Food Insecurity within the Island Lake First Nation Communities in Northern Manitoba, Canada by Shauna Zahariuk A Thesis submitted to the Faculty for Graduate Studies of The University of Manitoba in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of MASTER OF ENVIRONMENT CLAYTON H. RIDDELL FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENT, EARTH, AND RESOURCES University of Manitoba Winnipeg Copyright © 2014 by Shauna Zahariuk ii ABSTRACT Conditions of hunger and lack of access to affordable healthy foods exists within Canada. Canada has committed itself to international Declarations, Covenants, and Conventions focused on reducing world hunger; however, it has neglected to address domestic hunger issues. Using mixed methods, this study quantified food insecurity rates and severity within four First Nation communities in northern Manitoba. The study also explored the communities’ perspectives regarding barriers to healthy eating and potential solutions to addressing this multi-faceted problem. Results indicate that the four First Nation communities within this study are amongst the most food insecure and hungry within Manitoba and Canada, with 92% of households experiencing some form of food insecurity and 50% of households experiencing severe food insecurity. The research has revealed that solutions for improving food security must be embedded within the realm of food sovereignty and be led by First Nation communities. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to extend a thank you to my husband for being understanding of my time constraints and for lending an ear, and helping to guide me through the Masters process. Thank you so much for your unwavering support, encouragement, and love. I also wish to thank my parents, brother, sister-in-laws, my grandmother, and my friends for their encouragement and support. A thank you as well to my Newfoundland-mix dog, who accompanied my every step along the way; even if his tail occasionally found its way under my castor-equipped desk chair – my apologies Gus! And a heartfelt thank you to the First Nation communities of Island Lake, Manitoba. Wasagamack; thank you for taking me fishing and all the wonderful conversations. St. Theresa Point, thank you to the Manoakeesick family for allowing me to stay in your home and inviting me to a family potluck and candy throw; very fun! Thank you to Garden Hill and Island Lake Lodge for the accommodations and learning how to identify wild mint! And, thank you to Red Sucker Lake for the moose meat meal, and the hospitality. Also, a very special thank you to Linda Manoakeesick for her assistance, guidance, and friendship along the way. I also wish to thank my advisor for her help and guidance, and the rest of my advisory committee for their words of wisdom. iv DEDICATION This study and its results are dedicated to the First Nation communities of Wasagamack, St. Theresa Point, Garden Hill and Red Sucker Lake. Thank you for sharing your experiences with me. v TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 BACKGROUND 1 1.2 PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH 7 1.3 OBJECTIVES 8 1.4 RESEARCH STUDY AREA 9 1.4.1 COMMUNITY ACCESSIBILITY 9 1.5 ORGANIZATION OF THESIS 13 1.6 RESEARCHER’S REFLECTION 13 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 16 2.1 WHAT IS FOOD (IN)SECURITY? 16 2.2 FOOD INSECURITY IN A FIRST NATIONS CONTEXT 19 2.2.1 ACCESS, AVAILABILITY, AND AFFORDABILITY 22 2.3 MEASUREMENT FOOD SECURITY IN CANADA 29 2.4 MEASURING FOOD INSECURITY IN FIRST NATIONS COMMUNITIES IN CANADA 33 2.5 FOOD-BASED INITIATIVES 40 2.5.1 NUTRITION NORTH CANADA 42 2.5.2 NORTHERN HEALTHY FOOD INITIATIVE 45 2.5.3 COUNTRY FOOD PROGRAMS 49 2.5.4 COOPERATIVES 52 2.5.5 FOOD BUYING CLUBS 53 2.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY 53 CHAPTER THREE: METHODS 56 3.1 RESEARCH ETHICS APPROVAL 57 3.2 INTRODUCING THE RESEARCHER TO THE COMMUNITY 59 3.3 FOOD COSTING SURVEY 60 3.3.1 CALCULATING COST 61 3.3.2 CALCULATING AFFORDABILITY 62 3.3.3 LIMITATIONS 63 3.4 HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY SURVEY 65 3.4.1 SURVEY DESIGN 66 3.4.2 SURVEY DATA ANALYSIS 69 3.4.3 SURVEY LIMITATIONS 71 3.5 SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS 72 3.5.1 INTERVIEW DATA ANALYSIS 73 3.5.2 INTERVIEW LIMITATIONS 74 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS 76 4.1 FOOD ACCESSIBILITY 76 4.1.1 STORE LOCATIONS 76 4.1.2 PREVALENCE OF HOUSEHOLD GARDENING, HUNTING AND FISHING 81 4.1.3 PERCEIVED BARRIERS TO ACCESSING HEALTHY FOODS 83 4.1.3 COMMUNITY PERSPECTIVES ON SOLUTIONS TO ACCESSING HEALTHY FOODS 87 4.2 FOOD COSTING AND FOOD AVAILABILITY RESULTS 91 4.3 FOOD BASKET AFFORDABILITY 95 vi 4.4 HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY SURVEY 96 4.4.1 HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY STATUS IN ISLAND LAKE 97 4.5 COMMUNITY INITIATIVES IN ISLAND LAKE FIRST NATIONS 104 4.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY 106 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION 108 5.1 ACCESSIBILITY AND AFFORDABILITY OF THE REVISED NORTHERN FOOD BASKET 109 5.1.1 ACCESSIBILITY 109 5.2 HIGH FOOD COSTS 110 5.2.1 IS THE REVISED NORTHERN FOOD BASKET AN APPROPRIATE FOOD COSTING TOOL? 114 5.2.2. LARGE PERCENTAGES OF HOUSEHOLD BUDGETS ARE DEVOTED TO FOOD COSTS 117 5.3 PREVALENCE OF FOOD INSECURITY IN THE ISLAND LAKE FIRST NATION COMMUNITIES 119 5.3.1 IS THE HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY SURVEY A CULTURALLY APPROPRIATE MEASURE? 122 5.4 EVALUATION OF COMMUNITY INITIATIVES 124 5.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY 128 CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 130 6.1 THE CRUX OF THE PROBLEM 131 6.2 OPTIONS AND SOLUTIONS 132 6.3 CONCLUSION 135 REFERENCES 137 vii LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Community Profiles ............................................................................................................. 12 Table 2: Comparison of Canadian Food Basket Weights1,2 ...................................................... 27 Table 3: Canadian and Manitoban Food Insecurity Rates, CCHS Studies ........................... 31 Table 4: Household Food Insecurity Rates in Households With and Without Children .. 32 Table 5: 2006 and 2011 Canadian Census Population and Income Data .............................. 63 Table 6: Household Food Security Screening Question ............................................................ 68 Table 7: Food Security Status Category Descriptions ................................................................ 70 Table 8: Food Stores in the Island Lake First Nations ............................................................... 77 Table 9: Prevalence of Household Gardening, Hunting and Fishing ..................................... 81 Table 10: Awareness of Food-Based Programming within the Island Lake ........................ 90 Table 11: Selected Average Food Costs in Island Lake Compared to Winnipeg ............... 92 Table 12: Cost of the Revised Northern Food Basket in Island Lake .................................... 94 Table 13: Affordability of the Revised Northern Food Basket in 2009 ................................ 95 Table 14: Island Lake Community Initiatives ............................................................................. 105 Table 15: RFNB Costs Before and After Application of NNC Subsidy ............................. 113 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Location of Island Lake First Nation Communities ..................................................... 2 Figure 2: Aerial View of Island Lake First Nation Communities ........................................... 10 Figure 3: National First Nation Reported Consumption of Nutritious Balanced Diet,, ..... 35 Figure 4: First Nation Adult Food Insecurity Indicators vs. Canadian Population ............ 37 Figure 5: First Nation Child Food Insecurity Indicators vs. Canadian Population ............ 38 Figure 6: Food Insecurity Rates and Severity in Select First Nations in Canada ............... 40 Figure 7: Aerial Photograph of Wasagamack First Nation ....................................................... 77 Figure 8: Aerial Photograph of Garden Hill First Nation .......................................................... 78 Figure 9: Aerial Photograph of St. Theresa Point First Nation ................................................ 79 Figure 10: Aerial Photograph of Red Sucker Lake First Nation ............................................. 80 Figure 11: Island Lake First Nation's Perceived Barriers to Accessing Healthy Foods ... 84 Figure 12: Island First Nation’s Perceived Solutions to Accessing Healthy Foods ........... 88 Figure 13: The Northern Store vs. Community Store Food Prices ......................................... 93 Figure 14: Household Food Security in Island Lake, All Households................................... 98 Figure 15: Household Food Security Status within the Island Lake Region ....................... 99 Figure 16: Adult Household Food Security Survey Responses, All Households ............. 100 Figure 17: Child-Scale Household Food Security Survey Responses, All Households . 101 Figure 18: Child and Adult Food Security Status in Households with Children .............. 103 Figure 19: Adult Food Insecurity in Households with and without Children .................... 104 Figure 20: RNFB Cost in Island Lake First Nation Communities (1995 to 2013),, ......... 112 Figure 21: Household Food Insecurity in 14 Northern Manitoba Communities (2009) 120 Figure 22: Comparison of Food Insecurity Rates in Island Lake to Canadian Studies ... 122 viii LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS Photograph 1-4: Household Gardens in the Island Lake First Nations .................................. 82 Photograph 25: Bannock and Moose in Red Sucker Lake .......................................................... 83 (All photographs captured by author) LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A Revised Northern Food Basket 67-Item Food List and Volumes and Comparison of Revised Northern