02 Computer Evolution and Performance
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Computer Architecture Faculty Of Computers And Information Technology Second Term 2019- 2020 Dr.Khaled Kh. Sharaf Computer Architecture Chapter 2: Computer Evolution and Performance Computer Architecture LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. A Brief History of Computers. 2. The Evolution of the Intel x86 Architecture 3. Embedded Systems and the ARM 4. Performance Assessment Computer Architecture 1. A BRIEF HISTORY OF COMPUTERS The First Generation: Vacuum Tubes Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer (ENIAC) - Designed and constructed at the University of Pennsylvania, was the world’s first general purpose - Started 1943 and finished 1946 - Decimal (not binary) - 20 accumulators of 10 digits - Programmed manually - 18,000 vacuum tubes by switches - 30 tons -15,000 square feet - 140 kW power consumption - 5,000 additions per second Computer Architecture The First Generation: Vacuum Tubes VON NEUMANN MACHINE • Stored Program concept • Main memory storing programs and data • ALU operating on binary data • Control unit interpreting instructions from memory and executing • Input and output equipment operated by control unit • Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies • IAS • Completed 1952 Computer Architecture Structure of von Neumann machine Structure of the IAS Computer Computer Architecture IAS - details • 1000 x 40 bit words • Binary number • 2 x 20 bit instructions Set of registers (storage in CPU) 1 • Memory buffer register (MBR): Contains a word to be stored in memory or sent to the I/O unit, or is used to receive a word from memory or from the I/O unit. • • Memory address register (MAR): Specifies the address in memory of the word to be written from or read into the MBR. • • Instruction register (IR): Contains the 8-bit opcode instruction being executed. Computer Architecture IAS - details Set of registers (storage in CPU) 2 • Instruction buffer register (IBR): Employed to hold temporarily the right hand instruction from a word in memory. • Program counter (PC): Contains the address of the next instruction pair to be fetched from memory. • Accumulator (AC) and multiplier quotient (MQ): Employed to hold temporarily operands and results of ALU operations. Computer Architecture Commercial Computers The 1950s saw the birth of the computer industry with two companies, Sperry and IBM, dominating the marketplace The UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer) was the first successful commercial computer. It was intended for both scientific and commercial applications • Late 1950s - UNIVAC II • Faster • More memory Computer Architecture IBM • Punched-card processing equipment • 1953 - the 701 • IBM’s first stored program computer • Scientific calculations • 1955 - the 702 • Business applications • Lead to 700/7000 series Computer Architecture The Second Generation: Transistors • The second generation saw the introduction of more complex arithmetic and logic units and control units, the • Use of high-level programming languages, and the provision of system software with the computer. • system software provided the ability to • load programs, move data to peripherals, and libraries to perform common computations, similar to what modern OSes like Windows and Linux do. • Literally - “small electronics” • A computer is made up of gates, memory cells and interconnections • These can be manufactured on a semiconductor • e.g. silicon wafer Computer Architecture Transistors • Replaced vacuum tubes • Smaller • Cheaper • Less heat dissipation • Solid State device • Made from Silicon (Sand) • Invented 1947 at Bell Labs • William Shockley et al. Computer Architecture Transistor Based Computers • Second generation machines • NCR & RCA produced small transistor machines • IBM 7000 • DEC – 1957 “Digital Equipment Corporation” • Produced PDP-1 Computer Architecture Third Generation: Integrated Circuits Microelectronics A single, self-contained transistor is called a discrete component. Throughout the 1950s and early 1960s, electronic equipment was composed largely of discrete components— transistors, resistors, capacitors, and so on. Microelectronics means, literally, “small electronics.” Since the beginnings of digital electronics and the computer industry, there has been a persistent and consistent trend toward the reduction in size of digital electronic circuits. Computer Architecture Relationship among Wafer, Chip, and Gate Computer Architecture Moore’s Law • Increased density of components on chip • Gordon Moore – co-founder of Intel • Number of transistors on a chip will double every year • Since 1970’s development has slowed a little • Number of transistors doubles every 18 months • Cost of a chip has remained almost unchanged • Higher packing density means shorter electrical paths, giving higher performance • Smaller size gives increased flexibility • Reduced power and cooling requirements • Fewer interconnections increases reliability Computer Architecture consequences of Moore’s law 1. The cost of a chip has remained virtually unchanged during this period of rapid growth in density. This means that the cost of computer logic and memory circuitry has fallen at a dramatic rate. 2. Because logic and memory elements are placed closer together on more densely packed chips, the electrical path length is shortened, increasing operating speed. 3. The computer becomes smaller, making it more convenient to place in a variety of environments. 4. There is a reduction in power and cooling requirements. 5. The interconnections on the integrated circuit are much more reliable than solder connections. With more circuitry on each chip, there are fewer interchip connections Computer Architecture Later Generations • Beyond the third generation there is less general agreement on defining generations of computers. Table 2.2 suggests that there have been a number of later generations, based on advances in integrated circuit technology. • With the introduction of large-scale integration (LSI), more than 1000 components can be placed on a single integrated circuit chip. • Very-large-scale integration (VLSI) achieved more than 10,000 components per chip, while current ultra-large-scale integration (ULSI) chips can contain more than one billion components. • SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY The first application of integrated circuit technology to computers was construction of the processor (the control unit and the arithmetic and logic unit) out of integrated circuit chips. But it was also found that this same technology could be used to construct memories. Computer Architecture Later Generations • SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY The first application of integrated circuit technology to computers was construction of the processor (the control unit and the arithmetic and logic unit) out of integrated circuit chips. But it was also found that this same technology could be used to construct memories. • Since 1970, semiconductor memory has been through 13 generations: 1K, 4K, 16K, 64K, 256K, 1M, 4M, 16M, 64M, 256M, 1G, 4G, and, as of this writing, 16 Gbits on a single chip (1K = 210, 1M = 220, 1G = 230). Each generation has provided four times the storage density of the previous generation, accompanied by declining cost per bit and declining access time. Computer Architecture Later Generations MICROPROCESSORS Just as the density of elements on memory chips has continued to rise, so has the density of elements on processor chips. As time went on, more and more elements were placed on each chip, so that fewer and fewer chips were needed to construct a single computer processor. Computer Architecture Generations of Computer • Vacuum tube - 1946-1957 • Transistor - 1958-1964 • Small scale integration - 1965 • Up to 100 devices on a chip • Medium scale integration - to 1971 • 100-3,000 devices on a chip • Large scale integration - 1971-1977 • 3,000 - 100,000 devices on a chip • Very large scale integration - 1978 -1991 • 100,000 - 100,000,000 devices on a chip • Ultra large scale integration – 1991 - • Over 100,000,000 devices on a chip Computer Architecture Generations of Computer Computer Architecture x86 Evolution (1) • 8080 • first general purpose microprocessor • 8 bit data path • Used in first personal computer – Altair • 8086 – 5MHz – 29,000 transistors • much more powerful • 16 bit • instruction cache, prefetch few instructions • 8088 (8 bit external bus) used in first IBM PC • 80286 • 16 Mbyte memory addressable • up from 1Mb • 80386 • 32 bit • Support for multitasking • 80486 • sophisticated powerful cache and instruction pipelining • built in maths co-processor Computer Architecture x86 Evolution (2) • Pentium • Superscalar • Multiple instructions executed in parallel • Pentium Pro • Increased superscalar organization • Aggressive register renaming • branch prediction • data flow analysis • speculative execution • Pentium II • MMX technology • graphics, video & audio processing • Pentium III • Additional floating point instructions for 3D graphics Computer Architecture x86 Evolution (3) • Pentium 4 • Note Arabic rather than Roman numerals • Further floating point and multimedia enhancements • Core • First x86 with dual core • Core 2 • 64 bit architecture • Core 2 Quad – 3GHz – 820 million transistors • Four processors on chip • x86 architecture dominant outside embedded systems • Organization and technology changed dramatically • Instruction set architecture evolved with backwards compatibility • ~1 instruction per month added • 500 instructions available • See Intel web pages for detailed information on processors Computer Architecture Embedded Systems ARM • Embedded system. 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