al. 2005:27). Langejans (2010) reported that protein residues in certain environments may degrade so slowly that they can be detectable after tens of thousands of years.

OBSIDIAN Obsidian is a volcanic glass that has been used in stone tool making in prehistory through modern times. When the source material of obsidian artifacts can be determined,

19 they may provide insight into either the routes that people once traveled to obtain the material or even the identities of trading partnerships (Chartkoff 1990). Archaeologists have been using chemical analysis techniques on obsidian for over 140 years to identify the likely source of artifacts (Stevenson et al. 1971). Obsidian analyses, particularly sourcing information, have become both popular and useful in modern archaeology (Freund 2013). Through California State Parks we were given permission to collect and analyze any obsidian artifacts on the surface at both CA-SDI-852 and SDM-W-365 in an attempt to provide some temporal data on those two sites. ASM Affiliates provided use of their x-ray fluorescence (XRF) equipment to identify the source(s) of any artifacts recovered. XRF is ideal in that it is a non-destructive method to compare the composition of artifacts against the geochemical composition of multiple known obsidian deposits, accessible to the San Diego region via trade in prehistory, with a high degree of certainty (Giauque et al. 1993). XRF uses a primary exposure of x-rays to the obsidian artifacts that react with the elements within, producing secondary x-rays that are specific to that element. The secondary x-rays are recorded and used to determine the composition of the stone.

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SCIENCE HISTORY AND CAPABILITIES Geographic Information Science (GIS) and spatial analysis software may be somewhat new to science but the ideas behind them are not (Wheatley and Gillings 2002:9). The first practical and most well-known, early use of spatial analysis involved a cholera outbreak in the Soho District of London in 1854. John Snow was a physician at a nearby hospital who interviewed the victims and their families, plotted the locations of their residences and proximities to a specific community water pump on a map, and drew the conclusion that the water being shared by the neighborhood was the vector of transmission for the cholera outbreak (Longley et al. 2011:354-355). There are several definitions for GIS, none of them official (Wheatley and Gillings 2002:9). A beginner-level way to view GIS is that it is software that acts as both a database for storing geographic coordinates and information, combined with a suite of programs designed to help analyze that data (Longley et al. 2011:181-183). One of its most basic functions is to be an interface for designing quality maps (Ebert 2004:319). An effective GIS software, such as ESRI’s ArcGIS, can

20 incorporate virtually unlimited numbers of non-spatial attributes to spatial data, from either large or small regions, which can all be analyzed to identify potential patterns. Archaeology’s interests in movement and spatial patterns of the human past have made GIS an important component of many studies within the discipline today (Ebert 2004:319; Llobera et al. 2011:843; Wheatley and Gillings 2002:3).

GIS in San Diego Archaeology The use of GIS software to analyze archaeological data has become especially useful to recognize patterns and predict archaeological site features and locations in San Diego County (Mattingly 2007:74-110; Reddy and Brewster 1999; Tsunoda 2006:16-66). Tsunoda (2006) used GIS to analyze a number of environmental factors possibly related to the locations of ten different archaeological site types within Rancho Cuyamaca State Park. Other archaeologists have used the technology to create models for hunting/gathering activities following what would have been the pathways with the least possible cost to the forager (Morgan 2008:247). Hunt (2004) showed that stands of the favored black oak below the snowline in the central Sierra Nevada were often correlated with the locations of sites as determined by using GIS. Reddy and Brewster (1999) conducted somewhat similar research on Camp Pendleton, in north San Diego County, to reconstruct the prehistoric environment of that area’s Luiseño, using several of the same categories (proximity to water and plant community). This study will use GIS data such as elevation, proximity to water, plant communities, etc., collected from archaeological sites recorded as possessing Cuyamaca Ovals, to better define the occurrence of the milling features themselves, and to aid in site prediction of where additional unrecorded sites may be located (Arroyo 2009:506),

THEORY The ways in which we interpret and give meaning to the archaeological record are often based on our individual backgrounds, education, and experiences which will clearly vary from one archaeologist to the next. Theoretical frameworks influence the ways in which we think and interpret data throughout everything we do (Brew 1971:44-45). If this is inevitable, Brew argues that we should at least think about and try to understand them, which led to his work describing the usefulness of artifact typologies.

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Archaeology and the Scientific Method What sets the work of archaeologists apart from the other social sciences is that we can only make inferences about past activities and meanings from the artifacts and features that we find rather than observing contemporaneous people for their behaviors (Trigger 1989:19). For archaeology to be considered a science it must follow the tenets of the scientific method. I will begin with a preparation stage in which I will gather as much background information as possible about Cuyamaca Ovals and then devise the questions I am seeking to answer. The next step of the scientific method is to hypothesize what the answers to those questions will be and to devise and conduct tests that may disprove the hypotheses. This research will work with the hypothesis that Cuyamaca Ovals were utilized in the milling of something that is generally restricted to areas in southern California and northern Baja with geography and resources similar to those at Rancho Cuyamaca State Park. Following experimentation and testing, the results are collected, analyzed, and communicated in some fashion for other scientists to examine. But, archaeological inquiry does not end there. Archaeologists frequently attempt to make sense of larger pieces of the past through interpretation of what artifacts and remains meant to the people who produced them at the time (Swartz 1967:487). As Deetz (1971) explained, humans have a history of creating patterns in the orderly change that they produce upon the earth. Beyond simply describing the archaeological record, he sees the archaeologist’s duty as explaining the order in that change. The directive would be to take what little measurable data exists from artifacts and archaeological features and use it to find any potential correlations with the less visible and easily recorded cultural past. Deetz (1971) saw the continuity of artifact types as a representation of the culture of the people who made them and that the general characteristics of form that an individual artifact possesses (the materials it was composed of, its physical design, method of manufacture, etc.) were all learned by its creator from others in the community. Gifford (1960) argued that regularities in artifact attributes are the material representations of the regularities that humans have in cultural behaviors. Therefore, Cuyamaca Ovals should also “inherently carry information about the lifeways of their makers” (Deetz 1971:3). While the first manufacturers of Cuyamaca Ovals may have produced them for a specific purpose, it is also possible that later versions were produced as a result of cultural expectations rather than

22 for their original purpose(s). Deetz (1971) pointed out that there had already been a long- held belief amongst archaeologists that artifacts and features with shared characteristics imply a transfer of knowledge through social interactions. If this is so, the form of Cuyamaca Ovals may have more to do with social customs than an actual functional need but this may not be testable until the materials process within them are identified.

THE TYPE CONCEPT Krieger (1944) published what appears to have been the first paper focusing on archaeologists’ use of the typological or type concept. Spaulding (1953) also recognized the importance of classifying archaeological artifacts into typologies based on shared characteristics (Deetz 1971:42-43). Archaeologists have used the type concept to classify everything from housing patterns and weaving techniques to artifacts like specific stone tool types, personal adornments, ceramics, smoking pipes, etc. One of the key points in defining types is that the characteristics that differ between them are easily identifiable, as seems to be the case of Cuyamaca Ovals amongst other bedrock milling forms in San Diego County. In terms of taxonomic classification, artifacts and archaeological features are grouped into classes which are categories with one or two, albeit major, shared attributes. Classes can be groups of artifacts such as chipped stone, faunal remains, ceramics, or, as in this case, bedrock milling features. As in the case of ceramic classification, more attributes such as decorations, form, and function define the subtypes within categories of wares which are based on manufacturing techniques or raw material qualities (Sabloff and Smith 1969:278). Within each artifact class there may be similar items that share additional physical and temporal attributes. It is the changes in these attributes that archaeologists expect and attempt to use to reconstruct the past (Gilboa et al. 2004:687). These can be combined into sub-categories of classes, “types” (Rouse 1960:315; Swartz 1967:490). This classification structure may be pictured as the archaeological equivalent of the system designed by Linnaeus for living organisms. With species and archaeological types both at the bottoms of their respective systems they should both be equally challenging to identify (Gorodzov 1933:99). Rouse (1960) wrote that when archaeologists seek to define “types” that the characteristics upon which inclusion in one group or another is based must have some

23 cultural significance. He noted that the reality of archaeologists deciding which attributes are important when defining “types” as categories is subjective and arbitrary. Defining archaeological types of features such as bedrock milling surfaces should inherently be less complex than working with, for example, Southwestern pottery with its different decorative styles and manufacturing techniques, etc. (Rouse 1960:317). As defined by Krieger (1944), the accepted usage of the type concept in archaeology is to group artifacts with similar characteristics together to show affiliation with certain cultural periods and artifacts in space and time. He stated that when archaeologists use the type concept correctly it should hold the same value as a “culture trait” used in ethnography. While ethnologists no longer use the culture trait concept due to problems with coming up with a concrete definition for it, Krieger meant that artifact typologies can be useful descriptive tools (Lyman and O’Brien 2003:245). The production of the distinctive Cuyamaca Oval basin was learned from watching others and, as it appears to be related to a specific cultural sequence in the Cuyamaca Complex, it therefore serves as a valuable indicator for reconstructing cultural change and social interactions in the past. Following Krieger’s recommendation, this research will seek to show that the Cuyamaca Ovals have variation in their form, within a “definite constructional idea” (Krieger 1944:272). Variation in the form of Cuyamaca Ovals is expected as a result of different levels of skill and/or production/use time. As it is the basic form, or constructional idea, of the Cuyamaca Ovals that is of interest to this research, variations which likely hold meaning to their individual producers will not be considered. Following Krieger, the Cuyamaca Oval type should be essentially consistent in form however geographical distances (and likely temporal distances, as well) are likely to influence variations (Krieger 1944:278). Trigger (1989) considers typologies to be low-level archaeological theory. That is, they are primarily based on repeated observations of the same characteristics/phenomena such that they can be readily dismissed upon observation of contrary evidence (Trigger 1989:21). Archaeologists have frequently used typologies of artifacts to date and define changes in cultural periods, establishing chronologies that they believe can be seen when excavating through stratigraphic layers (Trigger 1989:96, 202-203). As useful, and some would say necessary (Whittaker et al. 1998:133), as typological classifications may be to archaeology, their use is not without some conflict. Two opposing

24 sides formed to either call for or reject archaeological classifications using terminology that reflects types (Phillips and Willey 1953:616). Deetz (1971) believed that when used properly, typologies are not based on arbitrary properties created by the archaeologist. Spaulding (1953:305-313) was a proponent of using methods borrowed from statistics to define archaeological types. He believed that complete and independent analyses of multiple artifact assemblages would lead to accurate interpretations of the cultural past (Deetz 1971:43). On one side of the argument were people like James Ford and John O. Brew. Brew (1971) argued that the infinite number of potential questions that can be answered by use of classifying typologies should necessitate creating more and more categories (Swartz 1967:487). Ford (1954) asserted that distinctions in artifacts that would set apart “types” are not already there, just waiting for someone to notice the patterns. He saw archaeologists grouping artifacts into typologies for their own purposes as being artificial and as such, were unrelated to the intentions of those who left them (Deetz 1971:58). Ford makes a valid point in that artifact typologies work well when the archaeologist is using incomplete samples of a specific culture’s history but struggle when the time gaps are filled in and the attributes of “types” start running into one another (Ford 1954:52). Therefore, if artifact typologies are to make sense, the attributes that will allow differences to be clearly seen must be specifically chosen first. If that is the case, then multiple typologies may be useful depending on the situation (Deetz 1971:73). Perhaps Spaulding (1953) was anticipating responses similar to Ford’s when he preemptively suggested using methods borrowed from statistics to show that artifacts do indeed fall into “natural types” (Ammerman 1992:233). In a way, it could be said that Ford was already reacting to the loosening of the requirement to use the scientific method in archaeology’s postprocessual movement that was on its way in some thirty years (VanPool and VanPool 1999:42). Most archaeologists today would agree that creating typological categories in order to classify and catalog artifacts is necessarily arbitrary (Gilboa et al. 2004:681; Trigger 1989:382-383; Whittaker et al. 1998:130). However, doing so has proven to be useful in communication between archaeological professionals identifying and recording artifacts or features consistently. Whittaker and colleagues (1998) also found that the opposite was true; if a typology is not used consistently then it will not be of much use to interpretations or

25 consistency between archaeologists. Therefore, for the scope of this research it is acknowledged that although the “Cuyamaca Oval” is a construct of modern archaeologists, it will communicate clearly the “definite constructional idea” for future research. Archaeological types are frequently named after the key site where the trait was observed, but, to avoid confusion, should not be referred to by ethnic, linguistic, or cultural names (Krieger 1944:278-282). Archaeological types have been named for artifacts representing specific times and places as well as for physical characteristics of the grouped artifacts (Rouse 1960:317). Archaeologists working in San Diego County frequently refer to artifact types such as Cottonwood triangular projectile points and Tizon brownware ceramics. Therefore, Cuyamaca Ovals fit the definition for an archaeological type. Spaulding’s definition of an artifact type works well for this research on Cuyamaca Ovals as a distinct type of bedrock milling feature. Spaulding saw artifact types as “a group of artifacts exhibiting a consistent assemblage of attributes whose combined properties give a characteristic pattern” (Deetz 1971:43). Spaulding saw the use of artifact type as a classification method that focuses on the attributes that the manufacturer of the artifacts, or in this case manufacturer of archaeological features, found to be important. Therefore, consistency in the characteristics of artifacts should be a representation of what was culturally expected and Spaulding used methods from statistics to test and solidify that conclusion (Swartz 1967: 490). This study will analyze categories of statistical data, which I have chosen, that may have had an effect on when and where Cuyamaca Ovals were produced.

CULTURAL ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL ARCHAEOLOGY If ecology is the study of how different organisms interactions with one another affect their ecosystems, then cultural ecology would be the study of how ecosystems affect cultural adaptations (Frake 1962:53; Sanders 1962:34; Steward 1955; Sutton 2009:3; White 1975). In anthropology, cultural ecology is a subfield of human ecology (the other being human biological ecology) that focuses on finding cultural adaptations to environment (Sutton 2009:4, 91). Frake (1962) points out that unlike other animals, humans can adapt to their

26 environments through the use of culture rather than through biological changes. Cultural ecology relates to the Cuyamaca Ovals because, as Frake wrote, This niche-carving activity of man not only remolds existing biotic communities but also has a shaping effect on the tools-that is on man’s cultural knowledge and equipment-themselves. In addition, man constantly devises new tools for carving out more effective places in the ecosystem surrounding him. [1962:53] Discovering what it was in the environment in the Cuyamaca Rancho area that led to cultural adaptation in the unique form of the oval milling surfaces is cultural ecology. Cuyamaca Ovals were a part of the technology of people at some time in the prehistoric past. Therefore, they are the cultural adaptation to a specific need, within a limited set of resources, that may be sourced from influences from neighboring cultures or from local invention (Sutton 2009:101). Steward (1955:5) wrote that cultures continue to change because no society has ever had a perfect adjustment to its environment. This would explain (if Cuyamaca Ovals represent an archaic form of milling prior to the Late Prehistoric) the absence of these forms of basins at later sites. As oval-shaped basin features are rare outside of the Cuyamaca Rancho State Park area and virtually non-existent outside of southern California and Northern Baja California, it will be the assumption for this research that Cuyamaca Ovals are the result of local innovation (Hector et al. 2006:15-17). Sanders (1962) assumes that with each different ecosystem there will be a different set of potential cultural adaptations. He acknowledges that there will always be some cultural adaptations that are possible across different environments and that some will be used more frequently than others. He also believed that cultural adaptations to environmental stressors usually take a form that allows for the most efficient exploitation of the environment (Sanders 1962:34). For this research, another working assumption will be that while a more standard form of milling surface, such as undefined basins or slicks, could have been used for the same purpose(s) as Cuyamaca Ovals, the oval shape was more effective for processing a specific substance. If it was some resource that was available locally where Cuyamaca Ovals are found that led to the development of this type of milling surface then environmental archaeology will be useful in this research. Branch et al. (2005) defined environmental archaeology as, “the study of the environment and its relationship with people through time.” Environmental archaeology is similar to and borrows from the larger field of ecology which studies the

27 relationships between all organisms and the environments that they live in (Dincauze 2000:3). This sub-discipline of archaeology focuses on reconstructing ecosystems of the past and the effects that those ecosystems had on human populations (Evans 1978:1; Shackley 1985:13-14). Evans (1978) defined an ecosystem as, “the animal and plant communities of an area together with the non-living environmental components….” Environmental archaeology is another way that the field can acknowledge, study, and describe the connections between environments and culture traits (Shackley 1981). Environmental archaeology uses knowledge and techniques borrowed from a number of other sciences (e.g. geology, climatology, zooarchaeology, etc.) to further our understanding of the past. Aspects of this research will also briefly involve additional archaeological sub-disciplines. The knowledge and technology employed in attempts to identify what material(s) were being processed in Cuyamaca Ovals to this research implies its use of bioarchaeology, the study of ancient plant and animal remains in both archaeological and geological contexts, with the intent to increase our knowledge of how humans interacted with their environments in the past (Branch 2005:67). Also, the use of archival information and spatial analyses in this research in order to discern patterns across a large geographic area could be considered landscape archaeology, a sub-discipline of environmental archaeology (Evans 2003:12). It will be the object of this research to think of the Cuyamaca Ovals within the context of the local environment(s) in which they are found. As the geology of any region greatly influences the types and quantities of resources available, an environmental archaeology perspective will be useful (Shackley 1981:1). Material culture of the past is reconstructed through the study of both the portable artifacts we find at sites as well as the modified parts of relatively stationary elements in the environment (Branch 2005:9). Therefore, the unique form of the Cuyamaca Ovals represents a change in material culture that we can observe manifested upon part of the environment. Besides rock art and milling there are few other forms of prehistoric material culture that have been left upon permanent parts of the landscape in southern California. One of the hypotheses to be tested in this research is whether the processing of a particular resource available in greater quantity in the Cuyamaca Mountains can be shown in the Cuyamaca Ovals. Previous research has shown that groups of people who hunt and gather for their subsistence know when and where to find seasonally available foods and that

28 they may temporarily relocate in order to make collecting and processing more efficient (Dincauze 2000:13). If it can be found that a specific material was being processed within Cuyamaca Ovals then seasonal movements from site to site could also be described in the future. There are many more natural factors acting on human populations however the ones that environmental archaeology can use are limited to what may be discerned from the geological and fossil records. Commonly, these would be plant communities, local climates, regional geology and soil qualities, diseases that were identifiable in human remains, and which animals were hunted (Evans 1978:1-2). Evans (1978:2) groups these factors into four categories that he recommends for us to keep in mind as they cannot be directly ranked against one another in terms of impact. These are the parts of the environment used for food, the parts of the environment used for raw materials, parts of the environment that may have effects on human population that are not exploited in any way, and finally, the other factors having no effect on man but still providing information on the environment under study. As previously mentioned, archaeological sites in the Cuyamaca Rancho State Park are often located near transitional areas between two or more environment types and their associated plant communities. These transitional areas are known as ecotones and, due to the greater relative variety of resources, are preferred foraging areas for animals (Evans 1978:9). Therefore, these sites offered a greater variety of vegetative resources while simultaneously attracting a greater number of animals that could be hunted. The environmental archaeology perspective aids in explaining the frequency of archaeological sites in these ecotones. Other factors important to consider in environmental archaeology are the effects of space and time on humans as well as the opposite: our effect on the environment (space) over time (Evans 1978:2). At some point in the past the manufacture of distinctive Cuyamaca Ovals ceased. This could have resulted from the loss or severe shortage of a specific resource the ovals were used for or it could have been a cultural shift to another, more efficient method to get the same results. If the materials that were processed on Cuyamaca Ovals can be identified then further research may be able to determine when and why the form of milling features in the Cuyamacas shifted away from the oval shape. Environmental archaeology does not imply that the environment necessarily determines the forms of the cultural adaptations to it but, rather, it provides a number of

29 possible outcomes. This idea, environmental possibilism, meant that without availability of certain environmental resources certain cultural adaptations were impossible (Rambo 1983:4- 5). For instance, people living in the Arctic tundra would not have the same agricultural opportunities that groups living in a sub-tropical climate would have. The cultural ecology theory of Julian Steward is much more deterministic in that he believed different groups of people, separated by reasonable geographic distance but living in environments with nearly identical traits, would develop the same types of cultural adaptations (Evans and O’Connor 1999:6; Jordan 2009:449). For the purposes of this research I will assume that specific environments offer a finite number of ways in which culture can exploit resources or create adaptations but does not specifically determine the one(s) used (Yesner 2008:41). Reconstruction of archaeological environments often involves taking samples of earth and immersing them in water to collect the floating pieces of organic material. This is the fastest and most efficient method for recovering botanical remains (Branch 2005:125, Shackley 1985:52-53). These macrobotanicals frequently include seeds and their casings from food processing which can then be identified by specialists (Evans 1978:23). While this type of research may provide invaluable information about the materials processed at certain sites, it does not have the capability of identifying what each milling surface within said sites was used for. Ground disturbance was not permitted at the research sites for this thesis which made protein residue analysis from the surfaces of the Cuyamaca Ovals the most feasible method for determining function. The questions that follow are based on what is currently known about Cuyamaca Ovals and the available testing methods. This research is designed to directly address and answer the following questions: 1. Is the distinctive form of the Cuyamaca Ovals the result of processing a resource locally available in and around Rancho Cuyamaca State Park? Even archaeology’s longest established assumptions about the subsistence economies existing in San Diego prior to European contact are being questioned today. The belief that mortars were used for processing acorns and that slicks, basins, and portable metates were used for grinding smaller, hard seeds may be incorrect. While early ethnographies recorded Native Californians as being primarily focused on the seasonal acorn processing model described previously, researchers have been pointing out that this does not necessarily match the physical remains that archaeologists are finding today (Hale 2006:205). This study will attempt to show that Cuyamaca Ovals were not used to process acorns,

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but, rather, some other vegetal material local to the Rancho Cuyamaca State Park area. 2. Over what time period were Cuyamaca Ovals in use? Whether Cuyamaca Ovals should be considered a characteristic of the Cuyamaca Complex as defined by True (1970) has yet to be demonstrated from the archaeological record. In order to place the use of Cuyamaca Ovals in a temporal context, this research will attempt to date two prehistoric bedrock milling sites with large numbers of Cuyamaca Oval basins and an absence of typical mortars. 3. Where and when can archaeologists expect to encounter Cuyamaca Ovals? This thesis will incorporate a GIS analysis of archaeological sites that were either personally visited or are recorded as having Cuyamaca Ovals to look for patterns of associated plant communities, elevations, and distance from water. It will also include a statistical review of the forms that bedrock milling features taken within San Diego County correlated with their local vegetation communities, in order to show the association between the material(s) being processed and the physical form of the milling surface.

RESEARCH Initial research for this study began at the South Coastal Information Center (SCIC), California’s official archive for archaeological resources in San Diego and Imperial Counties. I manually examined the hard-copy documents for all of the prehistoric sites in San Diego for this thesis. By the time I completed the records search during summer 2013 the number of prehistoric sites archived at the SCIC was greater than 21,000. I recorded notes on all of the sites with bedrock milling features. These notes included documenting trinomial site designations (CA-SDI-####), the United States Geological Survey quadrangle where the site is located, the recorded forms of bedrock milling surfaces(s) at each site, and the specific terminology used when recording Cuyamaca Ovals. I also included a category for sites with records that do not specifically mention Cuyamaca Ovals but due to measurements, sketches, or unclear terminology are suspected of having them. The next step in my initial research was acquiring the necessary GIS data to conduct the comparative analyses. Shapefiles for GIS with boundaries, elevations, plant communities, etc. were available for free download from the San Diego Association of Governments (www.sandag.org). Shapefiles with the locations of sites involved in this project were provided by the SCIC.

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For the protein residue analysis I was in contact with several state and private contractor archaeologists with experience in this type of research. The first is Herb Dallas, Associate State Archaeologist in CAL FIRE’s Southern Region. He recommended this thesis topic and assisted with field work and served as a liaison for acquiring the permission to conduct research on state owned property. Through Mr. Dallas I also conversed briefly with Dr. Joan Schneider, Associate State Archaeologist for the California Department of Parks and Recreation. Dr. Schneider’s recent work to recover and identify archaeological proteins from bedrock milling surfaces at several sites in the Colorado Desert District of eastern San Diego County served as a guideline for this part of the thesis. She also offered to be available to assist with both acquiring permission to conduct this study as well as with field work. Dr. Schneider has valuable experience in locating bedrock milling surfaces that are the most likely to retain archaeological protein residues as well as in the recovery of these proteins from the mineral surface. Dr. Mark Becker and Tony Quach of ASM Affiliates offered advice based on recent field experience as well as additional testing supplies. The protein residue samples were analyzed at the Laboratory of Archaeological Sciences at California State University, Bakersfield.

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CHAPTER 3

FIELDWORD

SITES VISITED A total of twenty-nine archaeological sites were visited as part of this research to gain a greater familiarity with Cuyamaca Ovals, take measurements, and further investigate the sites and the surrounding environments. Most of the sites visited are within Cuyamaca Rancho State Park and were recorded as either having Cuyamaca Oval basins or were suspected of having that type of milling element based on terminology (oval mortars, oval basins, etc.), photographs of the bedrock milling features, and/or measurements recorded on Bedrock Milling Forms. These sites were visited by the author to authenticate Cuyamaca Ovals and to confirm that examples of this type of milling element may not have been recognized and recorded.

CA-SDI-14423 This site is located near the Arroyo Seco Primitive Camp, south of Japacha Peak and west of the southern tip of Green Valley in Cuyamaca Rancho State Park. This large habitation site is located at a range of elevation from 4310 to 4400 feet above sea level and measures 284m x 227m. The nearest source of water is the Upper Arroyo Seco Drainage, which runs through the site. Vegetation here consists of oak and manzanita trees with grasses in the nearby clearings. It includes twenty-two bedrock milling features with more than 240 ground surfaces. When I visited the site during spring 2013 much of the area was overgrown with thick chaparral and tall meadow grasses which prevented access and visibility to many of the bedrock milling features. However, beneath a small oak grove a number of bedrock milling features were located with mortars, slicks, and Cuyamaca Oval basins represented. Although the ground was covered by a dense layer of leaves and acorn, a few areas had been cleared by ground squirrel activity. Most of the back-dirt piles that the

33 squirrels left behind contained Tizon pottery sherds as well as metavolcanic debitage. It is interesting to note that Sampson and Seymour used the term “Cuyamaca Ovals” to describe those particular surfaces in 1986 and that de Barros referred to them simply as “oval basins” in 2007.

CA-SDI-879 This small habitation site is located on the western side of East Mesa in Cuyamaca Rancho State Park near Descanso Creek at approximately 4100 feet elevation. Vegetation consists of oak and manzanita woodland near the site with several patches of open, grassy meadows nearby. The site was originally recorded by Delbert True in 1961. He recorded the bedrock milling features as “bedrock mortars, slicks, 11 ovals, 24 slicks, 1 mortar.” Our survey located three granitic boulders with milling and confirmed that the bedrock ovals True recorded are Cuyamaca Ovals. Due to the presence of poison oak growing around much of the bedrock only four of the Cuyamaca Ovals, the mortar, and several slicks were relocated. Although not noted during the recent survey, True (1961e) recorded the presence of potsherds on the surface of the site in 1961.

CA-SDI-9538 Ah-ha’ Kwe-ah-mac’ This 55-acre site is the Late Prehistoric to Protohistoric village of Ah-ha’ Kwe-ah- mac’. It is located south of Lake Cuyamaca and north of Stonewall and Little Stonewall peaks. Most of the village is located on a rocky ridge above open, grassy meadows to the north and east with oak woodlands to the south and west. Seasonal wetland habitats occur along the paths of the drainages through the meadows to the north and east, as well. Average elevation at the site is 4720 feet above mean sea level. Water resources consist of a seasonal drainage and a perennial spring that run through the site. The bedrock milling at CA-SDI- 9538 is extensive throughout the site with a total of 218 features recorded, the majority of which possess multiple ground surfaces. In general, where the Cuyamaca Ovals occur at this site they are in low concentration on outcrops that also exhibit typical rounded mortars. At the western end of the site is a cluster of milling features adjacent to a low, granitic outcrop with one exceptionally large, basketball-sized mortar which was used as the site datum. Here there is a concentration of 15 Cuyamaca Ovals on one outcrop. In the site record, features

34 like this one and B-30 that have large numbers of Cuyamaca Ovals were thought to be communal in nature rather than an inference to the depth of time the feature was in use. In addition to ethnographic accounts of the site’s occupation into historical times, the presence of large amounts of ceramic artifacts indicate habitation at Ah-ha’ Kwe-ah-mac’ was over the last 1,500 years (Bruce et al. 2004).

Unrecorded Site at Scissors Crossing This small milling site is located halfway up a low, east-facing ridge near Scissors Crossing in the San Felipe Valley of the Anza-Borrego Desert. Among the sites visited for this research, this is the most unusual. Rather than being located above 4,000 feet near pine- oak woodlands and montane meadows, this site is located at approximately 2,250 feet above mean sea level. The nearest source of water is an unnamed creek 600 feet to the east. The vegetation is high desert scrub brush and cholla cactus without any large trees although there is a riparian corridor along the San Felipe Creek at some distance to the north. The bedrock milling consists of two adjacent granitic boulder outcrops, both with multiple slicks and Cuyamaca Ovals. What is most interesting to note about this site is that the upper boulder appears to have rolled on its long axis down the hillside, near one-quarter of a rotation so that the Cuyamaca Ovals now rest on a near vertical face. Although measurements of the boulder were not taken, it would seem highly unlikely that it was moved intentionally due to its large size and weight. On the horizontal surface at the top of the boulder are milling slicks that still feel smooth. The surfaces within the Cuyamaca Oval basins look and feel rough- textured and weathered; even those that are located 10-20 cm away from the smooth slicks. Additional research is needed at this site in the future; however, it appears that the Cuyamaca Ovals were produced prior to some geologic event that rotated the boulder into its current position and exposed them to mechanical weathering for some time. Then, at a more recent date, the outcrop was reused with evidence left in the form of the milling slicks with minimal weathering.

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Figure 3. Cuyamaca Ovals on vertical face of bedrock feature.

CA-SDI-852 CA-SDI-852, known as the Twin Pines Site, is located on a small knoll in the middle of the meadow south of Lake Cuyamaca. It was originally recorded as a seed grinding station by True in 1961, who noted “a predominance of oval mortars,” and updated in 2013 by this author. The bedrock milling consists of a single, large granite outcrop with 103 individual milling surfaces. Of these elements, 79 are Cuyamaca Ovals with the remaining made up of slicks, a single mortar, and one deep, oddly-shaped basin with a near vertical wall opposite a sloped wall. Vegetation includes meadow grasses, manzanita, birds’ nest thistle, and two Jeffrey pines. Little Stonewall Creek runs past the site approximately 125 meters away. Elevation at CA-SDI-852 is 4635 feet above mean sea level. Ceramic artifacts were not recorded by True nor located during any of several site visits during the spring of 2013 (Manchen et al. 2013a; True 1961b).

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Figure 4. Three rather elongated Cuyamaca Ovals at CA-SDI-852.

CA-SDI-10972D/SDM-W-365 The early site records for CA-SDI-10972 Locus D have been reviewed and updated following surveys conducted by the author in spring 2013. The site was originally recorded by Hedges for the San Diego Museum of Man in 1968 as SDM-W-365. When CA-SDI- 10972 was re-recorded in 1988 by Foster, a clerical error led to the inclusion of additional cultural resources that were noted nearby as additional loci to CA-SDI-10972; SDM-W-365 becoming locus D. At present, the 2013 update and request for a new trinomial for locus D are under review at the South Coastal Information Center (Foster et al. 1988; Hedges 1968, 1988; Manchen et al. 2013b; Mealey et al. 2006; Wade and Mealey 2006). This bedrock milling site is located on the southern slope of a small hill east of Lake Cuyamaca near Sunrise Highway in Anza-Borrego State Park at an elevation of 4710 feet above sea level. Vegetation includes meadow grasses, oak, pine, prickly pear cactus, elderberry, and buckwheat. A small, unnamed stream runs past the site approximately 225 meters away. This site also has a large number of Cuyamaca Oval basins and is notable for

37 not having any of the mortars typically found in this region. Feature 1 is a granitic outcrop 26.5 meters long and 8 meters wide that has 48 Cuyamaca Ovals ground into its surface. Two additional, smaller features have 2 and 5 Cuyamaca Ovals, respectively. Two Colorado Buffware and one Tizon brownware ceramic sherds were located near feature 1. One additional Tizon sherd was located between the milling features and midden to the northeast.

Figure 5. Numerous Cuyamaca Ovals on a low-lying bedrock exposure at SDM-W-365.

CA-SDI-10972 This site was originally recorded by Gary Fink in 1976 as a small milling area east of the intersection of SR-78 and Sunrise Highway in Anza-Borrego State Park. The midpoint elevation of the site is at 4685 feet above sea level. A small drainage runs past the site approximately 100 meters away. Vegetation consists of oak, meadow grasses, prickly pear, buckwheat, and manzanita. The size of the site was expanded following additional surveys in subsequent years and now has 13 bedrock milling features with associated grinding surfaces. Of these 13 milling features, one has 5 Cuyamaca Ovals, one has “numerous

38 mortars,” and the remaining consists of slicks. Many pottery sherds were found throughout the site (Fink 1976; Foster et al. 1988; Mealey et al. 2006). In 2013 the site was found to have dense vegetation covering much of the ground surface and obscuring some milling features from view.

CA-SDI-16832 CA-SDI-16832 is a small habitation site with bedrock milling and artifacts including pottery sherds and lithic debitage. It is located near the northwest corner of Lake Cuyamaca at 4700 feet elevation. The site has been disturbed multiple times due to local residents’ activity and previous agricultural use. Although recorded as part of the same site, the small, red-colored granite outcrops with five Cuyamaca Oval basins are separated by some distance to the features with slicks on the lighter colored granite outcrops that seem more common to this area. Vegetation at this site would have been pine woodland with adjacent meadow grasses prior to disturbance by home building activities. At its current level, Lake Cuyamaca is approximately 255 meters away from CA-SDI-16832.

CA-SDI-17349 This small milling site is located on the northwestern slope of Stonewall and Little Stonewall Peaks at 4760 feet above mean sea level. It is a single bedrock feature with two ground surfaces; a slick and a Cuyamaca Oval. Water sources are a seasonal drainage and Little Stonewall Creek, approximately 535 meters and 1600 meters away, respectively. Although this area burned during the Cedar Fire, it appears the site was surrounded by pine- oak woodland and would not have been immediately adjacent to a meadow. Ceramic sherds were not located during the 2013 survey nor noted on the 2004 site record (Thomson 2004).

CA-SDI-15674 This village site was briefly surveyed during a work assignment. It is located on the Boucher Hill USGS quadrangle in northern San Diego County along the edge of Upper Doane Valley in Palomar Mountain State Park. Average elevation for the site is 4700 feet and the vegetation is dense oak-conifer forest at the edge of meadow grassland. It is on a slight slope facing to the southwest and Upper Doane Valley. The nearest water resource is Doane Creek, approximately 200 meters away from the site. The site is spread out over 4.2

39 acres and has a total of 20 bedrock milling features dominated by well-used mortars and a few slicks. One surface recorded as a mortar would be considered a Cuyamaca Oval as it measures 18 x 13 x 2.5 cm deep and has the sloping sides typical of that milling surface type. Another surface recorded as an “oblong mortar” was not similar to the Cuyamaca Oval but was, rather, a basin in a natural depression in the bedrock (Inoway and Easter 2004).

Figure 6. Single Cuyamaca Oval from locus A, CA-SDI-15,674.

CA-SDI-856 This moderately-sized site was originally recorded by D.L. True in 1961 as “a small camp and seed grinding station.” It is located on a small, oak-covered knoll along the southwestern side of Green Valley in Cuyamaca Rancho State Park at an elevation of 4020 feet. The nearest water resources are Japacha Creek and the Sweetwater River, approximately 60 and 185 meters away, respectively. In addition to the oak there are montane meadow grasses and elderberry within the site and pine located nearby. The

40 bedrock milling occurs on five granitic outcrops with a total of thirteen elements. Feature 5 has the single Cuyamaca Oval at this site, occurring next to a typical mortar. Ceramics have been recorded from this site and noted during field survey for this project (Pallette 2004a; Seymour 1986a; True 1961c).

Figure 7. Single Cuyamaca Oval at CA-SDI-856.

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Figure 8. Feature 4 with several Cuyamaca Ovals at CA-SDI-857.

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Figure 9. Cuyamaca Oval on highly weathered surface at CA-SDI-857.

CA-SDI-857 This site is located near CA-SDI-856 on the southwestern edge of Green Valley and stretches from an east to west running knoll up to the lowest slopes leading up to West Mesa. It was originally recorded by D.L. True, during his 1961 work in the park, as a small village with bedrock milling, artifacts, and midden. Elevation is recorded at 4100 feet. Japacha Creek runs past the site approximately 145 meters away. Vegetation includes oak, pine, and elderberry within the site and montane meadow grasses in the valley nearby, Nine outcrops have milling elements which are, for the most part, dominated by mortars and slicks although two features have several Cuyamaca Ovals. Feature #4, however, is reminiscent of the large Cuyamaca Oval features at SDM-W-365 and CA-SDI-852. It is a long, rectangular-shaped exposure that is relatively horizontal and low to the ground surface. On this feature there are eleven Cuyamaca Ovals, most of which are arranged together in a line along one long edge

43 of the rock, with two round mortars. Many lithic artifacts and pottery sherds are still located on the surface at this site in spite of the easy access to Park visitors (Pallette 2004b; Seymour 1986b; True 1961i).

CA-SDI-858 This site was originally recorded by True in 1961 as a Protohistoric village and is located on the lower eastern slopes of West Mesa, southwest of Arrowmaker’s Ridge and adjacent to CA-SDI-857, of which it was likely a part. Average elevation of the site is at 4105 feet above sea level. Water was within easy reach with Japacha Creek running through the edge of the village. Vegetation consists of pine, oak, elderberry, manzanita, and montane meadow grasses. Bedrock milling was recorded on seven outcrops and consists of mortars, slicks, Cuyamaca Ovals, and cupules. Of note at this site, a record update was performed by the Palomar College Anthropology 210 class in 1998 and the Cuyamaca Ovals were recorded as “oval mortars.” The dimensions recorded on the Milling Station Record as well as the proximity to CA-SDI-857 hinted at the probability that those elements were Cuyamaca Ovals so this site was chosen for a visit. Ceramic sherds are recorded from this site (Hovland 1998; True 1961d).

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Figure 10. Several Cuyamaca Ovals surround a mortar at CA-SDI-858.

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Figure 11. This Cuyamaca Oval is ground smooth to the edge of the bedrock outcrop. CA-SDI-858.

CA-SDI-10585 This small site was originally recorded by Gregory Seymour in 1986 as a small milling site with thirteen Cuyamaca Ovals. Similar to just a few other sites, there are slicks in association with the Cuyamaca Ovals but there are not any mortars. The site is located along the western tip of an east-to-west running ridge within southwestern Green Valley and near CA-SDI-856. Elevation at the site is 4040 feet above sea level. The nearest source of water is the Sweetwater River, about 200 meters away. The vegetation near the site includes dense meadow grasses and oak trees on top of the knoll. Artifacts, particularly ceramic sherds, have not been located at the site during the original survey, two subsequent updates in 2004 and 2005, or during the author’s 2013 visit (Pallette 2004c; Seymour 1986e; Thomson 2005).

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Figure 12. Cuyamaca Ovals at CA-SDI-10,585.

CA-SDI-14326 This small milling site is located near the Green Valley Campground and day-use area on West Mesa in Cuyamaca Rancho State Park at 3995 feet above sea level. The nearest water resource is the seasonal Arroyo Seco drainage approximately 100 meters away. Vegetation here consists of oak and manzanita trees, meadow grasses, and a riparian area along the stream bed. Pine trees are also located nearby. The bedrock milling consists of a single outcrop with two “oval mortars” recorded on it. Although the larger of the two elements had dimensions acceptable for a Cuyamaca Oval (width 2/3 the length and 2 cm deep), it was not well-defined and had gradually sloping shoulders, making it somewhat of an outlier to the definition and difficult to categorize into one “type” or another. Artifacts have not been noted at this site (Schmelzer 1996).

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CA-SDI-12591 This small site is located within Green Valley Campground near the Arroyo Seco Day-Use area at Cuyamaca Rancho State Park. It is recorded as being 3860 feet above sea level. For water, the Sweetwater River runs along the southern boundary of the site approximately 20 meters away. There is dense oak and pine woodland adjacent to the site as well as manzanita and montane meadow grasses. The milling feature at this site is a single granitic outcrop, split into three pieces of varying size, without any ground elements on the center, smallest piece and twenty-six mortars, slicks, and basins on the other two. Three of the ground elements on the milling record are listed as “pecked ovals” which were deemed worthy of further investigation for this research. Indeed, these three surfaces do appear to have been formed by pecking, have irregular bottoms, and are not Cuyamaca Ovals. Many of the surfaces recorded as slicks have some depth to them, either from their placement within the natural contours of the rock surface or from repeated grinding. Of these surfaces, #15 is a Cuyamaca Oval and #19, while not well-defined, may be as well. Pottery artifacts have not been recorded from this site (Rivers et al. 1990).

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Figure 13. Surface #15, CA-SDI-12,591.

CA-SDI-16294 This small bedrock milling site is located near some of the campsites at the Green Valley Campground and was chosen for a visit due to the presence of two “oval basins” listed on the site record. The site is on a slight slope with the mean elevation at 3970 feet above sea level. Vegetation consists of oak, pine, and meadow grasses with a riparian corridor along the Sweetwater River, approximately 75 meters to the west. The bedrock milling occurs on three boulders and consists of ten surfaces: eight slicks and the two oval basins. These basins are slightly more rounded and each has lengths 10 cm and widths 15 cm longer than the dimensions of most Cuyamaca Ovals and are not considered that type. Due to construction of campsites, the paved road, a restroom facility, and steel pole corrals the original site condition has likely been extensively disturbed. Artifacts of any kind were not recorded for this site (Hoogervorst et al. 2004; Wade 2002).

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Figure 14. Cuyamaca Oval on Feature A1, CA-SDI-16,294.

CA-SDI-945 This extensive milling site is located near Camp Hual-Cu-Cuish at the base of Middle Peak in Cuyamaca Rancho State Park. It has a large midden, ten bedrock milling outcrops, and a dense artifact scatter. The milling consists of mortars, slicks, and four Cuyamaca Ovals. No more than a single Cuyamaca Oval occurs on any feature. Elevation at the site is 4680 feet above mean sea level. The nearest water resource would have been an intermittent stream approximately 110 meters away with Lake Cuyamaca another 1000 meters to the northeast. Vegetation includes pine, oak, and elderberry with meadow grasses in the meadow to the east. As was mentioned in the 1998 site record, there is still a thick layer of leaves and acorn shells from the numerous, large oak trees within the site and it is possible some milling features may be obscured from view and discovery. Despite the Boy Scouts

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Camp being located here for many years, with its associated disturbances, potsherds have been recorded in abundance at this site (Piek 2009; Schwaderer et al. 1998).

Figure 15. Cuyamaca Oval amongst mortars at Feature 1, CA-SDI-945.

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Figure 16. Feature 7 at CA-SDI-945, illustrating how these features are frequently located on low-lying, flat bedrock exposures.

CA-SDI-8844 This large site is located low on the eastern side of Middle Peak close to the southwestern corner of Lake Cuyamaca at an average elevation of 4690 feet above sea level. The nearest prehistoric source of water would have been an unnamed stream feeding into the wetland area at the southwest corner of the lake. Although pine, manzanita, and oak trees are nearby, the milling features are located on the grassy hillside below the treeline. The original site recording from 1981 also shows cypress trees on its map. Bedrock milling is extensive at this site with twenty-five features recorded. Forms of milling surfaces include mortars, slicks, and thirty-seven “oval mortars,” the majority of which are Cuyamaca Oval basins. The first site record from 1981 refers to the Cuyamaca Ovals as “oval metates” while the 2002 update refers to them by that name as well as “oval mortars.” A small number of Tizon potsherds were reported in the site records from both 1981 and 2002 (Foster et al. 1981; Wade and Bruce 2002).

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Figure 17. Feature 1, CA-SDI-8844.

CA-SDI-8865 This small bedrock milling site is located on the low eastern flank of Middle Peak and is adjacent to, and may have been a part of, CA-SDI-8844. The elevation for the site is recorded at 4780 feet above sea level. The nearest water resource during prehistory would have been the slough area often present at the southwest end of Lake Cuyamaca. The site is located on a grassy hillside just below a well-defined line where chaparral begins, heading up Middle Peak. Chaparral consists of manzanita and scrub brush with oak, pine, and cypress nearby. The records search at the SCIC produced two documents for the site; from 1981 and 1986, respectively. Both mention the milling consisting of two features; one with a single Cuyamaca Oval and one with three more. In spite of an intensive pedestrian search the outcrop with the single element was the only one located during 2013. One small sherd of Tizon brownware ceramic was noted in the 1986 site record update (Foster 1981; Seymour 1986d).

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Figure 18. Feature 1, CA-SDI-8865. Single Cuyamaca Oval on a small, low-lying piece of Julian schist.

CA-SDI-917 CA-SDI-917 is a large village site that was originally recorded by D.L. True during his work in 1961. It is located on the eastern slope of West Mesa in Cuyamaca Rancho State Park. Most of the site occurs within the clearing of a hillside meadow although it does extend further uphill into pine/oak woodland. The large size and position of a section of this site on a slope account for an elevation range from 4400-4520 feet. For the GIS analysis, the midpoint elevation of 4460 feet will be used. Water was nearby with both Japacha Spring and intermittent Japacha Creek located within the activity areas identified by features and artifact scatters. The vegetation consists of meadow grasses, mustard, manzanita, pine, oak, cedar, elderberry, and buckwheat. The bedrock milling currently consists of eighteen identified features although Bruce and associates, in the 2002 site record update, noted that many of the features were partially buried and that more milling surfaces are likely hidden

54 from view and remain unrecorded. They also mentioned the high ratio of highly-weathered Cuyamaca Ovals to conical mortars. They remarked, “Only one feature had conical mortars and these were slightly oval at the top as if they were originally oval. There was also a marked lack of pottery at this site which seems unusual for a site this large.” When the author visited this site in late Spring 2013 the lack of pottery artifacts on the surface was again noted. This lack of pottery seems unlikely to be the result of historical collection due to the site’s large size and location in a relatively remote part of the park (Bruce et al. 2002; Kelly 1981; True 1961g).

Figure 19. Single Cuyamaca Oval on Feature F, CA-SDI-917.

CA-SDI-916 This site is a small bedrock milling station on the eastern slope of West Mesa. It is located on a rocky hillside along a southeast-facing ravine with a flowing creek. The elevation is recorded at 4560 feet above mean sea level. In addition to the small, unnamed

55 creek flowing next to the milling area, Japacha Spring is approximately 800 meters away. Vegetation at the site consists of meadow grasses, buckwheat, prickly pear cactus, and Ceanothus; however, a pine dominated woodland with mixed oak trees is adjacent. A beautiful red, black, and white California mountain kingsnake was encountered nearby. The bedrock milling occurs on four features although the largest is located in the middle of a fire road, has suffered some mechanical weathering in the past, and as of Spring 2013 was almost completely covered by soil. Although none of the three site records for CA-SDI-916 have used the term, Feature C has an oval mortar recorded with dimensions 30 x 17 x 2 cm deep that this author speculated would turn out to be consistent with Cuyamaca Ovals. Unfortunately it does not resemble that type and is more like a small, shallow basin with a collar slick around the depression. Feature D with its 32 x 28 cm basin was not relocated. Ceramic artifacts have not been recorded from this site (Bruce and Matzenauer 2002; Sampson 1984; True 1961f).

JWH-50 JWH-50 is a temporary number for a moderately-sized milling site that was visited and recorded for a cultural resource management project through ASM Affiliates and has not been assigned a permanent trinomial identifier to date. This site is located on the southern edge of a long meadow on the Lucky 5 Ranch, west of Sunrise Highway in the Laguna Mountains and east of Cuyamaca Rancho State Park. Elevation at the site is approximately 4760 feet above sea level. An unnamed stream is located approximately 300 meters away running down the center of the valley meadow. Vegetation consists of oak, pine, cottonwood, elderberry, and meadow grasses. Bedrock milling surfaces were located on a number of the rocks in the granitic outcrop that makes up the core activity area of the site with mortars, Cuyamaca Oval basins, and slicks all represented. In addition to pottery sherds, a biface of an unidentified chert material was also located and recorded.

A4-S-1 A4-S-1 is a temporary site number for a small milling site with Cuyamaca Ovals that was discovered during a cultural resource management survey project through ASM Affiliates. To date this site has not been assigned a permanent trinomial identifier. The site

56 is located in an oak woodland and riparian area on the bank of Campo Creek in Potrero, California. Elevation at the site was recorded at 2229 feet above sea level. The bedrock milling features were all located on the tops of rather tall (the lowest being four feet off the ground) boulders, perhaps due to occasional water level changes in Campo Creek. Feature 1 is a large, flat-topped boulder with fifteen Cuyamaca Oval basins under the shade of large oak trees just 10-15 meters upslope from Campo Creek. Several records for sites in this area were discovered during research at the SCIC that listed basins as “Potrero Ovals” such as CA-SDI-16994, CA-SDI-17001, CA-SDI-17005, etc. The shouldered sides and the dimensions of all of the basins we recorded at A4-S-1 are consistent with Cuyamaca Ovals so the author remains unclear on whether there is any difference between these and what has been recorded as Potrero Ovals.

Figure 20. A4-S-1; Feature 1 with numerous, closely-spaced Cuyamaca Ovals.

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CA-SDI-820 This small milling site is located on the north end of a small knoll of exposed granite at the north end of Green Valley near the 6th Grade Camp. Average elevation at the milling features is 4003 feet above sea level. Water was nearby with Cold Stream just 75 meters down the hill. Vegetation includes oak, Ceanothus, wild mustard, and meadow grasses. The bedrock milling is found on two low-lying granite exposures and consists of a single Cuyamaca Oval on each. There may be additional milling features located on the knoll-top to the south; however, a healthy growth of poison oak around the outcrop prevented further investigation. Ceramic artifacts have been recorded at this site in the past however none were noted during the 2013 survey.

CA-SDI-835 This small milling site is located in the northern end of Green Valley near the Cuyamaca Rancho State Park Museum and 6th Grade Camp. Elevation here is 4120 feet above mean sea level. Vegetation communities are pine-oak woodland, montane meadow grassland, and riparian along Cold Stream which is just 10-15 meters to the west. Bedrock milling consists of a single feature with four ground surfaces. True originally recorded the site in 1961 as having bedrock slicks. In 1986, Seymour updated the site records and noted two slicks, one Cuyamaca Oval, and one round metate. The 2013 survey for this research was limited by a fallen log and associated leaves and bark obscuring 45% of the feature’s surface and only two of the milling elements could be located. These measured 20 x 18 x 3 cm deep and 21 x 17 x 2 cm deep, respectively. It is presumed that these are the two basins referred to by Seymour based on their depth, however, without being able to identify the two slicks it is uncertain. Regardless, the rather steep walls, irregular shape, and more rounded measurements of both of these elements do not seem to be consistent with Cuyamaca Ovals and were excluded from this study. Artifacts have not been reported from this site (True 1961a).

CA-SDI-6847 This small milling site is located in a San Diego County Park in Wildcat Canyon, north of Lakeside, in the San Vicente Reservoir USGS 7.5’ quadrangle. The average

58 elevation at this site is 715 feet above sea level. Water resources consist of an intermittent drainage on the north side of the milling and a flowing stream that runs adjacent to the site, 10 meters away. The vegetation consists of numerous large oak trees, manzanita, sycamore, coastal sagebrush, and grasses on the hillside. Bedrock milling at this site consists of eight features with one to several mortars, basins, and slicks on each. The basins that are consistent with Cuyamaca Ovals were originally recorded simply as “ovals.”

Figure 21. Cuyamaca Oval adjacent to mortar; CA-SDI-6847.

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Figure 22. Cuyamaca Oval. Single milling surface on a small feature. CA-SDI-6847.

CA-SDI-926 This small village site is located on a small hill within Green Valley at Cuyamaca Rancho State Park at 4120 feet elevation. It was first recorded by True in 1961, revisited in 1986 by Seymour, and again in 2004 with a detailed record update by State Parks staff following the Cedar Fire of 2003. The 1986 record by Seymour refers to Cuyamaca Ovals, hence this site’s inclusion in the surveys for this research. The 2004 update refers to the elements as basins, mortars, slicks, and cupules. Vegetation is oak-pine woodland with scattered manzanita and montane meadow grasses. The closest source of water is the Sweetwater River, approximately 90 meters away. There are eleven outcrops with milling (including one with cupules only), three of which have basins. Only one feature with four Cuyamaca Ovals was located during 2013 due to the presence of overgrown poison oak and a large, although unaggressive, Southern Pacific Rattlesnake. Although extensive grass cover obscured visibility in 2013, the 2004 survey reported numerous potsherds on the ground (Mealey and Thomson 2004; Seymour 1986c; True 1961h).

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Figure 23. Highly weathered basins, CA-SDI-926.

CA-SDI-11198/Mitaragui The author visited this site in early Fall 2013 and failed to locate any of the milling features due to thick vegetation. This ethnographically recorded village site is located on the slope of a hill above Cold Stream, just off SR-79. The hillside was damaged badly during the 2003 Cedar Fire which greatly increased the visibility of and access to the features and artifacts of the site for the 2005 record update. This update included a note that a survey in 2001 by park archaeologists failed to locate the site due to thick brush, as well. Elevation at the site is recorded at a range of 4200-4400 feet above sea level. For the GIS analysis the midpoint of 4300 feet will be used. Cold Stream runs through the village. Vegetation consists of oak, pine, manzanita, Ceanothus, and poison oak (Bruce et al. 2005).

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Figure 24. Bedrock milling feature demonstrating how Cuyamaca Ovals are often found on flat, low to the ground outcrops.

Fieldwork The fieldwork at the three sites tested for this project was completed in one day, on November 26, 2013. The crew consisted of four people: Herb Dallas, Ed Mercado, June Manchen, and myself. Herb Dallas is an Associate State Archaeologist with California Department of Fire and Forestry. His experience and expertise in California archaeology were greatly appreciated as he volunteered his time to help conduct the pedestrian surveys for obsidian artifacts on the surface at CA-SDI-852 and SDM-W-365 and in the extraction of the protein residues from the Cuyamaca Ovals at all three sites. Ed Mercado is a Native American Monitor from the La Posta Band of Mission Indians and he graciously volunteered his time to be our monitor during the fieldwork. Ed also helped us tremendously by taking the photos of the protein residue extraction process. June Manchen is a retired clinical laboratory scientist and also volunteered her time to help with the protein residue extractions.

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Her expertise in laboratory procedures involving chemical methodology, and keeping instruments sterile to prevent cross-contamination proved invaluable. The team met shortly after 9am to start the day at SDM-W-365. At this site, we took protein residue samples from eight Cuyamaca Ovals on two granitic outcrops. After each surface to be tested was identified, we brushed the contents from within the basin and applied approximately 1 ml of 5% ammonium hydroxide solution. The extraction kits provided by the testing laboratory included a foam-tipped swab for scrubbing the surface being tested and a wooden tongue-depressor to be used for mixing and swirling the solution. As the solution soaked into the stone surface, up to another 1 ml of ammonium hydroxide was added and mixed together in order to ensure the minimum sample size of 0.5 ml requested by the testing laboratory. Disposable pipettes from the extraction kits were used to draw the solution up from the stone surface which was then transferred to a plastic, 2 ml vial. After capping the vial, it was grasped with forceps and frozen with liquid nitrogen spray, a commercial coolant recommended by the testing laboratory. Next, the samples were placed into small polystyrene bags with hand-written sample tags identifying the provenience of each. They were then added into a master sample bag and placed into a cooler box full of ice and freezer packs to prevent degradation of the residue samples. Mr. Dallas conducted a thorough survey of the site, identifying and collecting two interior obsidian flakes. A third, larger flake that was noted on a previous visit to the site could not be relocated. The two flakes that were collected were placed into polystyrene bags and labeled with the site number, UTM coordinates where they were found, the collection date, and each bag’s contents.

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Figure 25. Herb Dallas and June Manchen stir ammonium hydroxide solution to aid extraction of protein residues from within microcracks in the surface of a Cuyamaca Oval at W-365. Photo by Ed Mercado.

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Figure 26. Samples were extracted from the Cuyamaca Ovals with sterile pipettes and placed into plastic vials immediately. Photo taken at SDM-W-365 by Ed Mercado.

Figure 27. Samples were immediately frozen in the field using a liquid nitrogen spray. Photo by Ed Mercado.

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From the largest outcrop at SDM-W-365, Feature #1, we took samples from surfaces 1, 13, 20, 32, 38, 44, and 47. From Feature #2, we took a single sample from surface 1. Following the protein residue extractions, Mr. Dallas and I conducted a pedestrian survey to locate and collect any obsidian artifacts that could potentially provide dates for the site. On this day, November 26, 2013, we were unable to relocate any of the obsidian pieces we had noted on previous trips to the site. After several hours at this site we decided to take a lunch break in Julian before proceeding to CA-SDI-9538 and CA-SDI-852.

Figure 28. Collecting ammonium hydroxide solution from the milling surface of a Cuyamaca Oval at CA-SDI-9538. Photo by Ed Mercado.

At CA-SDI-9538 (Ah-ha Kwe-Ah-Mac’) we collected protein residue samples from three Cuyamaca Ovals located on a granite outcrop located adjacent and to the west of the so- called Basketball Mortars feature. Although this feature is adjacent to a large mortar feature, this particular outcrop has a number of Cuyamaca Ovals without any additional mortars. We collected another protein residue sample from surface RR on Feature #B-50, rock 3. I had also randomly selected another Cuyamaca Oval at surface B of Feature #A-24 for testing, but

66 we were unable to locate that particular feature and thus we chose the additional basin from the feature adjacent to the Basketball Mortars. As this large village site was known to have been occupied well into historic times I did not request permission to collect obsidian artifacts for dating. With the protein residue extraction and collection completed on the four Cuyamaca Ovals, we proceeded to the final site. At the Twin Pines site, CA-SDI-852, we again followed the procedures as described above to extract and collect protein residue samples from eight Cuyamaca Oval basins. The bedrock milling at this site consists of a single, large granitic outcrop with 103 ground surfaces, one of which can be defined as a typical mortar with the remaining being Cuyamaca Ovals and milling slicks. The Cuyamaca Ovals that we collected the samples from were surfaces 2, 15, 40, 51, 53, 66, 76, and 89 of Feature #1. Mr. Dallas conducted a survey of the surface of the site while the protein residue samples were being collected however he was unable to locate any additional artifacts. After all twenty of the protein residue samples had been collected, frozen, and placed on ice I returned home to San Diego. By the time I arrived at home it was already too late to reach UPS in time for the package to be shipped to the lab that night. The samples were placed in a home freezer to protect them from degradation until they could be sent out. With the Thanksgiving weekend beginning in two days I had to wait until Monday, December 2nd to ship the samples to the Laboratory of Archaeological Science at California State University Bakersfield via UPS Next Day Air. The samples were packed inside the master sample bag and placed inside a sturdy cardboard box with ½ inch thick Styrofoam insulation along all walls and filled with freezer packs to keep the samples in a frozen state during shipping. UPS delivered the box at the university’s loading dock at 10:30 am the following morning.

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CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

PROTEIN RESIDUE ANALYSIS The Laboratory of Archaeological Science at California State University Bakersfield received the samples of ammonium hydroxide and potential protein residues that were extracted from the surfaces of twenty Cuyamaca Ovals from CA-SDI-852, CA-SDI-9538, and SDM-W-365 on Tuesday December 3, 2013. Due to work already in progress and the impending winter break at the university, the samples were frozen until analysis began following the inter-semester break in mid-January. Results from the analyses were received February 20, 2014. As stated earlier, the Laboratory of Archaeological Science uses cross-over immunoelectrophoresis (CIEP) to identify archaeological residues. This procedure involved placing two microliters of the antiserums from the proteins being tested against into small wells on the surface of an agarose gel with 0.5 milliliters or more of the solution taken from the grinding surfaces of the Cuyamaca Ovals. When an electric current was applied, both the antisera and the samples moved towards one another through the gel. Positive reactions were observed and recorded when a sample caused an antigen-antibody precipitin response, with the proteins “precipitating out in a specific pattern,” upon contact with a specific antiserum (Laboratory of Archaeological Science 2014). The precipitant from the reactions was identified after the agarose gel was pressed, dried, and stained. The twenty ammonium hydroxide extraction samples taken from all three sites were tested against nineteen flora and fauna families. The flora included Agave, Amaranthaceae (amaranth, pigweed, quelite, etc.), Asteraceae (rabbitbrush, sagebrush, sunflower, thistle), Camas (camas, wild hyacinth), Capparaceae (beeplant, bladderpod, stinkweed, etc.), Chenopodiaceae (goosefoot, greasewood, pickleweed, saltbush, etc.), Malvaceae (mallows), Portulacaceae (bitterroot), Lomatium , mesquite (mesquite, palo verde, other legumes),

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Pinaceae (fir, hemlock, pine, spruce), and Quercus (Laboratory of Archaeological Science 2014). Faunal protein antisera that were tested against included feline (bobcat, cougar, lynx), chicken (chicken, quail, grouse, etc.), Cervinae (deer), sheep (bighorn and other sheep), Leporidae (rabbit), rat/mouse, and Guinea pig (beaver, porcupine, squirrel). The antisera that the Laboratory of Archaeological Science used for this project were provided by Cedarlane Laboratories (Agave, bitteroot, and oak), the University of Calgary (Amaranthaceae, Asteraceae, Camas, Capparaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Malvaceae, and pine), Cappel Research (feline, chicken, Cervinae, Leporidae, and Guinea pig), and Lampire Biomedical (sheep).

RESULTS Of the twenty samples submitted to the Laboratory of Archaeological Science, three of the samples reacted positively to a single antiserum and a fourth reacted positively to two different antisera. A fifth sample reacted positively to the antiserum for human blood protein which is assumed to have been either a recent contaminant or related to the manual labor of the milling process itself. Sample #5, taken from Feature 1, Surface 2 at CA-SDI-852 tested positive for rabbit blood proteins. Sample #17, also from CA-SDI-852 and taken from Feature 1, Surface 51 tested positive for both mesquite and oak. Sample #7, taken from Surface 1 adjacent to the Basketball Mortar feature at CA-SDI-9538 reacted positively with the antiserum for oak/acorn. Finally, at SDM-W-365, Sample #19 taken from Feature 1, Surface 32 reacted positively with the antiserum for mesquite.

OBSIDIAN ARTIFACTS Two interior flakes of obsidian from SDM-W-365 were located and collected for sourcing via x-ray fluorescence (XRF). They were placed into polyethylene bags marked with the site number, provenience in which they were originally located in the form of UTM coordinates, the collection date, and an individual artifact number (numbers 1 and 2). These two artifacts were analyzed for chemical composition at ASM Affiliates, Inc. by James Daniels, Jr. using a Bruker TRACeR III-V hand-held X-ray fluorescence (pXRF) spectrometer. Each artifact was analyzed twice, the elemental compositions recorded (ppm), and transferred to an Excel spreadsheet. Concentrations of iron, zinc, manganese, gallium,

69 thorium, rubidium, strontium, yttrium, zirconium, and niobium were compared with the nine nearest sources of obsidian to San Diego County. Both obsidian artifacts had compositions

Table 1. Protein Residue Results Prov/ LAS # Site Inventory Artifact Results Code 1 SDM-W- N/A Feature 1, Surface Negative 365 1 2 “ N/A Feature 2, Surface Negative 1 3 SDI-852 N/A Feature 2, Surface Negative 76 4 “ N/A Feature 1, Surface Negative 89 5 “ N/A Feature 1, Surface Rabbit 2 6 SDM-W- N/A Feature 1, Surface Negative 365 20 7 SDI-9538 N/A Feature BM, Oak Surface 1 8 “ N/A Feature B50-R3, Negative Surface RR 9 SDM-W- N/A Feature 1, Surface Negative 365 47 10 “ N/A Feature 1, Surface Negative 38 11 SDI-852 N/A Feature 1, Surface Negative 66 12 “ N/A Feature 1, Surface Negative 15 13 “ N/A Feature 1, Surface Human 40 14 “ N/A Feature 1, Surface Negative 53 15 SDM-W- N/A Feature 1, Surface Negative 365 44 16 SDI-9538 N/A Feature BM, Negative Surface 3 17 SDI-852 N/A Feature 1, Surface Mesquite, Oak 51 18 SDI-9538 N/A Feature BM, Negative

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Surface 2 19 SDM-W- N/A Feature 1, Surface Mesquite 365 32 20 “ N/A Feature 1, Surface Negative 13LL that most closely matched known samples taken from Obsidian Butte in Imperial County, California. This source happens to be the closest to Cuyamaca Rancho State Park and is also significant in that it is located along the southern edge of the Salton Sea. When the waters are more than 40 meters above sea level the obsidian deposit is submerged. Artifacts made from Obsidian Butte materials begin showing up in coastal southern California approximately 1,500 years ago, following the latest recession in level of the water. Most obsidian artifacts found in San Diego archaeological contexts prior to Obsidian Butte material becoming available have been sourced to the Coso Volcanic Fields in Inyo County, California. The Obsidian Butte deposit is approximately 125 miles closer to the sites in Cuyamaca (Banks 1972). Once the Obsidian Butte materials were available they almost completely replaced obsidian from other sources in the local archaeological record (Schaefer and Laylander 2007).

Figure 29. Obsidian flake #1 from SDM-W-365.

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Figure 30. Obsidian artifact #2 from SDM-W-365.

GIS ANALYSIS ESRI’s ARCMap 10.2 was used in order to make comparisons and generate visual representations of environmental attributes of sites where Cuyamaca Ovals were confirmed to be present as a part of this research. A total of 29 sites and their attributes were used to calculate these statistics. Attributes compared between the sites include each site’s elevation, distance to the nearest water source, and plant community/communities. Although a few outlier sites were located at elevations below 2,500 feet, 82.8% of sites visited with Cuyamaca Oval basins are above 4,000 feet and 55.2% of the sites are above 4,300 feet elevation.

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Figure 31. Graph of site elevations.

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Figure 32. Graph of distance to water from each site visited.

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Proximity to a water source was an important consideration in the location of habitation and resource processing sites and the location of most Cuyamaca Oval sites was no different. One site was more than 200 meters from its nearest water source. The remaining sites show variation in distance to water that resembles a typical bell curve. Multiple sites visited actually had a source of water running through them in the form of small creeks and streams. Additionally, there does not appear to be any correlation (only 7% in the variation of distance to water (first variable) influences the number of Cuyamaca Oval surfaces (second variable) at each site. Except for the unrecorded site at Scissors Crossing with the Cuyamaca Ovals on a vertical face of a boulder that has rolled downhill, all of the other sites where this milling form is previously recorded, recently located, or confirmed by fieldwork for this research, have been located near pine-oak woodlands. The Scissors Crossing site, while a few miles east of pine-oak woodland, is located within a desert scrub and chaparral area dominated by mesquite, cholla, etc. Oak is located to the west of the site as well as north along San Felipe Creek. CA-SDI-6847, located at Stelzer Park in Lakeside, has the lowest elevation Cuyamaca Ovals observed as part of the fieldwork for this project at 715 feet. Although the El Cajon USGS quadrangle within which this site is located is classified as inland, and should be represented with a chaparral community dominated by manzanita, this site is located within a riparian area along an unnamed creek where there is an abundance of mature oak and pine trees. I downloaded the shapefile for San Diego County’s vegetation communities, ECO_VEGETATION_CN.shp, from SANDAG.org and added that data onto my map. The layer with the sites that I visited was overlain on the vegetation map. I used the Identification tool to record the vegetation community(ies) near each site. Due to the large number of vegetation communities identified via ARCMap I combined them into four groupings of zones that share the same or similar plant species. I created a group called “Woodland” into which the following vegetation communities were added: 85100 Jeffrey Pine Forest, 71162 Dense Coast Live Oak Woodland, 61300 Southern Riparian Forest, 81340 Black Oak Forest, 84500 Mixed Oak/Coniferous/Bigcone/Coulter Forest, and 61310 Southern Coast Live Oak Riparian Forest. The communities in the Woodland grouping have the largest trees in the county, all have oak, and most have some form of conifer. The understory can be grassy or

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have chaparral plants. The “Meadow” group is made up of 42300 Wildflower Field, 45120 Dry Montane Meadow, 45110 Wet Montane Meadow, and 42400 Foothill/Mountain Perennial Grassland. These plant communities are dominated by grasses and wildflowers. The “Chaparral” group combines 37130 Northern Mixed Chaparral and 37540 Montane Scrub Oak Chaparral. These areas of thick vegetation may have coastal sage oak scrub, chamise, and manzanita. Finally, the “Sage Scrub” group contains one zone, 32500 Diegan Coastal Sage Scrub. Buckwheat, sumac, salvia, and of course coastal sage scrub are common in this plant community. Eighteen of the twenty-six sites (69.2%) used for the GIS analysis are located within Woodlands (Table 2). The next most common group (53.8%) for Cuyamaca Oval sites to be located in was the Meadow group with fourteen of the twenty-six sites (Table 3). Five sites (19.2%) were located within Chaparral communities while one site (3.8%), A4-S-1, was located inside Sage Scrub (Tables 4 and 5).

Table 2. Sites Placed in the Woodland Group Woodland Group SDI-6847 SDI-926 SDI-11,198 SDI-9538 SDI-820 SDI-15,674 SDI-945 SDI-858 SDI-14,326 SDI-12,591 SDI-16,294 SDI-10,585 SDI-856 SDI-17,349 SDI-917 A4-S-1 JWH-50 Unrecorded Scissors Crossing Site

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Figure 33. Example of a Woodland community (Jeffrey Pine Forest) at Cuyamaca Rancho State Park.

Table 3. Sites Placed in the Meadow Group Meadow Group SDI-9538 SDI-14,423 SDI-820 SDI-15,674 SDI-852 SDI-8844 SDI-858 SDI-857 SDI-856 SDI-10,972 SDI-16,832 SDI-17,349 JWH-50 SDM-W-365

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Figure 34. Example of a dry montane meadow vegetation community at Cuyamaca Rancho State Park.

Table 4. Sites Placed in the Chaparral Group. Chaparral Group SDI-8865 SDI-11,198 SDI-14,423 A4-S-1 Unrecorded Scissors Crossing Site

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Figure 35. Chaparral vegetation community on East Mesa.

Table 5. Sites Placed in the Sage Scrub Group Sage Scrub Group A4-S-1

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Figure 36. Sage scrub vegetation community in the San Felipe Valley.

MILLING STATISTICS Results from the quantitative study of milling surface types by USGS quadrangle in San Diego County are displayed in Table 6. The geographic regions represented by each of the quadrangles within the county have been divided into four ecological types: coastal, inland (foothills and valleys west of the Peninsular Range), mountains, and desert. The coastal type is limited to the single, western-most quadrangles within the county. As the vegetation and landscapes are similar from a few miles east of the coast until the lower elevations at the foot of the Peninsular Range, these quadrangles were grouped together as inland. The mountains classification is reserved for quadrangles that are, for the most part, above 1,500 feet in elevation and have a plant community dominated by pine and oak woodlands. East of the Peninsular Range is the desert classification in which the elevation and annual rainfall totals drop considerably, coinciding with a change in the plant communities to species that are more arid-adapted.

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There are a total of 8,110 archaeological sites in San Diego County recorded at the SCIC with bedrock milling as of July 25, 2013. Of that total number of sites, the basin form has been recorded at 2,684 of them for a total of 33.1%. Slicks are by far the most common bedrock milling form with 6,813 sites (84% of the total milling sites) recorded with that form. Mortars are more common than the basin milling form with 40.8% or 3,308 sites out of the total. Occasionally, sites have been recorded as having bedrock milling without any mention of the form(s) represented. As of July 25, 2013, 191 sites had been recorded this way. These were included in the total number of milling sites for this project and make up 2.4% of the total. Thirty-nine sites had been recorded using the specific term “Cuyamaca Oval” to describe milling features as of the above date for just 0.46% of the total. Although some of the USGS quadrangles have many more recorded archaeological sites than others, the overall percentages of the forms of bedrock milling features recorded at the total number of sites in each quadrangle show similar patterns in relation to their ecological types. Bedrock milling is uncommon at sites located within coastal quadrangles and may be the result of a combination of less reliance on resources that needed to be ground up as well as the lack, in most quadrangles, of suitable quality bedrock for milling (hard and non-friable without large grain size that can end up mixed into the processed food). There are no recorded sites with bedrock milling in the 7.5-minute USGS quadrangles for Imperial Beach, Point Loma, La Jolla, or Oceanside. Seventy-nine coastal sites have been recorded with bedrock milling in the remaining Del Mar, Encinitas, Las Pulgas Canyon, National City, San Clemente, San Luis Rey, and San Onofre Bluff quadrangles with Del Mar and San Luis Rey accounting for most of them (22 and 45 milling sites each, respectively). Although highly skewed by Del Mar and San Luis Rey, the coastal quads average just 7.2 milling sites each. Bedrock milling becomes more common to the east in the twenty quadrangles classified as “inland.” Here, between the coastal quadrangles and the mid-elevation slopes of the Peninsular Range, there are 2,331 archaeological sites recorded as having bedrock milling of some form. Inland quadrangles average 116.6 milling sites each. Bedrock milling is also common in the county at higher altitude sites that are near or within woodland/forest areas in the quadrangles classified as montane. So far, 3,380 bedrock milling sites have been recorded in the thirty-two montane quadrangles, for an average of 105.6 in each. There are twenty-one 7.5-minute USGS quadrangles assigned the “desert” classification although

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nineteen of them have recorded bedrock milling sites. The desert quadrangles average 65.3 milling sites each.

Table 6. Form of Milling Statistics for Each USGS 7.5-Minute Quadrangle USGS 7.5- No. of No. No. No. No. with Percent Percent Percent minute milling with with with Cuyamaca with with with Quadrangle sites basin mortar slick Oval form basin mortar slick form form form form form form Agua 71 38 63 30 0 53.5 88.7 42.3 Caliente Aguanga 12 3 7 9 0 25.0 58.3 75.0 Alpine 173 51 154 41 4 29.5 89.0 23.7 Arroyo 5 0 4 1 0 0.0 80.0 20.0 Tapiado Barrett 59 32 51 20 0 54.2 86.4 33.9 Lake Beauty 15 3 7 13 0 20.0 46.7 86.7 Mountain Bonsall 73 19 52 36 0 26.0 71.2 49.3 Borrego 190 38 161 63 0 20.0 84.7 33.2 Palm Canyon Borrego 22 2 20 3 0 9.1 90.9 13.6 Sink Borrego 7 1 4 4 0 14.3 57.1 57.1 Mountain Boucher 202 43 79 107 0 21.3 39.1 53.0 Hill Bucksnort 82 9 68 38 0 11.0 82.9 46.3 Mountain Cameron 146 86 117 87 1 58.9 80.1 59.6 Corners Campo 34 21 25 8 0 61.8 73.5 23.5 Carrizo 3 1 1 2 0 33.3 33.3 66.7 Mountain Clark Lake 23 4 19 1 0 17.4 82.6 4.3 Collins 167 39 157 47 0 23.4 94.0 28.1 Valley Cuyamaca 446 153 398 178 22 34.3 89.2 39.9 Peak Del Mar 22 10 21 10 0 45.5 95.5 45.5 Descanso 245 111 209 94 1 45.3 85.3 38.4 Dulzura 265 71 244 47 2 26.8 92.1 17.7

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Earthquake 121 46 112 49 0 38.0 92.6 40.5 Valley El Cajon 110 46 106 42 1 48.9 96.4 44.7 El Cajon 61 16 55 16 0 26.2 90.2 26.2 Mountain Encinitas 1 0 0 1 0 0.0 0.0 100.0 Escondido 273 69 246 103 0 25.3 90.1 37.7 Fallbrook 39 8 31 7 0 20.5 79.5 17.9 Font’s Point 5 2 2 1 0 40.0 40.0 20.0 Harper 41 13 38 10 0 31.7 92.7 24.4 Canyon Hot Springs 93 30 65 72 0 32.3 69.9 77.4 Mountain In-Ko-Pah 12 4 9 4 0 33.3 75.0 33.3 Gorge Jacumba 179 57 128 69 0 31.8 71.5 38.5 Jamul 85 20 70 9 0 23.5 82.4 10.6 Mountains Julian 207 82 170 125 2 39.6 82.1 60.4 La Mesa 47 14 36 5 0 29.8 76.6 10.6 Las Pulgas 3 1 1 2 0 33.3 33.3 66.7 Canyon Live Oak 215 82 177 114 1 38.1 85.8 53.0 Springs Margarita 23 9 17 18 0 39.1 56.5 78.3 Peak Mesa 84 43 90 63 3 51.2 82.9 75.0 Grande Monument 158 83 167 76 0 52.5 95.3 48.1 Peak Mount 249 103 235 91 0 41.4 94.4 36.5 Laguna Morena 180 94 133 75 0 52.2 95.3 41.7 Reservoir Morro Hill 206 40 193 49 0 19.4 98.4 23.8 National 2 1 2 0 0 50.0 100.0 0.0 City Oasis 3 0 2 1 0 0.0 66.7 33.3 Otay Mesa 12 1 8 0 0 8.3 27.3 0.0 Otay 8 2 6 1 0 25.0 75.0 12.5 Mountain Pala 116 30 58 71 0 25.9 49.6 61.2 Palomar 131 27 82 86 0 20.6 60.3 65.6

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Observatory Pechanga 10 3 4 8 0 30.0 40.0 80.0 Potrero 39 22 37 7 1 56.4 96.0 17.9 Poway 88 24 78 22 0 27.3 89.0 25.0 Rabbit Peak 17 0 14 1 0 0.0 100.0 5.9 Ramona 201 87 175 81 0 43.3 88.0 40.3 Ranchita 120 45 87 76 0 37.5 70.2 63.3 Rancho 95 12 94 19 0 12.6 90.0 20.0 Santa Fe Rodriguez 178 53 163 74 0 29.8 89.3 41.6 Mountain San 5 1 4 0 0 20.0 80.0 0.0 Clemente San Luis 45 19 28 14 0 42.2 60.0 31.1 Rey San Marcos 73 19 60 21 0 26.0 82.2 28.8 San Onofre 1 1 0 0 0 100.0 0.0 0.0 Bluff San Pasqual 409 119 349 98 0 29.1 85.3 24.0 San Vicente 218 54 214 57 0 24.8 94.8 26.1 Reservoir Santa 246 99 187 134 0 40.2 75.9 54.5 Ysabel Seventeen 1 0 1 0 0 0.0 100.0 0.0 Palms Sombrero 161 57 117 67 0 35.4 86.3 41.6 Peak Sweeney 49 26 40 21 0 53.1 69.5 42.9 Pass Tecate 25 8 25 5 0 32.0 92.6 20.0 Temecula 8 1 6 6 0 12.5 62.5 75.0 Tierra del 12 4 8 7 0 33.3 80.0 58.3 Sol Tubb 361 79 335 188 0 21.9 91.2 52.1 Canyon Tule 45 17 26 16 0 37.8 48.9 35.6 Springs Vail Lake 10 4 5 10 0 40.0 50.0 100.0 Valley 231 65 221 83 0 28.1 95.2 35.9 Center Viejas 117 54 95 41 0 46.2 80.3 35.0 Mountain Warner’s 213 81 155 146 0 38.0 73.8 68.5 Ranch

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Warner 81 32 51 70 1 39.5 76.5 86.4 Springs Whale Peak 141 40 134 37 0 28.4 93.7 26.2

Table 7. Ecological Group Assignments for Each USGS Quadrangle USGS Ecological USGS Ecological USGS Ecological Quadrangle Type Quadrangle Type Quadrangle Type Agua Desert Fallbrook Inland Rabbit Peak Desert Caliente Aguanga Montane Font's Point Desert Ramona Inland Harper Alpine Montane Desert Ranchita Montane Canyon Arroyo Hot Springs Rancho Desert Montane Inland Tapiado Mountain Santa Fe Barrett In-Ko-Pah Rodriguez Montane Desert Montane Lake Gorge Mountain Beauty San Montane Jacumba Desert Coastal Mountain Clemente Jamul San Luis Bonsall Inland Montane Coastal Mountains Rey Borrego Palm Desert Julian Montane San Marcos Inland Canyon Borrego San Onofre Desert La Mesa Inland Coastal Sink Bluff Borrego Las Pulgas Desert Coastal San Pasqual Inland Mountain Canyon Boucher Live Oak San Vicente Montane Montane Inland Hill Springs Reservoir Bucksnort Margarita Desert Inland Santa Ysabel Montane Mountain Peak Cameron Seventeen Montane Mesa Grande Montane Desert Corners Palms Monument Sombrero Campo Montane Desert Montane Peak Peak Carrizo Mount Sweeney Desert Montane Desert Mountain Laguna Pass Morena Clark Lake Desert Montane Tecate Montane Reservoir

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Collins Montane Morro Hill Inland Temecula Inland Valley Cuyamaca National Tierra del Montane Coastal Montane Peak City Sol Tubb Del Mar Coastal Oasis Desert Desert Canyon Descanso Montane Otay Mesa Inland Tule Springs Inland Otay Dulzura Montane Montane Vail Lake Montane Mountain Earthquake Valley Montane Pala Inland Inland Valley Center Palomar Viejas El Cajon Inland Montane Inland Observatory Mountain El Cajon Warner's Montane Pechanga Inland Montane Mountain Ranch Warner Encinitas Coastal Potrero Montane Montane Springs Escondido Inland Poway Inland Whale Peak Desert Fallbrook Inland

Milling at Coastal Sites The USGS quadrangles designated as coastal average 7.2 milling sites each, although most actually occur in the Del Mar and San Luis Rey quads, as mentioned previously. Among the milling sites located within coastal quadrangles, slicks are observed at the highest frequency at 70.9% of the sites. Basins and mortars are much less common, at 41.8% and 34.2%, respectively. As the other five quadrangles have fewer than five milling sites each, the frequencies seem to be mostly related to Del Mar and San Luis Rey. Cuyamaca Ovals have not been recorded within any of the coastal quadrangles.

Milling at Inland Sites The occurrence of slicks at the milling sites located within the inland quadrangles is high with 87% of the 2,331 sites recorded as having slicks. Mortars and basins occur in almost the same frequencies at 29.1% and 32.9%, respectively. There is a single Cuyamaca Oval recorded at a site within one of the inland quadrangles, amounting to 0.0004% of the total milling sites within that classification group. Several of the quadrangles that are located

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at the western foot of the Laguna Range where chaparral and scrub dominate with pockets of oak woodland see higher frequencies of mortars such as Pechanga (80%), Temecula (75%), and Margarita Peak (78.3%).

Table 8. Milling Forms at Sites within the Coastal USGS 7.5-Minute Quadrangles USGS No. of No. No. No. No. with Percentage Percentage Percentage 7.5- milling with with with Cuyamaca with Basin with Slick with minute sites Basin Slick Mortar Ovals Form Form Mortar Quad Form Form Form Form Del Mar 22 10 21 10 0 45.5 95.5 45.5 Encinitas 1 0 0 1 0 0.0 0.0 100.0 Las Pulgas Canyon 3 1 1 2 0 33.3 33.3 66.7 National City 2 1 2 0 0 50.0 100.0 0.0 San Clemente 5 1 4 0 0 20.0 80.0 0.0 San Luis Rey 45 19 28 14 0 42.2 60.0 31.1 San Onofre Bluff 1 1 0 0 0 100.0 0.0 0.0 Totals 79 33 56 27 0 41.8 70.9 34.2

Table 9. Milling Forms at Sites within the Inland USGS 7.5-Minute Quadrangles

No. of No. with No. with No. with No. with USGS 7.5-minute Quad milling Basin Mortar Cuyamaca Slick Form sites Form Form Ovals

Bonsall 73 19 52 36 0 El Cajon 110 46 106 42 1 Escondido 273 69 246 103 0 Fallbrook 39 8 31 7 0 La Mesa 47 14 36 5 0 Margarita Peak 23 9 17 18 0 Morro Hill 206 40 193 49 0

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Otay Mesa 12 1 8 0 0 Pala 116 30 58 71 0 Pechanga 10 3 4 8 0 Poway 88 24 78 22 0 Ramona 201 87 175 81 0 Rancho Santa Fe 95 12 94 19 0 San Marcos 73 19 60 21 0 San Pasqual 409 119 349 98 0 San Vicente Reservoir 218 54 214 57 0 Temecula 8 1 6 6 0 Tule Springs 45 17 26 16 0 Valley Center 231 65 221 83 0 Viejas Mountain 117 54 95 41 0 Total 2378 691 2069 783 1 Percentage Percentage Percentage Percentage with USGS 7.5-minute Quad with Basin with Slick with Mortar Cuyamaca Form Form Form Ovals Bonsall 26.0 71.2 49.3 0 El Cajon 41.8 96.4 38.2 0.90 Escondido 25.3 90.1 37.7 0 Fallbrook 20.5 79.5 17.9 0 La Mesa 29.8 76.6 10.6 0 Margarita Peak 39.1 56.5 78.3 0 Morro Hill 19.4 98.4 23.8 0 Otay Mesa 8.3 27.3 0.0 0 Pala 25.9 49.6 61.2 0 Pechanga 30.0 40.0 80.0 0 Poway 27.3 89.0 25.0 0 Ramona 43.3 88.0 40.3 0 Rancho Santa Fe 12.6 90.0 20.0 0 San Marcos 26.0 82.2 28.8 0 San Pasqual 29.1 85.3 24.0 0 San Vicente Reservoir 24.8 94.8 26.1 0 Temecula 12.5 62.5 75.0 0 Tule Springs 37.8 48.9 35.6 0 Valley Center 28.1 95.2 35.9 0

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Viejas Mountain 46.2 80.3 35.0 0 Total 29.1 87.0 32.9 0.0004

Milling at Montane Sites Milling is also common at sites in the montane quadrangles, as demonstrated above. Mortars occur at the highest frequency in the montane classification. Mortars are recorded at 45.5% of the montane milling sites compared to 34.2%, 32.9%, and 26.2% in the other quadrangle classification groups. Basins are also common in the mountains, recorded at 36.5% of the sites. Again, slicks are the most common milling form, being recorded at 81.2% of the sites. Cuyamaca Ovals are documented in the records from 36 sites in the montane classification group, with 22 within the Cuyamaca Peak quadrangle. Although these represent the highest number and frequency of Cuyamaca Ovals amongst any of the classification groups, they still amount to a mere 0.84% of the total milling sites. Of the twenty-five sites with Cuyamaca Ovals that were visited for this research, twenty-three or 92% of them are located within Montane quadrangles. The one site visited for this research that occurs in an Inland quadrangle, CA-SDI-6847, is located in a riparian area that more closely resembles a higher altitude eco-zone with many pine and oak trees. Although the Scissors Crossing site is located within a Montane quadrangle, its local environment is the least like the others, being dominated by scrub brush and desert wildflowers.

Table 10. Milling Forms at Sites within the Montane USGS 7.5-Minute Quadrangles

No. of No. with No. with No. with No. with USGS 7.5-minute Quad milling Basin Slick Mortar Cuyamaca sites Form Form Form Ovals

Aguanga 12 3 7 9 0 Alpine 173 51 154 41 4 Barrett Lake 59 32 51 20 0 Beauty Mountain 15 3 7 13 0 Boucher Hill 202 43 79 107 0 Cameron Corners 146 86 117 87 1 Campo 34 21 25 8 0 Collins Valley 167 39 157 47 0

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Cuyamaca Peak 446 153 398 178 22 Descanso 245 111 209 94 1 Dulzura 265 71 244 47 2 Earthquake Valley 121 46 112 49 0 El Cajon Mountain 61 16 55 16 0 Hot Springs Mountain 93 30 65 72 0 Jamul Mountains 85 20 70 9 0 Julian 207 82 170 125 2 Live Oak Springs 215 82 177 114 1 Mesa Grande 84 43 90 63 3 Mount Laguna 249 103 235 91 0 Morena Reservoir 180 94 133 75 0 Otay Mountain 8 2 6 1 0 Palomar Observatory 131 27 82 86 0 Potrero 39 22 37 7 1 Ranchita 120 45 87 76 0 Rodriguez Mountain 178 53 163 74 0 Santa Ysabel 246 99 187 134 0 Sombrero Peak 161 57 117 67 0 Tecate 25 8 25 5 0 Tierra del Sol 12 4 8 7 0 Vail Lake 10 4 5 10 0 Warner's Ranch 213 81 155 146 0 Warner Springs 81 32 51 70 1 Totals 4283 1563 3478 1948 36

USGS 7.5- Percentage with Percentage with Percentage with Percentage with minute Quad Basin Form Slick Form Mortar Form Cuyamaca Ovals

Aguanga 25.0 58.3 75.0 0 Alpine 29.5 89.0 23.7 2.31 Barrett Lake 54.2 86.4 33.9 0 Beauty Mountain 20.0 46.7 86.7 0 Boucher Hill 21.3 39.1 53.0 0 Cameron Corners 58.9 80.1 59.6 0.68

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Campo 61.8 73.5 23.5 0 Collins Valley 23.4 94.0 28.1 0 Cuyamaca Peak 34.3 89.2 39.9 4.93 Descanso 45.3 85.3 38.4 0.41 Dulzura 26.8 92.1 17.7 0.75 Earthquake Valley 38.0 92.6 40.5 0 El Cajon Mountain 26.2 90.2 26.2 0 Hot Springs Mountain 32.3 69.9 77.4 0 Jamul Mountains 23.5 82.4 10.6 0 Julian 39.6 82.1 60.4 0.97 Live Oak Springs 38.1 85.8 53.0 0.00 Mesa Grande 51.2 82.9 75.0 0.04 Mount Laguna 41.4 94.4 36.5 0 Morena Reservoir 52.2 95.3 41.7 0 Otay Mountain 25.0 75.0 12.5 0 Palomar Observatory 20.6 60.3 65.6 0 Potrero 56.4 96.0 17.9 2.56 Ranchita 37.5 70.2 63.3 0 Rodriguez Mountain 29.8 89.3 41.6 0 Santa Ysabel 40.2 75.9 54.5 0 Sombrero Peak 35.4 86.3 41.6 0 Tecate 32.0 92.6 20.0 0 Tierra del Sol 33.3 80.0 58.3 0 Vail Lake 40.0 50.0 100.0 0 Warner's Ranch 38.0 73.8 68.5 0 Warner Springs 39.5 76.5 86.4 1.23 Totals 36.5 81.2 45.5 0.84

Milling at Desert Sites Slicks are most common at sites in the desert, showing up at 88.3% of the sites recorded with bedrock milling. Mortars and basins are much less common than elsewhere in

91 the county at just 29% and 40.1% of the sites, respectively. Cuyamaca Ovals have not been reported from any of the desert quadrangles. Some quadrangles such as Borrego Sink, Rabbit Peak, and Whale Peak have high percentages of slicks (>90.9%) with low percentages of sites including mortars (<26.2%). An extreme example would be the Rabbit Peak quadrangle where mortars are represented at 5.9% of the milling sites.

Table 11. Milling Forms at Sites within the Desert USGS 7.5-Minute Quadrangles No. with No. with Percentage Percentage Percentage No. of No. with No. with USGS 7.5-minute Quad Mortar Cuyamaca with Basin with Slick with Mortar milling sites Basin Form Slick Form Form Ovals Form Form Form Agua Caliente 71 38 63 30 0 53.5 88.7 42.3 Arroyo Tapiado 5 0 4 1 0 0.0 80.0 20.0 Borrego Palm Canyon 190 38 161 63 0 20.0 84.7 33.2 Borrego Sink 22 2 20 3 0 9.1 90.9 13.6 Borrego Mountain 7 1 4 4 0 14.3 57.1 57.1 Borrego Mountain SE 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Bucksnort Mountain 82 9 68 38 0 11.0 82.9 46.3 Carrizo Mountain 3 1 1 2 0 33.3 33.3 66.7 Clark Lake 23 4 19 1 0 17.4 82.6 4.3 Font's Point 5 2 2 1 0 40.0 40.0 20.0 Harper Canyon 41 13 38 10 0 31.7 92.7 24.4 In-Ko-Pah Gorge 12 4 9 4 0 33.3 75.0 33.3 Jacumba 179 57 128 69 0 31.8 71.5 38.5 Monument Peak 158 83 167 76 0 52.5 95.3 48.1 Oasis 3 0 2 1 0 0.0 66.7 33.3 Rabbit Peak 17 0 14 1 0 0.0 100.0 5.9 Seventeen Palms 1 0 1 0 0 0.0 100.0 0.0 Shell Reef 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Sweeney Pass 49 26 40 21 0 53.1 69.5 42.9 Tubb Canyon 361 79 335 188 0 21.9 91.2 52.1 Whale Peak 141 40 134 37 0 28.4 93.7 26.2 Totals 1370 397 1210 550 0 29.0 88.3 40.1 92

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CUYAMACA OVAL DIMENSIONS Another part of this project involved gathering the measurements of a sample of Cuyamaca Ovals in order to find a mean and mode for length, width, depth, and width-to- length ratio. I used measurements from sites where I personally confirmed the presence of Cuyamaca Ovals. To achieve an adequate sample without using too many ovals’ measurements from any one site I used the following sample strategy: If the site had 1-4 Cuyamaca Ovals then measurements from all were used, 5-10 Cuyamaca Ovals and measurements from four were included, 11-40 Cuyamaca Ovals and I used 20% of them, and for sites with more than 41 ovals I took 15% as the sample. For sites with greater than 4 Cuyamaca Ovals, the surfaces chosen were selected randomly. Measurements from 83 Cuyamaca Ovals were used for this analysis. After the measurements were entered into an Excel spreadsheet the average and mode were calculated for each dimension mentioned previously. The average (mean) length of the Cuyamaca Ovals in this study was 22.93 cm with the mode almost identical at 23 cm. The longest Cuyamaca Oval included measured 32 cm and the shortest was 16 cm. The mean width recorded was 13.99 cm although the mode was an even 13 cm. The widest ovals were 21 cm across while the most narrow was a mere 7 cm. The average and modal measurements for depth were also close at 2.65 cm and 3.0 cm, respectively. A number of Cuyamaca Ovals with depths of 4 cm were recorded although none that were deeper. Several shallow basins were recorded with depths of 1 cm or less. The ratios of the width to the length of the basins were fairly consistent; two had a ratio less than 0.5 while the majority of ratios were in the 0.55 to 0.7 range. The average width-to- length ratio was 0.619. Measurements and results for this project are shown in Table 12. 93

Table 12. Measurements of a Sample of Cuyamaca Ovals Width / Length Site Identifier Length (cm) Width (cm) Depth (cm) Ratio SDI-9538 27 21 2 0.778 22 12 2 0.545 20 12 3 0.600 32 18 3 0.563 23 17 0.5 0.739 20 13 1.5 0.650 25 14 3.5 0.560 21 15 3 0.714

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27 18 3.5 0.667 27 15 3.5 0.556 23 15 2 0.652 25 13 3 0.520 SDI-852 18 13 2 0.722 18 15 3 0.833 25 15 3 0.600 23 15 3 0.652 25 13 3.5 0.520 23 15 3 0.652 22 12 4 0.545 18 12 2 0.667 18 12 2 0.667 26 11 2 0.423 25 17 3 0.680 25 13 2.5 0.520 SDM-W-365 27 17 4 0.630 28 16 4 0.571 27 14 4 0.519 29 18 4 0.621 23 12 3 0.522 25 14 3.5 0.560 24 14 3 0.583 22 11 2.5 0.500 26 13 2 0.500 SDI-10,972 26 13 4 0.500 23 13 4 0.565 SDI-16,832 22 12 3 0.545 19 13 2 0.684 21 14 2 0.667 14 9 2 0.643

SDI-17,349 20 14 1.5 0.700 94

SDI-15,674 18 13 2.5 0.722 27 16 2 0.593 SDI-856 28 15 1.5 0.536 SDI-857 23 13 1 0.565 20 13 2 0.650 23 13 2.5 0.565 SDI-858 23 14 3 0.609 20 13 2 0.650 28 14 3 0.500 SDI-10,585 20 13 2.5 0.650 19 12 1.5 0.632 22 13 1.5 0.591 SDI-14,326 30 21 2 0.700

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20 15 2 0.750 SDI-12,591 23 15 2.5 0.652 24 17 3 0.708 SDI-945 24 13 3 0.542 20 9 1 0.450 23 14 2.5 0.609 SDI-8844 17 11 2 0.647 17 14 2 0.824 23 14 3 0.609 17 11 1 0.647 20 13 3 0.650 19 15 2.5 0.789 21 13 3 0.619 SDI-8865 26 15 4 0.577 SDI-917 18 15 1 0.833 17 13 1 0.765 17 15 3 0.882 26 7 1 0.269 20 16 2 0.800 18 13 2 0.722 26 15 3 0.577 16 9 2.5 0.563 31 14 1 0.452 SDI-6847 24 16 1.5 0.667 29 13 2.5 0.448 30 16 3 0.533 26 16 4 0.615 SDI-926 22 15 2.5 0.682 SDI-820/1 28 16 2 0.571 26 17 1 0.654

Average 22.93 13.99 2.49 0.619 95

Mode 23 13 3 0.650

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CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS

This project set out to answer three questions about Cuyamaca Ovals: 1. Is the distinctive form of the Cuyamaca Ovals the result of processing a resource locally available in and around Rancho Cuyamaca State Park? 2. When in time were Cuyamaca Ovals in use? 3. Where can archaeologists anticipate to find Cuyamaca Ovals? While the results from the fieldwork provide some solid initial data about the form and timing of Cuyamaca Ovals, the limited number of positive reactions in the protein residue extraction and identification process, as well as the limits of using surface obsidian artifacts for dating SDM-W-365 and CA-SDI-852, makes this study somewhat inconclusive, leaving room for further investigation. The protein residue analysis adds new data to a small number of similar studies on bedrock milling features in southern California (Becker et al. 2011; Schneider and Bruce 2009; Zepeda-Herman 2009). Also of note, the protein residue part of this project yielded the first ever positive reactions for samples taken from Cuyamaca Oval milling features. Based on the data from the protein residue analysis it would appear as though the distinctive oval shape of these shallow basins is not related to the processing of a specific 96

resource as positive reactions were observed from oak, mesquite, and rabbit. The acorns from oak, seed pods from mesquite, and rabbit meat are known to have been consumed in prehistory (Anderson 2005:327). In the desert mesquite pods were a staple (Hector 2004a:78).Unless further protein residue research on Cuyamaca Ovals repeatedly identifies a specific substance, it would appear that the basins were used for multiple purposes, a finding that does not support the cultural ecology model predicting an adaptation to a unique environmental resource. The two positive reactions to mesquite are notable due to that plant not being available locally near any of the sites tested. It would appear as though the

97 mesquite was being transported a number of miles and several thousands of feet in elevation from the desert floor to the east of the Laguna Mountains. In regards to the temporal context of Cuyamaca Ovals, the two flakes of obsidian we collected at SDM-W-365 were sourced to the deposit at Obsidian Butte. We know that this source of obsidian was under the surface of Lake Cahuilla, the prehistoric predecessor of the Salton Sea, and therefore unavailable as a tool-making material until approximately 1,500 years ago. Therefore the two flakes must have been left at SDM-W-365 at some point subsequent to that event. Although the presence of obsidian from this source implies a more recent age for SDM-W-365, the possibilities of the site being reused, or merely passed through, in the highly-populated Rancho Cuyamaca area during Late Prehistoric or Protohistoric times remain. Extreme weathering of Cuyamaca Ovals in relation to fresher milled surfaces nearby at several sites that remain undated continues to foster a sense that the former elements are much older than the latter. A conversation with Carmen Lucas, respected elder of the Kwaaymii Laguna Band of Mission Indians, about how she knows her relatives used a grouping of mortars but not an outcrop with milling consisting solely of Cuyamaca Ovals on her property, also remains a source of personal speculation that further research at Cuyamaca Ovals sites may discover an origin prior to the Late Prehistoric period (Carmen Lucas, personal communication, Spring 2013). The GIS analysis allowed an environmental archaeology perspective by providing a statistical look at the attributes of where Cuyamaca Oval sites are found and offered insight as to where they can be expected to be discovered by archaeologists in the future. Of the sites with these basins that I was able to gain access to and locate, few were found in

97 unexpected locations (e.g. SDI-6847 and the unrecorded site in the chaparral and scrub- covered hills of Scissors Crossing). Most were found at higher altitudes of at least 4,000 feet and near vegetation communities that have oak and pine trees. Water is a necessary resource and, like most archaeological sites, a source of freshwater was rarely more than 600 feet away. As noted in earlier works, many of the sites visited at Rancho Cuyamaca State Park were also located near open meadows and wildflower fields. Finally, the results contained a brief look at the form of the Cuyamaca Ovals themselves with the length to width ratio being fairly consistent in the range of 0.55 to 0.7. Although many of the milling elements recorded as Cuyamaca Ovals are merely the

98 beginning depressions that would have led to a more distinctive looking basin, the deeper examples all have shouldered edges but do not surpass 4 cm in depth. I showed that Cuyamaca Ovals average just under 23 cm in length and have a ratio of their width to length that is slightly greater than 0.5 and averages 0.62. The uniformity in the shape, measurements, and width-to-length ratios of the basins examined for this project correspond to what is expected to define an artifact or feature type under the typological theory. Future research on Cuyamaca Ovals would benefit from the ability to further date the sites where they occur. In particular, the unrecorded site at Scissors Crossing with its rotated boulder and vastly different weathering on milling elements that are close together would seem likely to produce interesting dates from either carbon or obsidian samples. If archaeological excavation for research at Cuyamaca Rancho State Park were to resume I would be keenly interested in continuing this line of research by attempting to recover additional dateable materials from the subsurface of the two “Ovals only” sites in this study or any of the other sites with large numbers of that milling surface type.

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