1 impact on crop production in : Role of 2 energy in climate change 3 4 Tulsi Ram Bhual1, Sutinee Sinutok2, Saroj Gyawali3 5 6 1 Faculty of Environmental Management, Prince of Songkla University,Hatai, Songkhla 7 90110,Thailand 8 2Coastal Oceanography and Climate Change Research Center,Prince of Songkhla Universit, 9 Songkhla, Thailand, 90110 10 3 Sustainable Studies and Research Institute, Kathmandu 16, Nepal 11 12 Abstract 13 14 Climate change is raising a problem globally and Nepal is one of the most vulnerable 15 countries. In Nepal, approximately 80 per cent of population lives in rural areas and their main 16 source of income is . Crop production in Nepal highly depends on monsoonal rainfall 17 due to which climate is a major factor. Use high volume of fossil fuels and other nonrenewable 18 energies during this world development process and fulfillment of the minimum daily 19 requirement of every single person is responsible for GHGs (Greenhouse Gases) emission in this 20 globe. IPCC (The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) declared that the Nepal is not 21 responsible for high rate of emission even though it has been facing the problem of climate 22 change in agriculture and tourism sectors. Direct and indirect impact of climate change on crop 23 production is a serious challenge for Nepali farmers however, the government of Nepal and other 24 nongovernment organizations are aware with such problem and they seems finding the best 25 possible solutions for address them. This paper reviews the causes, effects and solutions of 26 climate change on crop production in Nepal. The main concern of this review study is to find out 27 the present and potential impact of climate change on crop production and use of energy as a 28 climate change solutions. 29 30 Keywords: Nepal, Agriculture, Crop Production, Climate Change and Greenhouse Gases.1 31

1 Corresponding author: Tulsi Ram Bhusal, Tel: +9779857063446 E-mail address: [email protected] / [email protected]

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32 INTRODUCTION 33 34 Nepal is a highly vulnerable to climate change amongst the south Asian countries and it comes 35 fourth most vulnerable in the world (Sapkota et al. 2016). Direct impact of climate change has 36 been seen in Nepal because of majority of people are depend on natural resources such as 37 agriculture for their livelihood (Thapa et al. 2015). Crop production is a foremost climate 38 sensitive sector (Kiprutto et al. 2015). Therefore, Climate is an important factor for both 39 quantity (high yield) and quality (healthy) of production (Agba et al. 2017). Thapa et al (2015) 40 further revealed that around 50 per cent of Nepal GDP is from environmental income i.e., 41 agriculture, and fishery. More than 60 per cent of the cultivated area in Nepal is entirely 42 reliant on monsoonal rainfall (CBS 2018). system in Nepal is not fully equipped in 43 most of the land even though several plans are on its constructing way (MOE, resources 44 and Irrigation-reports white paper 2020). 45 46 Climate, agriculture and energy are the three different terms. However, these are the co-related 47 each other in nature and changes in any among them can impact on others directly (FAO 2019). 48 Agriculture production process like tillage, burning agriculture residue in the farm, using high 49 volume of chemical fertilizers and some machinery tools specially operated by fossil fuels (oil, 50 coal and gas) are responsible for greenhouse gases emissions in environment which in turn leads 51 to climate change (Kiprutto et al. 2015). Agriculture is one of the a most climate sensitive 52 sectors. From seed sowing until harvesting, the climatic condition plays a vital role. Crop plants 53 are required a favourable temperature, moisture, and air to accomplish physiological activities 54 and for absorption of water and nutrients from (ALJWWFSL 2018). Plant can complete the 55 photosynthesis process only in the presence of sunlight. Photosynthesis process in plant is the 56 formation of carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water in the presence of chlorophyll and 57 sunlight (Pandey et al. 2002). Thus, sunny days during the flowering and grain feeling stage of 58 plant is very important for better production (Allen 2008), if not so, the crop production rate may 59 decrease and decreasing the production is a challenge for food security and supply globally 60 (Islam et al. 2019). 61 62 Energy is required to fulfil all the basic needs (cooking, lighting, heating, communication and 63 mobility) of human being. Around 80 per cent of current energy consumption for global 64 economics is from fossil fuels and utilization of this much is responsible for up to 56.6 65 per cent of all GHGs ((Green House Gases) emissions (Moomaw et al. 2012). If the consumption 66 ratio of fossil fuels instead of continues to increase at this rate, climate change 67 will continue to have a more negative impact; as a result, the natural disasters i.e., long

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68 conditions, erratic rainfall, flooding, landslides, , increasing some infectious diseases, 69 harmful insects and unwanted weeds in agriculture firm may also increase at the same rate. 70 71 The objectives of this review paper are review the previous studies conducted by various 72 researchers in climate change and its impact on crop production in Nepal and find out possible 73 area for further research. 74 75 CLIMATE AND FACTORS EFFECTING CLIMATE CHANGE 76 77 Climate is historically defined as the description in terms of imply and variability of applicable 78 atmospheric variable such as temperature, precipitation and wind. Climate can for this reason be 79 viewed as a synthesis or aggregate of weather (Goosse et al. 2010). 80 81 There are several reasons responsible for climate change. Among them, increasing the

82 concentration of greenhouse gases like CO2, N2O and CH4 in our atmosphere are mostly 83 contribute to climate variability (Sodangi et al. 2012). Basically, GHGs are trapped the sun’s 84 heat in earth surface which in turn lead to change the climate. Increasing GHGs in our 85 environment is associated with some economic activities operated by fossil fuels such as; 86 transportation, production companies and some agricultural activities including tillage, crop 87 rotation and deforestation itself also emission GHGs in atmosphere and its account for

88 approximately one-third of total global emissions (World Research Institute 2008). N2O and

89 CH4 are primarily largest emission as a non CO2 gas in agriculture sector. While high volume of

90 CO2 fluxes also generated due to photosynthesis and respiration, these are about adjusted on 91 existing agrarian land. Land conversion for different purpose such as deforestation for crop 92 cultivation and building of shelter, some manufacturing activities for farming equipments, use of 93 fuels for farming, use high volume of chemical fertilizers and insecticides are significantly 94 release the carbon. Hence, emanation from agribusiness comes from four vital segments: 95 agricultural soil, and bio fertilizers management, crop cultivation such as rice 96 production and burning of agrarian buildups and savanna for arrive clearing. 97

98 Nitrous oxide (N2O) is the biggest source of GHG emission from agricultural activities and

99 account for up to 38 per cent of the add up to worldwide share (Rosenzweig et al. 1995). N2O is 100 created in soil through the method of nitrification and denitrification where, favorable 101 temperature leads to faster bacteria activities for these processes. Activities in farming may 102 include nitrogen to the soil either specially or in a roundabout way. Coordinate increase happen 103 through use of nitrogenous fertilizers in farm, application of overseen animal manner and sewage 104 slime, cultivation of nitrogen fixing crops and scrounges, maintenance of edit buildups and

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105 development of soil with high natural matter substance. Indirect additions happen through 106 volatilization and consequently air testimony of connected nitrogen as well as through surface run 107 off and filtering of connected nitrogen into ground and surface water (USEPA 2006). These

108 processes have possibilities to increase of N2O emission and contribute to climate change. 109 110 Figure 1: 111 112 Some animals specially cattle and sheep produce methane gas during their naturally food 113 digestive system account for the majority of methane generation in this category and it is the

114 moment largest (second) sources of total emission of CH2 from livestock with a 34 per cent 115 worldwide share (Mark et al. 2008). Furthermore, green manure management which 116 incorporates the taking care of, capacity and treatment of excrement of agrarian emanation. 117 Methane gas is produced during the anaerobic breakdown of green manure whereas nitrous oxide 118 comes about from dealing with manure vigorously (nitrification and after that an-aerobically

119 (denitrification) in this way contribution to the worldwide buildup of CH4 and N2O. 120 121 CLIMATIC VARIATION IN NEPAL 122 123 According to Nayava (1974), the seasons in Nepal has been categorized in to four parts: 124 Winter Season (December to February): In Nepal, winter season is start from December and 125 finish in February. Normally, during this season, weather condition becomes dry and cold with 126 sunny in hilly areas but seems gloomy around some terai reason. During this season, slightly rain 127 does happen in most of the part in the country in association with the western disturbance which 128 have their beginning within the Mediterranean. The winter rain, most noteworthy within the 129 northwest local diminishes in sum in both southward and eastbound heading. At higher height 130 rain falls as snow. Morning haze and ice are common in valleys and uneven zones. The least 131 temperature comes to either in December or January (NHMRCC 2015). 132 133 Spring season or Pre (March to May): This season is also called pre-monsoon 134 season. In between March to May, the country experiences the pre-monsoon thunder shower 135 moment related with warm convection due to expending insolation combined with the orographic 136 impact. A periodic hailstorm too happens amid these months. The pre-monsoon precipitation 137 frequently active in hilly reason rather than the southern part of terai region. Day time 138 temperature in the southern terai region reaches beyond 40°C during this season (NHMRCC 139 2015). 140

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141 Summer season or Monsoon (June to July): It is also called rainy season. In Nepal, the 142 monsoon is start from mid of June and reaches in its full form in July. This season having mush 143 value for farmers because of monsoon is the main sources of water for farming in the various part 144 of the country. Generally, monsoon is start from the eastern part and slowly extends to western 145 and all over the country. During this season, recording of precipitation range is about 150 mm to 146 5000 mm per year. There are 80 to 90 per cent of the total precipitation falls in this season 147 (Nayava 1974). Most of the precipitation happens amid the night. , landslides and soil 148 erosion during this period are the most common weather-related natural disaster in the country. 149 150 Autumn season or Post-monsoon (October to November): During this season, few spells of 151 precipitation as a post-monsoon receives in the country. Normally, November is the driest month 152 with clear sky and vision. This season is best suited for Nepali farmers to cultivate wheat, barley, 153 mustered and green vegetables. In addition, due to clear visibility of the , most of the 154 tourists are attracted during this season (NHMRCC 2015). 155 156 AGRICULTURE PRECTICES IN NEPAL 157 158 Nepal is an agricultural country where around 66 per cent people are straight forwardly 159 involved in agriculture farming (FAO 2016). However, the average productivity of the crop 160 production is comparatively low due to various factors such as; traditional agriculture system, 161 lack of irrigation facility, harmful insects, pest, diseases and unfavorably changes of climatic 162 conditions (Gauchan 2018). The variable of crop productivity due to climate change may have 163 critical impact on individual on agriculture sector, especially the destitute and small land holders 164 (Thapa et al. 2015). The total available cultivated land area in Nepal is 2.97 million hectares, out 165 of which, current utilized cultivated area is approximately 1.5 million hectares. Around 75 per 166 cent of landholders having small size of land like less than 1 hectare which means the majority of 167 farmers have small size of farmland. (CBS 2018). 168 169 There are different types of crops are cultivated in Nepal on the basis of climatic zone 170 variability (called agro-ecological belt). Mainly in terai region, rice and wheat are the main cereal 171 crops while Maize and finger millet along with some cash crops i.e., potato, legumes and some 172 seasonal vegetables are cultivated in the hilly and even in mountain region (Thapa et al. 2018). 173 However, scientific agriculture production practices are yet to occur in a tangible way. 174 Policymakers and agriculture expert in the country says that the major limitations in agricultural 175 commercialization is counting low productivity which is infrastructure and tall reliance on 176 climate. Thapa (2018) further revealed that the nation has place to the monsoon zone, the major 177 staple crops are cultivated in this season. Hence the degree of precipitation contains a critical

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178 affect on productivity in Nepal. In a nation where rainfed generation framework rules, it is 179 conceivable to assess the affect of climate change on crop production. 180 181 CLIMATE CHANGE, AGRICULTURE AND FOOD SECURITY 182 183 Especially in some developing countries where the people are depending in natural resources 184 for their livelihood, climate is an important factor. In Nepal, the majority of population lives in 185 village and their main source of income is agriculture. Most of the farmers are depend on 186 monsoonal rainfall for crop cultivation due to not fully equipped irrigation facility in cultivated 187 farm (Mendelsohn et al. 2006; Pearce et al. 1996; Thapa et al. 2015; Tol 2002). 188 189 Climate change impact on crop production can have both positive and negative. According to 190 the report (5 AR5) of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the negative impact of 191 climate change is more common rather than positive impact in crop production globally 192 (Bocchiola 2017; IPCC 2013). Sometimes the rising temperature up to certain point and CO2 193 emission may becomes helpful to higher production of some major crops. Plant Physiological 194 activities such as photosynthesis in the presence of sun light in plant may help increase the water 195 use efficiency, shortening physiological period and beneficial microbial activities in soil which in 196 turn leads to increase the production and these factors are comparatively seems more active

197 during long sunny days (Malla 2008). Malla further pointed out that the Increment of CO2

198 concentration in climate may have promoted the plant growth and if the concentration of CO2 is 199 double, the total productivity could be increase by up to 40 per cent. The increment of total 200 production means the food security and supply would be easier. 201 202 According to Lone and Singh (2017), they have experimentally proved that the single leaf

203 photosynthesis rate increases with expanded CO2 level. When this experiment was expanded to

204 crop levels, they have found that expanded of CO2 up to 600 ppm the number of tillers and 205 branches were also expanded. Therefore, greater sun-oriented radiation is interferences and

206 coming about almost 25 per cent increment of CO2 diminished transpiration due to diminished 207 stomata aperture and there might be result in higher water-use efficiency (WUE) (Bhusal 2019). 208 209 Similarly, Cloudiness and gloomy weather during the grain feeling stage of the crop plant may 210 significantly decrease the productivity. Unfavorable climatic condition may have the negative 211 effect on respiratory systems of the plant as well as increasing harmful pathogens such as; 212 bacteria, virus and fungus are also the negative factors for the crop production. In addition, 213 increment of soil erosion and evapo-transpiration in the country due to uncertainty of climatic

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214 conditions is reducing the protein and other mineral supplements substance in major crops 215 production which are negative impacts for human . (Pathak et al. 2003; Malla 2008). 216 In the context of Nepal, crop production has reduced by 12.5 per cent on national basis due to 217 rain deficit by early monsoon in eastern terai region in the year 2005/06. Approximately 10 per 218 cent of cultivated land was clear out decrepit due to rain deficit but mid-western terai region 219 confronted overwhelming rainfall with floods, which reduced the crop production by 30 per cent 220 in the year (Bhusal 2019; Regmi 2007). Unfavorable impact of climate change seem lead to the 221 termination of some inborn crop varieties such as several aromatic rice assortments including 222 Basmati Rice and some local varieties of wheat, maize and other agrarian crops as well (Poudel 223 2012). 224 225 According to the report of Nepal Agriculture Research Council (NARC 2010), a serious winter 226 cold wave in Nepal in 1998 had negative impacts on agrarian efficiency and showed a tall rate of 227 surrender lessening for potato (27.8%), leaf mustard seed (11.2%), lentil (37.6%), and chickpea 228 (38%). Decreasing of the production due to climatic condition is a big challenge for food security 229 and supply for every single person. These kinds of reports have been alerted that the decrease of 230 production rate might impact on rapid growing population around the world. IPCC (3013) has 231 been warned that 5 to 200 million of additional people will be at risk of hunger by 2100. 232 233 CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION PREACTCES IN NEPAL 234 235 Climate change is an emerging global phenomenon and it is a challenge of the 21st century. 236 Most of the developing countries are failure to cope with such problem as they have lacking the 237 adaptive capacity (Agba et al. 2017). It also may be the major challenge for Nepal for adjustment 238 to climate change in farming and related sectors, because majority of farmers in the country still 239 depending on the climate-sensitive agriculture. For the adjustment to the climate change, 240 Government of Nepal has introduced an arrangement that is included within the administrative 241 system. The approach is “Climate Change Policy” which was introduced in March, 2011. As a 242 preparatory arrangement of climate change policy, Nepal has arranged its National Adaption 243 Program of Action (NAPA) for adapting to extraordinary climate events and inconstancy through 244 a board country driven consultative process which was shared with parties to the UNFCCC 245 (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) in November 2010 and moreover 246 arranged a National Framework for Local Adaption Plan for Action (LAPA) with the twin goals 247 of actualizing adaption activities and joining climate change into nearby development planning 248 and its implementation (MOE Nepal 2010). The LAPA system ensures that the method of 249 coordination of climate change versatility from local to national level arranging bottom-up,

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250 comprehensive, responsive and adaptable. It distinguishes local adaption needs that centers on 251 reducing local and vulnerabilities, and expanding versatility utilizing the seven steps. 252 253 Figure 2: 254 255 The main objective of climate change policy in Nepal was start of community based local 256 adaptation activities as mentioned in the National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA) through 257 managing monetary assets by 2011 which was started through the Nepal Climate Change Support 258 Program (NCCSP) in 2013 under which 70 LAPAS are as of now being executed and an 259 additional 30 are arranged. Likewise, few more programs are also in implementation such as 260 activities of ecosystem based adaptation and glacial lake upheaval projects (Lamsal et al. 2014). 261 The goal of climate change policy 2011 was to evaluate the losses and benefits from climate 262 change in different topographical zones and improvement. As an activity for this, one evaluation 263 was undertaken at the coordination with Government of Nepal which is targeted on farming, 264 hydro power, and water-induced disaster (Bhusal 2019). Likewise, the ideas of climate smart 265 crop production practices are also developed from the local level to adapt the climate change risk 266 and threaten of global warming. Effects of climate change mitigation are also under investigation 267 as well as few projects are started for this. 268 269 ROLE OF ENERGY IN CLIMATE CHANGE SOLUTIONS 270 271 Energy is a key element for economic growth and development all over the world. Without 272 energy, we cannot even think to run this natural life cycle. Every single person, society and the 273 whole world is using the energy in every steps of the life. Therefore, energy is a most important 274 factor to survive the whole planet (FAO 2019). In the process of using energy for this global 275 development process, some human activities are contributed to increase the concentration of 276 greenhouse gases (GHGs) in our atmosphere. Be that as it may be, 85 per cent of current essential 277 energy for driving of this worldwide economy is from the combustion of fossil fuels. Utilization 278 of this much fossil fuel is responsible for up to 56.6 per cent of all anthropogenic GHG emission 279 (Moomaw et al. 2012). Since anthropogenic GHGs collect within the environment, they deliver 280 net warming by reinforcing the natural . Particularly, production of energy and 281 its consumption have different environmental implications, one of which is climate change. 282 283 Increasing the concentration of GHGs at atmosphere is a sincere problem that might be

284 imbalance the ecological system in the planet. Some GHGs i.e. CO2, N2O, SO2 are trapped the 285 sun heat on the earth surface which in turn lead to global warming (Ollila 2012). There are 286 different options for bringing down GHG emanations from the system of energy whereas still

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287 fulfilling the global requirement for energy services. According to IPCC (2000) report, Non 288 renewable energy is responsible for up to two-thirds of global GHGs emissions this means the 289 use of clean energy in every sector instead of fossil fuels is the way of climate change solution. 290 291 CONCLUSION 292 293 Nepal is one of the quite climate vulnerable country all over the world because of it’s highly 294 dependency on natural resources. Climate change challenges on crop production and necessity of 295 its adaptation process seems very important for Nepal, where most of the agriculture land 296 depends on monsoonal rainfall. 297 298 Approximately 65 per cent people are directly engaged in firming which is their main source of 299 income. Rice, maize, wheat, barley, sugarcane, potato and lentil are the major crops cultivate in 300 the different climatic zones; however, the various research studies shows that the total 301 productivity is comparatively low. Climate is primary important factor for crop production in the 302 country but changes on it have seen negative impact in several ways. 303 304 Various research studies have been conducted in this area, among them, most of the 305 researchers concluded that the main factors of climate change are greenhouse gases emission 306 through burning fossil fuels and agriculture practices. Priorities on renewable energy from every 307 sector instead of other nonrenewable and environment friendly agriculture practices might be one 308 of a important way emission rate. However, there are some climate change adaptation practices 309 already in applied through the government and other non government organization i.e., UN 310 (United Nations) and world bank in Nepal. 311 312 In Nepal, some migrant insects and other plant diseases have been appeared randomly as a 313 serious threatens for farmers. Some crop insects such as; American army worm (Spodoptera 314 frugiperda) and Locust (Schistocerca gregaria) effected in Paddy and maize crops are as 315 migrants and there have been very harmful for the crop production in Nepal. American army 316 worm is originally from America and Locust is normally complete their life cycle in desert area. 317 Due to climate change, such kinds of insects have been spreading over the country now a day. 318 319 Based on the careful study of various literatures, we can be said that there are many researches 320 on factors affecting climate change and its impact on crop production directly and indirectly. 321 Most of the researches have been focused on the direct impact of climate change on agriculture. 322 However, very rare investigations have been done on indirect impact (Insect, Pest, Disease and 323 Unwanted weeds) of climate change on crop production. There have been some researches

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324 especially in Australia, Europe, America, some African countries and some Asian countries but 325 this is not enough in the case of Nepal. A little studies and research have seen on this topic but it 326 is not sufficient. Therefore, in-depth research is necessary in a country like Nepal. 327 Barrueto et al (2017) conducted the research on climate change and their impact on agriculture 328 market in Nepal. In this research study, the researchers have researched on temperature, 329 precipitation, humidity and biological impact on fruit production like; orange, walnut, banana and 330 coffee as well as their market impact analyses in Baitadi, Nuwakot and Sindhuli district of the 331 country. During the research study, the researcher has followed the Beaureto approach and GIS 332 research model. Therefore, from the above research study, we hereby found that the geographical, 333 methodological and context research gap.

334 Arshad et al (2019) conducted the research on impact of climate change on various insects, 335 pests, diseases and unwanted weeds of wheat crop in central zone of Punjab, Pakistan in 2019. 336 Researchers have randomly surveyed the cultivated firms, identified the infected wheat plants 337 and, data collection from the farmers and statistical analysis has been conducted. There seems the 338 lack of methodological procedure in this research. Thus, from this research, we hereby found that 339 the geographical, methodological and context gap. 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359

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432 Lone, A.B. (2017). Climate change and its impact on crop productivity. British journal of applied 433 science and technology:1-15. 434 435 Malla, G. (2008). Climate change and its impact on Nepalese agriculture. The journal of 436 agriculture and environment, Review paper. Nepal. 437 438 Mark, W.S., Mandy, E., Grey, Y., Lan, B., Saleemun, H. and Rowena, V. (2008). Climate change 439 and agriculture: Treats and opportunities German (Germany) Technische Zusammenarbeit 440 (GTZ) gmbh, Deutsche Gesellsechafit fur. 441 442 Mendelsohn, R., Diana, A. and Willims, L. (2006). The distributional impact of climate change in 443 rich and poor countries. Environ dev econ 11:1-20. 444 445 Ministry of Environment (MOE). Government of Nepal (2010. National adaption of actions to 446 climate change, Kathmandu, Nepal. 447 448 Moomaw, W., Yamba, F.D., Kamimoto, M. and Maurice, L. (2012). Renewable energy and 449 climate change. Publisher; Cambridge university press. 450 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263353791_renewable_energy_andclimate_cha 451 nge 452 453 Nayava, J.L. (1974). The summer monsoon in Nepal and Southern . Unpublished M.Sc. 454 dissertation, Birmingham University, England, UK. 455 456 Nepal Agriculture Research Council. (2010). Annual reports 1987-1998. (2010). 457 458 Nepal Hydrological and Metrological Research Center and Consultancy p. Ltd. (2015): Study of 459 climate and climatic variation over Nepal. 460 461 Ollila, A. (2012). The Roles of greenhouse gases in global warming. Researchgate publication, 462 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273079885 463 464 Pandey, S.N. and Sinha, B.K. (2002). Plant physiology. Third revised edition. Vikash publishing 465 house Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi-110014. 466 467 Pathak, H. (2003). Climate potential and onfirm yield trends of rice and wheat in the indo 468 gangatic plains field crops. Re, 80:223-234.

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469 470 Poudel, M.N. (2012). Adaptation mechanisms in agriculture for climate change in Nepal. Hydro 471 Nepal, special issue (2012):82-85. 472 473 Regmi, H.R. (2007). Effect of unusual weather on cereal crops production and household food 474 security. The journal of agriculture and environment 8(2017):20-29. 475 476 Rosenzweig, R and Hillel, D. (1995). Potential impact of climate change on agriculture and food 477 supply. Consequences 1 (2), 1-25. 478 479 Sapkota, R., Rijal, K. (2016). Climate change and its impacts in Nepal. Researchgate publishing. 480 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319686998. 481 482 Sodangi, I.A, Izge, A.U and Maina, Y.T. (2012). Climate change: causes and effects on African 483 agriculture. Researchgate publication. Journal of environmental issues and agriculture in 484 development countries. 485 researchgate.net/publication/232186127_climate_changes_and_effects_on_african_agricu 486 lture. 487 488 Thapa, D., Subedi, Y.R. and Ojha, H. (2018). Climate adaptive agricultural innovation in Nepal: 489 Prospects and challenges. Intech Open publication. DOI:10.5772/intechopen.72371. 490 491 Thapa, S., Joshi, G.R. and Joshi, B. (2015). Impact if climate change on Nepali agriculture. Nepal 492 journal of agricultural economics, Researchgate publication. Vols. 2-3. 493 494 The Central Bureau of Statistics. (2018). National census of agriculture 2001/02. Central Bureau 495 of ststistics. Kathmandu. Government of Nepal. 496 497 Tol, R. (2002). Estimates of the damage costs of climate change, Part 1: benchmark estimates. 498 Environmental and resources economics 21:47-73 499 500 United States Environment Protection Agency. (2006). Global mitigation of non-CO2 greenhouse 501 gases. Office of the atmospheric programmers, Washington DC. 502 https://www.epa.gov/#:~:text=United%20States%20Environmental%20Protection%20Ag 503 ency. 504 505 World Research Institute. (2008). Climate analysis indicators toolkit.

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506 https://cait.wri.org 507 508 509

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510 Table 1. XXX.

511

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512 Figure Captions 513

514 515 Figure 1: Schematic view of the components of the climate system and of their potential 516 changes. 517 Source: IPCC (2007) using a modified legend, published in: Climate Change 2007: The Physical 518 Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the 519 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Cambridge University Press, copyright 520 IPCC 2007. 521

522 523 Figure. 2. LAPA Cycle. 524 Source: Ministry of Environment, Nepal. 525

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526 527 528 529 530 531 532 533 534 535 536 537 538 Fig. 1.

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