DOCSLIB.ORG

A-1 Farley Call to Action Statements in Tornado Warnings

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
A-1 Farley Call to Action Statements in Tornado Warnings 1 International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters March 2007, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp. 1–36 Call-to-Action Statements in Tornado Warnings: Do They Reflect Recent Developments in Tornado-Safety Research? John E. Farley Professor Emeritus Department of Sociology and Criminal Justice Studies Southern Illinois University Edwardsville [email protected] Call-to-action statements in tornado warnings are content analyzed to determine to what extent their wording has been influenced by recent research calling into question official safety guidelines and traditional advice regarding vehicles and mobile homes. While the statements do not directly contradict official guidelines and advice, there is significant variation among NWS offices regarding what advice is given and what guidelines are emphasized in call-to-action statements in tornado warnings. Some of this variation is regional, and interviews with NWS meteorologists reveal a frequent opinion that what is best to do if in a vehicle during a tornado warning may vary by region, time of day, and terrain. The interviews also reveal widespread awareness among NWS meteorologists of debates over tornado safety in vehicles and mobile homes, and strong support for local office autonomy in decisions about the wording of call-to-action statements. Key Words: tornado, warning, advice, safety, recommendations. Introduction The research reported in this paper examines “call to action” (CTA) statements in tornado warnings issued by the National Weather Service (NWS) in light of scientific controversies associated with 1 2 International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters recent research by Thomas W. Schmidlin and others regarding the safety of vehicles relative to mobile homes and ditches. This research presents a dilemma to the NWS and other emergency management agencies because it calls into question the validity of safety guidelines that have been used for a number of years. It also presents a challenge because the recent research suggests that the safest action to take is highly conditional upon the specifics of the situation (Schmidlin, 2002), while research on risk communication indicates that repeated provision of clear and understandable messages about the nature of the risk and what to do about it is the means of communication most likely to lead to adoption of appropriate preparedness and response measures (Mileti et al., 1993; Mileti, 1997). For example, research has confirmed that in tornadoes and other emergencies, knowledge of safety rules does lead people to take actions that can prevent death and injury (Aguirre, et al., 1987; Burby and Wagner, 1996; Perry, Lindell, and Green, 1980; Rogers, 1985). Relatedly, people are more likely to respond to a warning message if it contains information about what to do to protect themselves (DiGiovanni et al., 2002; Mileti and Darlington, 1997). Warning messages are most effective when they are not only clear but also repeated (Drabek, 1969; Mikami and Ikeda, 1985; Mileti and Fitzpatrick, 1993) and consistent (Christiansen and Ruch, 1980; DiGiovanni et al., 2002; Nigg, 1987). For example, Mileti and Fitzpatrick (1993) have shown that when the same information is received multiple times from multiple different sources, its impact on risk perception and on people’s efforts to obtain further information is maximized (see also Pfister, 2002). Unfortunately, it can be difficult to give repeated and consistent recommendations when the best course of action is highly situation- dependent. Moreover, research has shown that a clear and simple message is more likely to evoke action than one that is complicated or contains multiple response options (DiGiovanni et al., 2002; Rogers and Sorensen, 1989). Hence, the research shows that the advice given in warnings for tornadoes and other hazards has real impacts on what people do, but also that giving good safety advice that will be heeded represents a significant challenge when the best response is situation-dependent. The purpose of this paper Farley: Tornado Warnings 3 is to determine the extent to which actions recommended in CTA statements are consistent or inconsistent with the recommendations of Schmidlin and his colleagues based on their research findings, and how these CTA statements, if at all, have been influenced by debates surrounding those findings. This represents an important issue, because as Golden and Adams (2000) have pointed out, considerably more research has focused on the physical sciences and technology portion of the warning process than upon the warning communication process, the behavioral response to warnings, and the epidemiology of tornadoes and their consequences. Schmidlin’s Research on Vehicles, Mobile Homes, and Tornado Safety Research findings by Schmidlin and his colleagues (Schmidlin 1997; Schmidlin et al. 2002) suggest that, while vehicles are far from the safest place to be in a tornado, they may in many instances be safer than mobile homes (so that a person in a mobile home with no sturdy shelter nearby would be safer in a vehicle than in the mobile home). Nonetheless, there are no tornado safety guidelines currently in use by the National Weather Service or American Red Cross that convey the idea that a vehicle may be safer than a mobile home. Schmidlin’s research and that of others also suggests that vehicles may be safer than outdoor locations such as ditches, and Schmidlin notes there is no research supporting the idea that a ditch is safer than a vehicle . Yet, it is often recommended in safety guidelines that people abandon mobile homes and vehicles for a ditch, if no sturdy shelter is available. Schmidlin and his colleagues conducted site surveys of mobile home parks and vehicles that had been hit by tornadoes of various strength. They found that in a large number of instances, mobile homes were severely damaged or destroyed, while vehicles parked next to them or nearby suffered no major damage. In these cases, a person remaining in the mobile home would have been killed or severely injured, while a person in the nearby vehicle would have been unharmed. In general, Schmidlin found that winds of about 80 miles per hour were required to tip a mobile home, while much stronger winds of 120 miles per hour were required to tip a car. 4 International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters Specifically, he found that in tornadoes rated F1 or F2 on the Fujita Scale 1, just 4 percent of the vehicles he observed were tipped over and just 28 percent were moved. The upper end of the F2 range is estimated wind of 157 mph at a height of 10 meters, which translates to a speed of about 120 mph at door-handle height. At this wind speed, most mobile homes are tipped or blown apart, even if tied down, in contrast to the overwhelming majority of cars that survive and are not tipped, or in most cases even moved or significantly damaged. At higher Fujitia Scale ratings, cars suffer greater, sometimes devastating, damage, but the great majority of tornadoes are F2 or weaker. For example, between 1985 and 1996, more than 85 percent of tornadoes were F0 or F1, and fewer than 4 percent were F3 or stronger (Thompson and Vescio, 1998). In addition to the site survey research, Schmidlin and his colleagues also performed wind tunnel tests on one-sixth scale models of a midsize sedan and a minivan (Schmidlin et al., 2002). The tests indicated that it would take winds around 115-130 mph to tip the sedan (depending on wind direction) and a little stronger to tip the minivan. These findings are very consistent with those of the site-survey research, indicating that it takes much stronger winds to tip an automobile than to tip or blow apart a mobile home. It has also been pointed out by Schmidlin (2002) and by Bernner and Noji (1993) that there is no research evidence establishing that outdoor locations such as ditches are safer than vehicles, and multiple studies of tornadoes in which it was found that people who stayed in their vehicles fared better than those who tried to take shelter outside. In the Marion, IL tornado of 1982, DuClos and Ing (1989) found that people who tried to drive to safety were less likely to be injured than people who took shelter outside, and that nobody was injured in a vehicle even in a few instances in which the vehicle was overturned by the tornado. Carter, Millson, and Allen (1989) also found in the Barrie, Ontario tornado of 1985 that people who remained in vehicles were less likely to be injured than people who took shelter outdoors. Two studies of the devastating tornadoes in Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 also produced similar findings. Daley et al. (2005) found that people in vehicles were less likely to be injured or killed than persons who were either outdoors or in mobile homes. Additionally, Hammer Farley: Tornado Warnings 5 and Schmidlin (2002) found that people who left their homes to drive out of the path of the tornado fared better than even people who remained in their homes. This finding may be tied to 1) the lack of basements in most homes in that area and 2) the long lead time (30 minutes) between the warning and the time the tornado struck. Additionally, there are multiple documented cases in recent years in which people have followed the recommendation to abandon their vehicles and get in the ditch and have been killed as a result, either by their own vehicle or other objects. On February 16, 2001, a woman saw a tornado near Goodman, Mississippi and abandoned her car. The tornado, which was rated F2, rolled her car over onto her, causing her death (National Weather Service Storm Prediction Center, 2004). In 1999, a woman and a fifteen year old girl were killed near Logan, Iowa when they took shelter in a ditch, and their abandoned car and a 3-ton soybean head from a combine were blown on top of them by an F3 tornado (National Climatic Data Center, 2000, p.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Severe Storms in the Midwest
    Informational/Education Material 2006-06 Illinois State Water Survey SEVERE STORMS IN THE MIDWEST Stanley A. Changnon Kenneth E. Kunkel SEVERE STORMS IN THE MIDWEST By Stanley A. Changnon and Kenneth E. Kunkel Midwestern Regional Climate Center Illinois State Water Survey Champaign, IL Illinois State Water Survey Report I/EM 2006-06 i This report was printed on recycled and recyclable papers ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract........................................................................................................................................... v Chapter 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1 Chapter 2. Thunderstorms and Lightning ...................................................................................... 7 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 7 Causes ................................................................................................................................. 8 Temporal and Spatial Distributions .................................................................................. 12 Impacts.............................................................................................................................. 13 Lightning........................................................................................................................... 14 References .......................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Tornadoes in the Gulf Coast States
    4.2 COOL SEASON SIGNIFICANT (F2-F5) TORNADOES IN THE GULF COAST STATES Jared L. Guyer and David A. Imy NOAA/NWS Storm Prediction Center, Norman, Oklahoma Amanda Kis University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin Kar’retta Venable Jackson State University, Jackson, Mississippi 1. INTRODUCTION Tornadoes pose a significant severe weather 300 mb winds and geopotential heights; 500 mb winds, threat during the cool season in the Gulf Coast states. geopotential heights, temperature, and absolute Galway and Pearson (1981) found that 68% of all vorticity; 700 mb winds, geopotential heights, and December through February tornadoes in the United temperature; 850 mb winds, geopotential heights, and States occur in the Gulf Coast/Southeast states. They temperature; precipitable water, surface temperature also noted that long track tornadoes in winter outbreaks and dewpoint, and MSLP; 0-3 km AGL helicity; and accounted for a higher percentage of deaths compared lowest 180 mb Most Unstable CAPE (MUCAPE). Aside to long track spring outbreak tornadoes. While strong from direct utilization for this study, the NARR maps wind fields are often present in association with dynamic were also compiled and organized to serve as an shortwave troughs that impact the region, uncertainty analog reference for operational forecasters. regarding low-level moisture and atmospheric instability can make forecasting such events quite challenging for operational forecasters (Vescio and Thompson 1993). The purpose of this study is to help identify a set of patterns, parameters, and conditions that are commonly associated with the development of cool season tornadoes in the Gulf Coast States, with a focus on significant (F2 and greater) tornadoes.
    [Show full text]
  • Unusually Devastating Tornadoes in the United States: 1995–2016
    Unusually devastating tornadoes in the United States: 1995–2016 Tyler Fricker ∗, James B. Elsner 1 Florida State University ∗ 2 Corresponding author address: Tyler Fricker, Florida State University, Department of Geography, 3 Florida State University, 113 Collegiate Loop, Tallahassee, FL 32306. 4 E-mail: [email protected] Generated using v4.3.2 of the AMS LATEX template 1 ABSTRACT 5 Previous research has identified a number of physical, socioeconomic, and 6 demographic factors related to tornado casualty rates. However, there remains 7 gaps in our understanding of community-level vulnerabilities to tornadoes. 8 Here a framework for systematically identifying the most unusually devastat- 9 ing tornadoes, defined as those where the observed number of casualties far 10 exceeds the predicted number, is provided. Results show that unusually dev- 11 astating tornadoes occur anywhere tornadoes occur in the United States, but 12 rural areas across the Southeast appear to be most frequented. Five examples 13 of unusually devastating tornadoes impacting four communities are examined 14 in more detail. In addition, results highlight that cities and towns impacted 15 by unusually devastating tornadoes have their own socioeconomic and de- 16 mographic profiles. Identifying geographic clusters of unusually devastating 17 tornadoes builds a foundation to address community-level causes of destruc- 18 tion that supports ethnographic and qualitative—in addition to quantitative— 19 studies of place-based vulnerability. 2 1. Introduction Tornadoes are one of the deadliest weather-related hazards in the United States. Wind energy and population density explain a large portion of tornado casualty rates (Ashley et al. 2014; Ashley and Strader 2016; Fricker et al.
    [Show full text]
  • Killer Tornado Guide (1950-2020) for North Central and Northeast Wisconsin
    KILLER TORNADO GUIDE (1950-2020) FOR NORTH CENTRAL AND NORTHEAST WISCONSIN Updated: 2/1/21 1 KILLER TORNADO GUIDE (1950-2020) FOR NORTH CENTRAL AND NORTHEAST WISCONSIN BROWN MENOMINEE CALUMET OCONTO DOOR ONEIDA FOREST OUTAGAMIE FLORENCE PORTAGE KEWAUNEE SHAWANO LANGLADE VILAS LINCOLN WAUPACA MANITOWOC WAUSHARA MARATHON WINNEBAGO MARINETTE WOOD 2 TORNADO REFERENCE GUIDE – KILLER TORNADOES DATE Time Deadly Tornadoes in GRB Service Area Deaths Month Day Year (CST) Start / End Location County or Counties 2 6 25 1950 21:00 1 W Woodboro - 5 NE Rhinelander Oneida 6 9 26 1951 15:45-1608 9 SSW Amherst - 2 SW Bear Creek Portage, Waupaca 2 4 3 1956 12:50 3 S Bancroft - 2 NW Amherst Portage 2 8 19 1968 16:10 3 SW Pound - Marinette Marinette 1 8 9 1979 18:20 Rockland Beach Calumet 1 4 27 1984 14:37-15:07 Fawn Lake - Star Lake Oneida, Vilas 1 4 27 1984 15:20-15:40 1 NE Winneconne - Freedom Winnebago, Outagamie 2 6 8 1985 18:15-18:32 Park Falls - 3 SE Monico Oneida 1 8 29 1992 19:10-19:55 1 N Wautoma - 3 SE Poy Sippi Waushara 1 8 19 2011 15:45-15:56 2.9 NW - 5.2 ESE Wausaukee Marinette 2 DEATHS: June 25, 1950 The EF4 tornado touched down one mile west of Woodboro in Oneida County around 9 PM CST and traveled 13.1 miles to five miles northeast of Rhinelander. The tornado reached a maximum width of 880 yards. Two deaths were reported in Oneida County. 6 DEATHS: September 26, 1951 The EF4 tornado developed 9 miles south southwest of Amherst in Portage County around 3:45 PM CST.
    [Show full text]
  • Climate Disasters in Michigan Tl/Dr
    CLIMATE DISASTERS IN MICHIGAN With Trump gutting FEMA and fighting with state governments, what is in store for the rest of 2020 for Michigan? TL/DR: Trump has failed to prepare us for disasters caused by climate change. What does this mean for Michigan? • In Michigan, increases in precipitation due to climate change are driving extreme flooding costing Michiganders billions of dollars. o Due to projections that the lakes surrounding Michigan will remain inches above their average level through the end of 2020, and precipitation will remain heavier than average, it is expected that water levels will continue to overwhelm Michigan infrastructure that was built for different conditions. o From 2009 through 2019, Michigan experienced 3 flood events that caused a total of $12 billion in damages and resulted in 5 deaths. o This May, historic flooding overwhelmed Midland, Michigan, . Parts of lower Michigan received 7 inches of rain . Floodwaters caused two dams to fail . 10,000 residents in Midland County were forced to evacuate . A Dow Chemical superfund site is at risk of spilling toxic chemicals, though it’s too soon to assess the damage • In addition to flooding, Michiganders face severe winter storm events due to climate change: o Severe storms have been linked to climate change, as hotter air carries more moisture, leading to more frequent and more intense storms. o The National Weather Service predicts higher than average precipitation in Michigan this summer, and U Mich scientists predict climate change will increase the intensity and area affected by lake-effect snow. o Since 2009, Michigan has experienced 9 severe storm events, causing $15.4 billion in damages and resulted in 67 deaths • In Michigan, climate change is also spurring an increase in drought conditions: o Michigan is projected to experience higher than average temperatures through the end of 2020.
    [Show full text]
  • 2. 6 Public Warning Response Following Tornadoes in New Orleans, La, and Springfield, Mo: a Sociological Analysis
    2. 6 PUBLIC WARNING RESPONSE FOLLOWING TORNADOES IN NEW ORLEANS, LA, AND SPRINGFIELD, MO: A SOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS William R. Donner*, Havidan Rodriguez*, and Walter Diaz** *Disaster Research Center (DRC), University of Delaware, Newark, DE **Center for Applied Social Research (CISA) University of Puerto Rico-Mayagüez ABSTRACT 1 This study examines public response to tornado that a meteorological approach to public safety warnings through an application of the could be greatly augmented through the framework laid out by Mileti and colleagues incorporation of social science methods and (2000). A qualitative approach was adopted to data. For instance, paying greater attention to supplement our knowledge of public warning how cultural myths about tornado threats shape response with detailed descriptions of how risk communication could improve the individuals interpret and react to risk information. effectiveness of watches and warnings. Following tornado outbreaks, data were collected from individuals in regions surrounding 1. INTRODUCTION New Orleans, LA, and Springfield, MO, using in- depth interview guides. As each region is We possess few empirical records characterized by significant diversity, documenting how socio-cultural factors affect researchers developed a purposive sampling public response to tornado threats (Donner strategy to ensure the collection of 2006; Mitchem 2003; Balluz et al 2000; Aguirre representative data. Interviewees (n=40) were 1988; Legates and Biddle 1999, Schmidlin and asked about how they received, interpreted, and King 1998). Partly to address this problem, responded to warning information. Researchers qualitative data were collected using in-depth then used content analysis to analyze these interviews with respondents in New Orleans and data in order to evaluate and supplement Mileti's southwestern Mississippi following tornado model.
    [Show full text]
  • Tornado Basics
    TORNADO BASICS NOAA/National Weather Service Tornado FAQ What is a tornado? According to the Glossary of Meteorology (AMS 2000), a tornado is "a violently rotating column of air, pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud, and often (but not always) visible as a funnel cloud." Literally, in order for a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with the ground and the cloud base. Weather scientists haven't found it so simple in practice, however, to classify and define tornadoes. For example, the difference is unclear between an strong mesocyclone (parent thunderstorm circulation) on the ground, and a large, weak tornado. There is also disagreement as to whether separate touchdowns of the same funnel constitute separate tornadoes. It is well- known that a tornado may not have a visible funnel. Also, at what wind speed of the cloud-to-ground vortex does a tornado begin? How close must two or more different tornadic circulations become to qualify as a one multiple-vortex tornado, instead of separate tornadoes? There are no firm answers. BACK UP TO THE TOP How do tornadoes form? The classic answer -- "warm moist Gulf air meets cold Canadian air and dry air from the Rockies" -- is a gross oversimplification. Many thunderstorms form under those conditions (near warm fronts, cold fronts and drylines respectively), which never even come close to producing tornadoes. Even when the large-scale environment is extremely favorable for tornadic thunderstorms, as in an SPC "High Risk" outlook, not every thunderstorm spawns a tornado. The truth is that we don't fully understand.
    [Show full text]
  • A Guide to F-Scale Damage Assessment
    A Guide to F-Scale Damage Assessment U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Weather Service Silver Spring, Maryland Cover Photo: Damage from the violent tornado that struck the Oklahoma City, Oklahoma metropolitan area on 3 May 1999 (Federal Emergency Management Agency [FEMA] photograph by C. Doswell) NOTE: All images identified in this work as being copyrighted (with the copyright symbol “©”) are not to be reproduced in any form whatsoever without the expressed consent of the copyright holders. Federal Law provides copyright protection of these images. A Guide to F-Scale Damage Assessment April 2003 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE Donald L. Evans, Secretary National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Vice Admiral Conrad C. Lautenbacher, Jr., Administrator National Weather Service John J. Kelly, Jr., Assistant Administrator Preface Recent tornado events have highlighted the need for a definitive F-scale assessment guide to assist our field personnel in conducting reliable post-storm damage assessments and determine the magnitude of extreme wind events. This guide has been prepared as a contribution to our ongoing effort to improve our personnel’s training in post-storm damage assessment techniques. My gratitude is expressed to Dr. Charles A. Doswell III (President, Doswell Scientific Consulting) who served as the main author in preparing this document. Special thanks are also awarded to Dr. Greg Forbes (Severe Weather Expert, The Weather Channel), Tim Marshall (Engineer/ Meteorologist, Haag Engineering Co.), Bill Bunting (Meteorologist-In-Charge, NWS Dallas/Fort Worth, TX), Brian Smith (Warning Coordination Meteorologist, NWS Omaha, NE), Don Burgess (Meteorologist, National Severe Storms Laboratory), and Stephan C.
    [Show full text]
  • + Emergency Preparedness
    ARCHIVED - Archiving Content ARCHIVÉE - Contenu archivé Archived Content Contenu archivé Information identified as archived is provided for L’information dont il est indiqué qu’elle est archivée reference, research or recordkeeping purposes. It est fournie à des fins de référence, de recherche is not subject to the Government of Canada Web ou de tenue de documents. Elle n’est pas Standards and has not been altered or updated assujettie aux normes Web du gouvernement du since it was archived. Please contact us to request Canada et elle n’a pas été modifiée ou mise à jour a format other than those available. depuis son archivage. Pour obtenir cette information dans un autre format, veuillez communiquer avec nous. This document is archival in nature and is intended Le présent document a une valeur archivistique et for those who wish to consult archival documents fait partie des documents d’archives rendus made available from the collection of Public Safety disponibles par Sécurité publique Canada à ceux Canada. qui souhaitent consulter ces documents issus de sa collection. Some of these documents are available in only one official language. Translation, to be provided Certains de ces documents ne sont disponibles by Public Safety Canada, is available upon que dans une langue officielle. Sécurité publique request. Canada fournira une traduction sur demande. Emergency Preparedness Protection civile • + Canada Canada FEDERAL/PROVINCIAL CONFERENCE OF SENIOR OFFICIALS ON EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS Lac Beauport, Quebec February 12-13, 1987 Supplement to summary record of proceedings Canadà1 (Version fran%aise au verso) FEDERAL/PROVINCIAL CONFERENCE OF SENIOR OFFICIALS ON EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS Lac Beauport, Quebec February 12-13,1987 Supplement to summary record of proceedings Provincial activity reports, 1986-87 • ••„ FR,93°/24--c9 / jAN 22 Igg';' 0 4,'<a It CONTENTS Introduction iii British Columbia 1 Alberta 14 Northwest Territories 21 Manitoba 26 .
    [Show full text]
  • U.S. Billion-Dollar Weather & Climate Disasters 1980-2021
    U.S. Billion-Dollar Weather & Climate Disasters 1980-2021 https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/billions/ The U.S. has sustained 298 weather and climate disasters since 1980 in which overall damages/costs reached or exceeded $1 billion. Values in parentheses represent the 2021 Consumer Price Index cost adjusted value (if different than original value). The total cost of these 298 events exceeds $1.975 trillion. Drought Flooding Freeze Severe Storm Tropical Cyclone Wildfire Winter Storm 2021 Western Drought and Heatwave - June 2021: Western drought expands and intensifies across many western states. A historic heat wave developed for many days across the Pacific Northwest shattering numerous all-time high temperature records across the region. This prolonged heat dome was maximized over the states of Oregon and Washington and also extended well into Canada. These extreme temperatures impacted several major cities and millions of people. For example, Portland reached a high of 116 degrees F while Seattle reached 108 degrees F. The count for heat-related fatalities is still preliminary and will likely rise further. This combined drought and heat is rapidly drying out vegetation across the West, impacting agriculture and contributing to increased Western wildfire potential and severity. Total Estimated Costs: TBD; 138 Deaths Louisiana Flooding and Central Severe Weather - May 2021: Torrential rainfall from thunderstorms across coastal Texas and Louisiana caused widespread flooding and resulted in hundreds of water rescues. Baton Rouge and Lake Charles experienced flood damage to thousands of homes, vehicles and businesses, as more than 12 inches of rain fell. Lake Charles also continues to recover from the widespread damage caused by Hurricanes Laura and Delta less than 9 months before this flood event.
    [Show full text]
  • TORNADOES in EUROPE an Underestimated Threat
    TORNADOES IN EUROPE An Underestimated Threat BOGDAN ANTONESCU, DAVID M. SCHULTZ, ALOIS HOLZER, AND PIETER GROENEMEIJER The threat of tornadoes in Europe is not widely recognized, despite causing injuries, fatalities, and damages. here was a time when tornado research in Europe situation that persists today despite the interest in was more active than in the United States. recent years on tornadoes in Europe (e.g., Dotzek T Before the beginning of the Second World 2003; Groenemeijer and Kühne 2014). Thus, it is often War, European scientists and meteorologists were assumed by the general public, and even by meteo- actively researching tornadoes (e.g., Peltier 1840; rologists and researchers, that tornadoes do not occur Reye 1872; Weyher 1889; Wegener 1917; Letzmann in Europe or, if they do occur, they are less frequent 1931), while the word “tornado” was banned by the and less intense than those in the United States. For United States Weather Bureau (Galway 1992). This example, in 2015, 206 tornadoes were reported in situation changed after 1950, driven by the tornado Europe versus 1,177 tornadoes in the United States. forecasting advances of Miller and Fawbush (e.g., The lower number of tornadoes in Europe is likely Grice et al. 1999). The interest in European tornadoes the reason why tornadoes are not a well-established declined after 1950, with the majority of the efforts subject of research in Europe and are not a prior- of collecting tornado reports occurring outside the ity for European meteorological services (Rauhala national meteorological services (Antonescu et al. and Schultz 2009; Groenemeijer and Kühne 2014), 2016).
    [Show full text]
  • Archived Content Contenu Archivé
    ARCHIVED - Archiving Content ARCHIVÉE - Contenu archivé Archived Content Contenu archivé Information identified as archived is provided for L’information dont il est indiqué qu’elle est archivée reference, research or recordkeeping purposes. It est fournie à des fins de référence, de recherche is not subject to the Government of Canada Web ou de tenue de documents. Elle n’est pas Standards and has not been altered or updated assujettie aux normes Web du gouvernement du since it was archived. Please contact us to request Canada et elle n’a pas été modifiée ou mise à jour a format other than those available. depuis son archivage. Pour obtenir cette information dans un autre format, veuillez communiquer avec nous. This document is archival in nature and is intended Le présent document a une valeur archivistique et for those who wish to consult archival documents fait partie des documents d’archives rendus made available from the collection of Public Safety disponibles par Sécurité publique Canada à ceux Canada. qui souhaitent consulter ces documents issus de sa collection. Some of these documents are available in only one official language. Translation, to be provided Certains de ces documents ne sont disponibles by Public Safety Canada, is available upon que dans une langue officielle. Sécurité publique request. Canada fournira une traduction sur demande. 1 COPING WITH NATURAL HAZARDS IN CANADA: I SCIENTIFIC, GOVERNMENT AND INSURANCE I INDUSTRY PERSPECTIVES A study written for the Round Table on Environmental Risk, I Natural Hazards and the Insurance Industry I I by Environmental Adaptation Research Group, Environment Canada and I Institute for Environmental Studies, University of Toronto Sraren E.
    [Show full text]