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Marine Litter, Microplastics and Marine Megafauna

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Marine Litter, Microplastics and Marine Megafauna Marine litter, microplastics and marine megafauna Submitted by Sarah Elizabeth Nelms to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Biological Sciences March 2019 In collaboration with Plymouth Marine Laboratory This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. Signature: ………………………………………………………….. Sarah E. Nelms 1 2 Grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) pup surrounded by plastic pollution in the Firth of Forth, Scotland (Photo: Matt Carter). 3 4 Abstract Over the last sixty years, the development of synthetic and durable materials, namely plastic, coupled with a growing human population, has resulted in a rapid increase in the levels of anthropogenic debris in rivers, along coastlines and in the wider marine ecosystem. Currently, an estimated 4.8 to 12.7 million tons of plastic enter the oceans every year but this is expected to increase to between 9.6 and 25.4 million tons by 2025. As such, it is one of the most widely recognised pollution issues facing the planet due to its wide-ranging ecological and socio- economic implications. The main aims of this thesis were to i) examine citizen- science beach clean data to better understand the composition of anthropogenic litter deposited on British beaches by determining the most common items, materials, sources and pathways, and exploring the data for spatial patterns and temporal trends in litter density; ii) investigate an indirect pathway (trophic transfer) of microplastic (<5mm in size) ingestion in marine top predators by analysing scat (faeces) from captive grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) and the wild-caught fish they were fed upon; iii) explore the extent to which wild marine mammals ingest microplastics and consider the potential implications by examining the digestive tracts of 50 marine mammals from 10 species that stranded around the British coast; iv) develop a method of investigating dietary exposure of marine mammal top predators to microplastics, by combining scat- based molecular techniques (metabarcoding) with a microplastic isolation method. The research carried out for this thesis reveals that i) plastic is the main constituent of marine litter on British beaches and the majority of traceable items originate from land-based activities, such as public littering. The coasts of the southwest England and south Wales have the highest litter levels and certain items - small plastic fragments, plastic food packaging, wet wipes, polystyrene foam, balloons and large fishing net – are increasing; ii) trophic transfer is an indirect and under-studied, but potentially major, route of microplastic ingestion for marine top predators; iii) microplastics are ubiquitous within the digestive tracts of wild marine mammals stranded around the British coast but the overall low abundance suggests they may be egested; iv) the rate of microplastic ingestion by marine top predators may be related to the type of prey they consume but further work is needed to assess the impacts of this omnipresent pollutant. 5 Acknowledgements To my supervisors, I wish to express my most heartfelt gratitude. The trust and faith of Dr Penelope (Pennie) Lindeque when taking me on as an additional (and sometimes rogue) PhD student humbles me greatly. Without her, this PhD would not have come about and I am immensely grateful to her for taking a gamble on me. Her relaxed and fun nature has taught me that, sometimes, the best science ideas come from chats in the sun, looking out to sea. The support and guidance of Professor Brendan Godley has been instrumental in this journey into academia and his mentorship, from the day I became his MSc student five and a half years ago, has been the driving force in building my confidence and independence as a scientist. I have been so incredibly lucky to receive his encouragement and reassurances when things got tough, and patience when it was needed. My interest in microplastics began when Professor Tamara Galloway delivered a seminar during my masters. Her research opened my eyes to the issue and inspired me to want to know more. I am grateful to her for encouraging my curiosity and offering positive advice when needed. I thank you all for enabling me to combine my interests and your expertise into a PhD which has been a challenging, but immensely rewarding, experience. You have given me the space to determine the direction of my own research and grow as a result. I sincerely hope that the last three and half years have been as enjoyable for you as they have been for me. The Natural Environment Research Council provided financial support through a GW4+ studentship hosted at Plymouth Marine Laboratory, in collaboration with the University of Exeter. I am extremely grateful for this funding as it has not only enabled me to conduct my research, but it has also provided the means to attend a number of courses, workshops and conferences which have enhanced both my professional development as well as self-confidence. I have been incredibly lucky to have worked with many additional researchers, mentors and collaborators throughout my PhD to whom I am extremely grateful. I would like to extend my utmost gratitude to Dr Matthew Witt who has taught me a great deal, not only in terms of scientific research and data analysis, but in branching out of academia to engage with stakeholders and policy makers, which has nurtured an affinity for interdisciplinary research I was not aware I had. I also thank my co-authors, Charlotte Coombes and Laura Foster (Marine Conservation Society), Dan Jarvis (formerly of the Cornish Seal Sanctuary), Rob Deaville 6 (Cetacean Stranding Investigation Programme/ Institute of Zoology), James Barnett (Cornwall Wildlife Trust’s Marine Strandings Scheme), Nick Davison and Andrew Brownlow (Scottish Marine Animal Stranding Scheme), Dr David Santillo (Greenpeace Research Laboratories) and Dr Kimberley Bennett (Abertay University), for their involvement in my PhD. Thank you to my peers and lab-mates Rachel Coppock, Joanna Warwick- Dugdale and Rebecca Shellock, Helen Parry and Emily Duncan for your advice and assistance, laughter and friendship. You’re all incredible, strong and scarily smart women and I have enjoyed every minute of working alongside you. You have taught me patience, optimism and team work. Lastly, I would like to thank all the friends and family who have offered emotional support and encouragement during my PhD. A special thanks to my wonderful Mum and Dad who, when I returned home after six months in Costa Rica and declared a desire to go back to university to do a master’s, never once questioned me but instead provided the funds, logistical support and emotional backing to follow my heart. It was this faith that pushed me to work hard and excel, achieving a result that I thought was beyond my reach and setting me on track to do a PhD. My amazing partner, Dr Matt Carter, who himself completed his PhD alongside me, has never wavered in his ability to provide both intellectual discussion and comfort whenever they were most needed. His true and deep understanding of gender equality has had a hugely positive influence on my conviction as a female early career researcher and there is no doubt that his presence alongside me on this journey has made bumps in the road much easier to bear. I am so grateful to him for his advice, realism, positivity and the calming presence he has brought to many a stressful situation. I am indebted to you all. I need the sea because it teaches me. I don’t know if I learn music or awareness, If it’s a single wave or its vast existence, Or only it’s harsh voice or its shining suggestion of fishes and ships. The fact is that until I fall asleep, In some magnetic way, I move in the university of the waves. - The Sea, Pablo Neruda 7 Table of Contents Abstract ...............................................................................................................5 Acknowledgements .............................................................................................6 Table of contents ................................................................................................8 List of tables and figures .....................................................................................9 Author’s declaration ..........................................................................................15 List of definitions and abbreviations………………………………………………..16 General Introduction..........................................................................................17 Chapter 1: Marine anthropogenic litter on British beaches: A 10-year nationwide assessment using citizen science data………………..……………….................22 Chapter 2: Investigating microplastic trophic transfer in a marine top predator……………........................................................................................... 53 Chapter 3: Microplastics in marine mammals stranded around the British coast: ubiquitous but transitory?...................................................................................70 Chapter 4: What goes in, must come out: combining scat-based molecular diet analysis and quantification of ingested microplastics in a marine top predator, the
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