1 impact on crop production in : Role of 2 energy in climate change 3 4 Tulsi Ram Bhual1, Sutinee Sinutok1, Saroj Gyawali2 5 6 1 Faculty of Environmental Management, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla 90112,Thailand 7 2 Sustainable Study and Research Institute, Kathmandu 16, Nepal 8 9 Abstract 10 11 Climate change is raising a problem globally and Nepal is a most vulnerable country. In Nepal, 12 approximately 80 per cent of population lives in rural areas and their main source of income is 13 . Crop production in Nepal is highly depends on monsoonal rainfall due to which 14 climate is a major factor. Use high volume of fossil fuels and other nonrenewable energies during 15 this world development process and fulfillment of the minimum daily requirement of every single 16 person is responsible for GHGs (Greenhouse Gases) emission in this globe. IPCC (The 17 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) declared that the Nepal is not responsible for high 18 rate of emission even though it has been facing the problem of climate change in agriculture and 19 tourism sectors. Direct and indirect impact of climate change on crop production is a serious 20 challenge for Nepali farmers however, the government of Nepal and other nongovernment 21 organizations are aware with such problem and they seems finding the best possible solutions for 22 address them. This paper reviews the causes, effects and solutions of climate change on crop 23 production in Nepal. The main concern of this review study is to find out the present and 24 potential impact of climate change on crop production and use of energy as a climate change 25 solutions. 26 27 Keywords: Nepal, Agriculture, Crop Production, Climate Change and Greenhouse Gases. 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 Tulsi Ram Bhusal, Tel: +9779857063446 37 E-mail address: [email protected] / [email protected]

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38 INTRODUCTION 39 40 Nepal is a highly vulnerable to climate change amongst the south Asian countries and it comes 41 fourth most vulnerable in the world (Sapkota et al. 2016). Direct impact of climate change have 42 been seen in Nepal because of majority of people are depend on natural resources such as 43 agriculture for their livelihood (Thapa et al. 2015). Crop production is a foremost climate 44 sensitive sector (Kiprutto et al. 2015). Therefore, Climate is an important factor for both 45 quantity (high yield) and quality (healthy) of production (Agba et al. 2017). Thapa et al (2015) 46 further revealed that around 50 per cent of Nepal GDP is from environmental income i.e. 47 agriculture, and fishery. More than 60 per cent of the cultivated area in Nepal is entirely 48 reliant on monsoonal rainfall (CBS 2018). system in Nepal is not fully equipped in 49 most of the land even though several plans are on its constructing way (MOE, resources 50 and Irrigation-reports white paper 2020). 51 52 Climate, agriculture and energy are the three different terms. However, these are the co-related 53 each other in nature and changes in any among them can impact on others directly (FAO 2019). 54 Agriculture production process like tillage, burning agriculture residue in the farm, using high 55 volume of chemical fertilizers and some machinery tools specially operated by fossil fuels (oil, 56 coal and gas) are responsible for greenhouse gases emissions in environment which in turn leads 57 to climate change (Kiprutto et al. 2015). Climate change may negatively impacts on crop 58 production because of agriculture sector is a most climate sensitive. From seed sowing until 59 harvesting, the climatic condition plays a vital role. Crop plants are required a favourable 60 temperature, moisture, and air to accomplish physiological activities and for absorption of water 61 and nutrients from (ALJWWFSL 2018). Plant can complete the photosynthesis process only 62 in the presence of sunlight. Photosynthesis process in plant is the formation of carbohydrate from 63 carbon dioxide and water in the presence of chlorophyll and sunlight (Pandey et al. 2002). Thus, 64 sunny days during the flowering and grain feeling stage of plant is very important for better 65 production (Allen 2008), if not so, the crop production rate may decrease and decreasing the 66 production is a challenge for food security and supply globally (Islam et al. 2019). 67 68 Energy is required to fulfil all the basic needs (cooking, lighting, heating, communication and 69 mobility) of human being. Around 80 per cent of current energy consumption for global 70 economics is from fossil fuels and utilization of this much fossil fuels are responsible for up to 71 56.6 per cent of all GHGs ((Green House Gases) emissions (Moomaw et al. 2012). If the 72 consumption ratio of fossil fuels instead of continues to increase at this rate, 73 climate change will continue to have a more negative impact; as a result the natural disasters i.e. 74 long conditions, erratic rainfall, flooding, landslides, , increasing some

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75 infectious diseases, harmful insects and unwanted weeds in agriculture firm may also increase at 76 the same rate. 77 78 The objectives of this review paper are review the previous studies conducted by various 79 researchers in climate change and its impact on crop production in Nepal and find out possible 80 area for further research. 81 82 CLIMATE AND FACTORS EFFECTING CLIMATE CHANGE 83 84 Climate is historically define as the description in terms of imply and variability of applicable 85 atmospheric variable such as temperature, precipitation and wind. Climate can for this reason be 86 viewed as a synthesis or aggregate of weather (Goosse et al. 2010). 87 88 There are several reasons responsible for climate change. Among them, increasing the 89 concentration of greenhouse gases like CO2, N2O and CH4 in our atmosphere are mostly 90 contribute to climate variability (Sodangi et al. 2012). Basically, GHGs are trapped the sun’s 91 heat in earth surface which in turn lead to change the climate. Increasing GHGs in our 92 environment is associated with some economic activities operated by fossil fuels such as; 93 transportation, production companies and some agricultural activities including tillage, crop 94 rotation and deforestation itself also emission GHGs in atmosphere and its account for 95 approximately one-third of total global emissions (World Research Institute 2008). N2O and 96 CH4 are primarily largest emission as a non CO2 in agriculture sector. While high volume of 97 CO2 fluxes also generate due to photosynthesis and respiration, these are about adjusted on 98 existing agrarian land. Land conversion for different purpose such as deforestation for crop 99 cultivation and building of shelter, some manufacturing activities for farming equipments, use of 100 fuels for farming, use high volume of chemical fertilizers and insecticides are significantly 101 release the carbon. Hence, emanation from agribusiness comes from four vital segments: 102 agricultural soil, and bio fertilizers management, crop cultivation such as rice 103 production and burning of agrarian buildups and savanna for arrive clearing. 104 105 Nitrous oxide (N2O) is the biggest source of GHG emission from agricultural activities and 106 account for up to 38 per cent of the add up to worldwide share (Rosenzweig et al. 1995). N2O is 107 created normally in soil through the method of nitrification and denitrification. Activities in 108 farming may include nitrogen to the soil either specially or in a roundabout way. Coordinate 109 increase happen through use of nitrogenous fertilizers in farm, application of overseen animal 110 manner and sewage slime, cultivation of nitrogen fixing crops and scrounges, maintenance of edit 111 buildups and development of soil with high natural matter substance. Indirect additions happen

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112 through volatilization and consequently air testimony of connected nitrogen as well as through 113 surface run off and filtering of connected nitrogen into ground and surface water (USEPA 2006). 114 These processes have possibilities to increase of N2O emission and contribute to climate change. 115 116 Figure 1: 117 118 Some animals specially cattle and sheep produce methane gas during their naturally food 119 digestive system account for the majority of methane generation in this category and it is the 120 moment largest (second) sources of total emission of CH4 from livestock with a 34 per cent 121 worldwide share (Mark et al. 2008). Furthermore, green manure management which 122 incorporates the taking care of, capacity and treatment of excrement of agrarian emanation. 123 Methane gas is produced during the anaerobic breakdown of green manure whereas nitrous oxide 124 comes about from dealing with manure vigorously (nitrification and after that an-aerobically 125 (denitrification) in this way contribution to the worldwide buildup of CH4 and N2O. 126 127 CLIMATIC VARIATION IN NEPAL 128 129 According to Nayava (1974), the seasons in Nepal has been categorized in to four parts: 130 Winter Season (December to February): In Nepal, winter season is start from December and 131 finish in February. Normally, during this season, weather condition becomes dry and cold with 132 sunny in hilly areas but seems gloomy around some terai reason. During this season, slightly rain 133 does happen in most of the part in the country in association with the western disturbance which 134 have their beginning within the Mediterranean. The winter rain, most noteworthy within the 135 northwest local diminishes in sum in both southward and eastbound heading. At higher height 136 rain falls as snow. Morning haze and ice are common in valleys and uneven zones. The least 137 temperature comes to either in December or January (NHMRCC 2015). 138 139 Spring season or Pre (March to May): This season is also called pre-monsoon 140 season. In between March to May, the country experiences the pre-monsoon thunder shower 141 moment related with warm convection due to expending insolation combined with the orographic 142 impact. A periodic hailstorm too happens amid these months. The pre-monsoon precipitation 143 frequently active in hilly reason rather than the southern part of terai region. Day time 144 temperature in the southern terai region reaches beyond 40°C during this season (NHMRCC 145 2015). 146 147 Summer season or Monsoon (June to July: It is also called rainy season. In Nepal, the 148 monsoon is start from mid of June and reaches in its full form in July. This season having mush

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149 value for farmers because of monsoon is the main sources of water for farming in the various part 150 of the country. Generally, monsoon is start from the eastern part and slowly extends to western 151 and all over the country. During this season, recording of precipitation range is about 150 mm to 152 5000 mm per year. There are 80 to 90 per cent of the total precipitation falls in this season 153 (Nayava 1974). Most of the precipitation happens amid the night. , landslides and soil 154 erosion during this period are the most common weather related natural disaster in the country. 155 156 Autumn season or Post-monsoon (October to November): During this season, few spell of 157 precipitation as a post-monsoon receives in the country. Normally, November is the driest month 158 with clear sky and vision. This season is best suited for Nepali farmers to cultivate wheat, barley, 159 mustered and green vegetables. In addition, due to clear visibility of the , most of the 160 tourists are attracted during this season (NHMRCC 2015). 161 162 AGRICULTURE PRECTICES IN NEPAL 163 164 Nepal is an agricultural country where around 66 per cent people are straight forwardly 165 involved in agriculture farming (FAO 2016). However, the average productivity of the crop 166 production is comparatively low due to various factors such as; traditional agriculture system, 167 lack of irrigation facility, harmful insects, pest, diseases and unfavorably changes of climatic 168 conditions (Gauchan 2018). The variable of crop productivity due to climate change may have 169 critical impact on individual on agriculture sector, especially the destitute and small land holders 170 (Thapa et al. 2015). The total available cultivated land area in Nepal is 2.97 million hectare, out 171 of which, current utilized cultivated area is approximately 1.5 million hectare. Around 75 per cent 172 of landholders having small size of land like less than 1 hectare which means the majority of 173 farmers have small size of farmland, this may be a little barrier for commercial farming (CBS 174 2018). 175 176 There are different types of crops are cultivate in Nepal on the basis of climatic zone variability 177 (called agro-ecological belt). Mainly in terai region, rice and wheat are the main cereal crops 178 while Maize and finger millet along with some cash crops i.e. potato, legumes and some seasonal 179 vegetables are cultivate in the hilly and even in mountain region (Thapa et al. 2018). However, 180 scientific agriculture production practices are yet to occur in a tangible way. Policymakers and 181 agriculture expert in the country says that the major limitations in agricultural commercialization 182 is counting low productivity which is infrastructure and tall reliance on climate. Thapa (2018) 183 further revealed that the nation has place to the monsoon zone, the major staple crops are 184 cultivated in this season. Hence the degree of precipitation contains a critical affect on

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185 productivity in Nepal. In a nation where rainfed generation framework rules, it is conceivable to 186 assess the affect of climate change on crop production. 187 CLIMATE CHANGE, AGRICULTURE AND FOOD SECURITY 188 189 Especially in some developing countries where the people are depend in natural resources for 190 their livelihood, climate is an important factor. In Nepal, the majority of population lives in 191 village and their main source of income is agriculture. Most of the farmers are depend on 192 monsoonal rainfall for crop cultivation due to not fully equipped irrigation facility in cultivated 193 farm (Mendelsohn et al. 2006; Pearce et al. 1996; Thapa et al. 2015; Tol 2002). 194 195 Climate change impact on crop production can have both positive and negative. According to 196 the report (5 AR5) of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the negative impact of 197 climate change is more common rather than positive impact in crop production globally 198 (Bocchiola 2017; IPCC 2013). Sometimes the rising temperature up to certain point and CO2 199 emission may becomes helpful to higher production of some major crops. Plant Physiological 200 activities such as photosynthesis in the presence of sun light in plant may help increase the water 201 use efficiency, shortening physiological period and beneficial microbial activities in soil which in 202 turn leads to increase the production and these factors are comparatively seems more active 203 during long sunny days (Malla 2008). Malla further pointed out that the Increment of CO2 204 concentration in climate may have promoted the plant growth and if the concentration of CO2 is 205 double, the total productivity could be increase by up to 40 per cent. The increment of total 206 production means the food security and supply would be easier. 207 208 According to Lone and Singh (2017), they have experimentally proved that the single leaf 209 photosynthesis rate increases with expanded CO2 level. When this experiment was expanded to 210 crop levels, they have found that expanded of CO2 up to 600 ppm the number of tillers and 211 branches were also expanded. Therefore, greater sun oriented radiation is interferences and 212 coming about almost 25 per cent increment of CO2 diminished transpiration due to diminished 213 stomata aperture and there might be result in higher water-use efficiency (WUE) (Bhusal 2019). 214 215 Similarly, Cloudiness and gloomy weather during the grain feeling stage of the crop plant may 216 significantly decrease the productivity. Unfavorable climatic condition may have the negative 217 effect on respiratory systems of the plant as well as increasing harmful pathogens such as; 218 bacteria, virus and fungus are also the negative factors for the crop production. In addition, 219 increment of soil erosion and evapo-transpiration in the world due to uncertainty of climatic 220 conditions is reducing the protein and other mineral supplements substance in major crops 221 production which are negative impacts for human . (Pathak et al. 2003; Malla 2008).

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222 In the context of Nepal, crop production has reduced by 12.5 per cent on national basis due to 223 rain deficit by early monsoon in eastern terai region in the year 2005/06. Approximately 10 per 224 cent of cultivated land was clear out decrepit due to rain deficit but mid-western terai region 225 confronted overwhelming rainfall with floods, which reduced the crop production by 30 per cent 226 in the year (Bhusal 2019; Regmi 2007). Unfavorable impact of climate change seem lead to the 227 termination of some inborn crop varieties such as several aromatic rice assortments including 228 Basmati Rice and some local varieties of wheat, maize and other agrarian crops as well (Poudel 229 2012). 230 231 According to the report of Nepal Agriculture Research Council (NARC 2010), a serious winter 232 cold wave in Nepal in 1998 had negative impacts on agrarian efficiency and showed a tall rate of 233 surrender lessening for potato (27.8%), leaf mustard seed (11.2%), lentil (37.6%), and chickpea 234 (38%). Decreasing of the production due to climatic condition is a big challenge for food security 235 and supply for every single person. These kinds of reports have been alerted that the decrease of 236 production rate might impact on rapid growing population around the world. IPCC (3013) has 237 been warned that 5 to 200 million of additional people will be at risk of hunger by 2100. 238 239 CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION PREACTCES IN NEPAL 240 241 Climate change is an emerging global phenomenon and it is a challenge of the 21st century. 242 Most of the developing countries are failure to cope with such problem as they have lacking the 243 adaptive capacity (Agba et al. 2017). It also may be the major challenge for Nepal for adjustment 244 to climate change in farming and related sectors, because majority of farmers in the country still 245 depending on the climate-sensitive agriculture. For the adjustment to the climate change, 246 Government of Nepal has introduced an arrangement that is included within the administrative 247 system. The approach is “Climate Change Policy” which was introduced in March, 2011. As a 248 preparatory arrangement of climate change policy, Nepal has arranged its National Adaption 249 Program of Action (NAPA) for adapting to extraordinary climate events and inconstancy through 250 a board country driven consultative process which was shared with parties to the UNFCCC 251 (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) in November 2010 and moreover 252 arranged a National Framework for Local Adaption Plan for Action (LAPA) with the twin goals 253 of actualizing adaption activities and joining climate change into nearby development planning 254 and its implementation (MOE Nepal 2010). The LAPA system ensures that the method of 255 coordination of climate change versatility from local to national level arranging bottom-up, 256 comprehensive, responsive and adaptable. It distinguishes local adaption needs that centers on 257 reducing local and vulnerabilities, and expanding versatility utilizing the seven steps. 258

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259 Figuer 2: 260 261 The main objective of climate change policy in Nepal was start of community based local 262 adaptation activities as mentioned in the National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA) through 263 managing monetary assets by 2011 which was started through the Nepal Climate Change Support 264 Program (NCCSP) in 2013 under which 70 LAPAS are as of now being executed and an 265 additional 30 are arranged. Likewise, few more programs are also in implementation such as 266 activities of ecosystem based adaptation and glacial lake upheaval projects (Lamsal et al. 2014). 267 The goal of climate change policy 2011 was to evaluate the losses and benefits from climate 268 change in different topographical zones and improvement. As an activity for this, one evaluation 269 was undertaken at the coordination with Government of Nepal which is targeted on farming, 270 hydro power, and water-induced disaster (Bhusal 2019). Likewise, the ideas of climate smart 271 crop production practices are also developed from the local level to adapt the climate change risk 272 and threaten of global warming. Effects of climate change mitigation are also under investigation 273 as well as few projects are started for this. 274 275 ROLE OF ENERGY IN CLIMATE CHANGE SOLUTIONS 276 277 Energy is a key element for economic growth and development all over the world. Without 278 energy, we cannot even think to run this natural life cycle. Every single person, society and the 279 whole world is using the energy in every steps of the life. Therefore, energy is a most important 280 factor to survive the whole planet (FAO 2019). In the process of using energy for this global 281 development process, some human activities are contributed to increase the concentration of 282 greenhouse gases (GHGs) in our atmosphere. Be that as it may be, 85 per cent of current essential 283 energy for driving of this worldwide economy is from the combustion of fossil fuels. Utilization 284 of this much is responsible for up to 56.6 per cent of all anthropogenic GHG emission 285 (Moomaw et al. 2012). Since anthropogenic GHGs collect within the environment, they deliver 286 net warming by reinforcing the natural . Particularly, production of energy and 287 its consumption have different environmental implications, one of which is climate change. 288 289 Increasing the concentration of GHGs at atmosphere is a sincere problem that might be 290 imbalance the ecological system in the planet. Some GHGs i.e. Co2, N2O, SO2 are trapped the 291 sun heat on the earth surface which in turn lead to global warming (Ollila 2012). There are 292 different options for bringing down GHG emanations from the system of energy whereas still 293 fulfilling the global requirement for energy services. According to IPCC (2000) report, Non 294 renewable energy is responsible for up to two-thirds of global GHGs emissions this means the 295 use of clean energy in every sector instead of fossil fuels is the way of climate change solution.

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296 CONCLUSION 297 298 Nepal is one of the quite climate vulnerable country all over the world because of it’s highly 299 dependency on natural resources. Climate change challenges on crop production and necessity of 300 its adaptation process seems very important for Nepal, where most of the agriculture land 301 depends on monsoonal rainfall. 302 303 Approximately 65 per cent people are directly engaged in firming which is their main source of 304 income. Rice, maize, wheat, barley, sugarcane, potato and lentil are the major crops cultivate in 305 the different climatic zones, however the various research studies shows that the total 306 productivity is comparatively low. Climate is primary important factor for crop production in the 307 country but changes on it have seen negative impact in several ways. 308 309 Various research studies has been conducted in this area, among them, most of the researchers 310 concluded that the main factors of climate change are greenhouse gases emission through burning 311 fossil fuels and agriculture practices. Priorities on renewable energy from every sector instead of 312 other nonrenewable and environment friendly agriculture practices might be one of a important 313 way emission rate. However, there are some climate change adaptation practices already in 314 applied through the government and other non government organization i.e. UN (United Nations) 315 and world bank in Nepal. 316 317 In Nepal, some migrant insects and other plant diseases have been appeared randomly as a 318 serious threatens for farmers. Some crop insects such as; American army worm (Spodoptera 319 frugiperda) and Locust (Schistocerca gregaria) effected in Paddy and maize crops are as 320 migrants and there have been very harmful for the crop production in Nepal. American army 321 worm is originally from America and Locust is normally complete their life cycle in desert area. 322 Due to climate change, such kinds of insects have been spreading over the country now a day. 323 324 Based on the careful study of various literatures, we can be said that there have been many 325 researches on factors affecting climate change and its impact on crop production directly and 326 indirectly. Most of the researches have been focused on the direct impact of climate change on 327 agriculture. However, very rare investigations have been done on indirect impact (Insect, Pest, 328 Disease and Unwanted weeds) of climate change on crop production. Because, suddenly changes 329 on temperature due to climate change in farm land would be the favor for harmful pathogens in 330 crop plants. There have been some researches especially in Australia, Europe, America, some 331 African countries and some Asian countries but this is not enough in the case of Nepal. A little

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332 studies and research has seen on this topic but it is not sufficient and in depth research is 333 necessary in a country like Nepal. 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368

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404 Food and Agriculture Organization. (2019). The energy and agriculture nexus. Enviornment and 405 natural resources working paper no. 4. Italy, Rome. 406 http://www.fao.org/3/x8054e/x8054e04.htm#P191_23440 407 408 Gauchan, D. (2018). Agriculture development in Nepal: Emerging challenges and opportunities. 409 First edition. Publication by Nepal policy research center. https:// 410 www.researchgate.net/pubication/328963861 411 412 Goosse, H., Barriat, P.Y., Lefebvre, W., Loutre, M.F. and Zunz, V. (2010). Introduction to 413 climate dynamics and climate modeling. 414 https://www.climate.be/textbook 415 416 Government of Nepal, Ministry of Energy, and Irrigation (2020). White paper of 417 Present conditions and future planning of energy, water resources and irrigation areas in 418 Nepal./listies/May2020/ 419 https://www.moewri.gov.np/pages/publications 420 421 Intergovernmental panel on climate change, (2000). Energy is at the heart of the solution to the 422 climate change. 423 https://www.ipcc.ch/2020/07/31/energy-climatechallenge/ 424 425 Intergovernmental panel on climate change. (2013). Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate 426 Change, The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth 427 Assessment 428 429 Islam, Md.S., Kabir, M.H., Ali, Md.S., Sultana, Mst.S., and Mahasin, M. (2019). Farmer’s 430 knowledge on climate change effects in agriculture sciences. 10,386-394. Scientific 431 research publishing Inc. 432 https://doi.org/10.4236/as.2019.103031 433 434 Kiprutto, N., Rotich, L.K. and Riungu, G.K. (2015). Agriculture, climate change and food 435 security.Open Access Library Journal, 2: e1472. 436 http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1101472 437 438 Lamsal, K. (2014). Climate change policy in Nepal: challenges, opportunities and imperative, 439 Pokhara, Nepal: LI-BITD (2014). 440

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441 Lone, A.B. (2017). Climate change and its impact on crop productivity. British journal of applied 442 science and technology:1-15. 443 444 Malla, G. (2008). Climate change and its impact on Nepalese agriculture. The journal of 445 agriculture and environment, Review paper. Nepal. 446 447 Mark, W.S., Mandy, E., Grey, Y., Lan, B., Saleemun, H. and Rowena, V. (2008). Climate change 448 and agriculture: Treats and opportunities German (Germany) Technische Zusammenarbeit 449 (GTZ) gmbh, Deutsche Gesellsechafit fur. 450 451 Mendelsohn, R., Diana, A. and Willims, L. (2006). The distributional impact of climate change in 452 rich and poor countries. Environ dev econ 11:1-20. 453 454 Ministry of Environment (MOE). Government of Nepal (2010. National adaption of actions to 455 climate change, Kathmandu, Nepal. 456 457 Moomaw, W., Yamba, F.D., Kamimoto, M. and Maurice, L. (2012). Renewable energy and 458 climate change. Publisher; Cambridge university press. 459 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263353791_renewable_energy_andclimate_cha 460 nge 461 462 Nayava, J.L. (1974). The summer monsoon in Nepal and Southern . Unpublished M.Sc. 463 dissertation, Birmingham University, England, UK. 464 465 Nepal Agriculture Research Council. (2010). Annual reports 1987-1998. (2010). 466 467 Nepal Hydrological and Metrological Research Center and Consultancy p. Ltd. (2015): Study of 468 climate and climatic variation over Nepal. 469 470 Ollila, A. (2012). The Roles of greenhouse gases in global warming. Researchgate publication, 471 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273079885 472 473 Pandey, S.N. and Sinha, B.K. (2002). Plant physiology. Third revised edition. Vikash publishing 474 house Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi-110014. 475 476 Pathak, H. (2003). Climate potential and onfirm yield trends of rice and wheat in the indo 477 gangatic plains field crops. Re, 80:223-234.

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478 479 Poudel, M.N. (2012). Adaptation mechanisms in agriculture for climate change in Nepal. Hydro 480 Nepal, special issue (2012):82-85. 481 482 Regmi, H.R. (2007). Effect of unusual weather on cereal crops production and household food 483 security. The journal of agriculture and environment 8(2017):20-29. 484 485 Rosenzweig, R and Hillel, D. (1995). Potential impact of climate change on agriculture and food 486 supply. Consequences 1 (2), 1-25. 487 488 Sapkota, R., Rijal, K. (2016). Climate change and its impacts in Nepal. Researchgate publishing. 489 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319686998. 490 491 Sodangi, I.A, Izge, A.U and Maina, Y.T. (2012). Climate change: causes and effects on African 492 agriculture. Researchgate publication. Journal of environmental issues and agriculture in 493 development countries. 494 researchgate.net/publication/232186127_climate_changes_and_effects_on_african_agricu 495 lture. 496 497 Thapa, D., Subedi, Y.R. and Ojha, H. (2018). Climate adaptive agricultural innovation in Nepal: 498 Prospects and challenges. Intech Open publication. DOI:10.5772/intechopen.72371. 499 500 Thapa, S., Joshi, G.R. and Joshi, B. (2015). Impact if climate change on Nepali agriculture. Nepal 501 journal of agricultural economics, Researchgate publication. Vols. 2-3. 502 503 The Central Bureau of Statistics. (2018). National census of agriculture 2001/02. Central Bureau 504 of ststistics. Kathmandu. Government of Nepal. 505 506 Tol, R. (2002). Estimates of the damage costs of climate change, Part 1: benchmark estimates. 507 Environmental and resources economics 21:47-73 508 509 United States Environment Protection Agency. (2006). Global mitigation of non-CO2 greenhouse 510 gases. Office of the atmospheric programmers, Washington DC. 511 https://www.epa.gov/#:~:text=United%20States%20Environmental%20Protection%20Ag 512 ency. 513 514 World Research Institute. (2008). Climate analysis indicators toolkit.

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515 https://cait.wri.org 516 517 518

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519 Table 1. XXX.

520

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521 Figure Captions 522

523 524 Figure 1: Schematic view of the components of the climate system and of their potential 525 changes. 526 Source: IPCC (2007) using a modified legend, published in: Climate Change 2007: The Physical 527 Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the 528 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Cambridge University Press, copyright 529 IPCC 2007. 530

531 532 Figure. 2. LAPA Cycle. 533 Source: Ministry of Environment, Nepal. 534

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535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 544 545 546 547 Fig. 1.

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