Naval War College Review Volume 33 Article 28 Number 1 January-February

1980 January & February 1980 Review The .SU . Naval War College

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PRESIDENT'S NOTES

It has been interesting to note, in How much can we learn about the need these troubled times, the reemergence for maritime strength from the events of of history as a topical theme in Op Ed the 1930s and the l 940s 7 pieces and articles in any number of The focus at the Naval War College, newspapers and journ�s. particularly in the Strategy and Policy Before coming to the Naval War Course, is not on history as a sterile College, I had heard some criticism of academic discipline but rather on its the curriculum's emphasis on the lessons recurring themes and the problems that of history to the neglect of preparation have continually taxed the genius of for the present. I have found, however, statesmen and soldiers. Similarly, the that a judicious balance has been struck Naval Operations Course, through case between these requisites and I believe studies, emphasizes those enduring prin­ that the former must nourish the latter. ciples of war that obtain today. In the aftermath of World War II the The recurring themes, illustrated by Harvard Report, General Education in a case studies ranging from the classic Free Society, wisely stated that "One of prototype of Athens and Sparta (which the aims of education is to break the has a great deal of relevance in today's strong hold on the present." world) through the Napoleonic Wars, This is a good time, in the midst of a Stra teqic Theory, a century of Europe bad time, for some careful introspec­ and the Balance of Power, the lessons of tion. How often have the exigencies of World War I, the Road to War the moment driven us away from the 1919-1941, World War II, the events of broader objectives of the future 7 Or, the Cold War to Contemporary Policy how often have we failed to look back and Strategy, are constants: to see if someone has not indeed been there before7 How far back in history • Military force as an instrument of should we look7 If one wishes, one can national policy: the relationship of walk the cat back over 2000 years to national interests, national policies, war Demosthenes who said: "Courage and aims and military strategies; war as an boldness of speech, unless they have extension of policy by other means; material force at command, lead to peril military force as deterrence. in action." For many of us who have passed the half century mark, however, • Imbalances between political ends our own lifetime can be instructive. and military means, overcommitment https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol33/iss1/28 4 War College: January & February 1980 Review

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Flexibility, thresholds1 bargaining, negotiated war termination, and associated concepts of our theory of limited central war may rest on premises Jess secure or at least Jess pertinent than actual conditions warrant. This paper argues that the credibility, effectiveness, and attractiveness of low-level strike options is a function of the credibility and effectiveness of the entire strategic targeting design; that strategic targeting must be considered in the context of U.S. defense polfcy as a 1 whole; that ways to deter or thwart an adversary s targetinginitiatives and responses must be comprehended by that defense policy; that there must be strategy in and beyond the SIOP.

TARGETING PROBLEMS FOR CENTRAL WAR

hy Colin S. Gray

Strnlc�y in Omlrnl War? The design he extolled the deterrent merits of a of targeting schema is a strategic task-­ single Poseidon-carrying SSBN, 2 or­ that is to say it is an exercise in applied with somewhat greater ambiguity---to strategic thinking. Strategy is supposed Secretary of Defense Harold Brown 's to relate military assets to political Department of Defense Annual Report, purposes. In principle, at least, there can Fiscal Year 1979, where the following be no argument but that strategic judg­ opinion is signaled: ment should guide sub-SIOP, S!OP, and I am not persuaded that the right post-SIOP targeting plans. In practice way to deal with a major Soviet there is considerable ground for philo­ damage-limiting program would sophical dispute. One commentator be by imitating it. Our efforts recently expressed the following, fairly would almost certainly be self­

popular view: defeating1 as would theirs. We can . , , the sheer destructiveness of make certain that we have enough nuclear war has invalidated any warheads -including those held in distinction between winning and reserve-targeted in such a way losing. Thus, it has rendered that the Soviets could have no meaningless the very idea of mili­ expectation of escaping unaccept­ tary strategy as the efficient em­ able damage. ·1 ployment of force ta achieve a As a matter of principle1 as implied 1 state's objectives. above, few if any people would endorse For politically rather more authorita­ the idea that military force should ever tive expressions of opinion along not be employed for other than clearpoliti­ dissimilar lines, one need look no cal purposes. Buti at the level of prac� further than to President Carter's State tice, many people-not excluding some https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol33/iss1/28of the Union address for 1979, wherein senior officials-have difficulty seeing 6 War College: January & February 1980 Review

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Not surprisingly, most discussions and analyses of navies have as their subject the navies of the United States and the Soviet Union or the navies of their allies. Too often overlooked but, for their purposes, no less important are the navies of smaller, nonaligned nations. Sweden is an ideal example for an examination of this latter cJass,

THE NAVAL DEFENSE OF SWEDEN IN THE 1980s

by John B. Hattendorf

The Royal Swedish Navy is of great Sweden and the Nordic Balance. In interest to students of naval affairs as an Scandinavia, the relationship of the vari­ important example of a small but effec­ ous nations of the superpowers has been tive navy. However, most naval writers determined on the basis of particular have Concentrated on the problems of national interests. Norway, Denmark, the great powers at sea, and as a result and Iceland have chosen a relationship there is no body of naval writings that with NATO; Finland has a special rela· fully explains for us the functions of tionship with the Soviet Union that has small navies. The smaller nations have beencreated by her geographic position. been left to their own devices in de� Lying between these two Scandinavian veloplng a pattern of strategic uses for groupings, Sweden has chosen not to their own navies. In this process, the ally herself with any nation or group navy of a neutral and not aligned nation and to pursue a policy that would allow ls a rare example of a small naval force her to be neutral in wartime. A medium­ designed to be independent of other sized, democratic nation, Sweden de­ navies and alliances in performing its sires to retain her historic character as a functions. The manner in which this is nation and, at the same time, to live in carried out in the context of the present freedom and independence. However, strategic situation has some important Sweden lies at the crossroads between ramifications today. In particular, the East and West. She has strong economic strength and credibillty of Sw edish de­ and cultural ties with the West, but she fense is a critical factor in international lies close to the areas of great military1 stability in Northern Europe. As such, economic, geographic and maritime im­ the Royal Swedish Navy plays an im­ portance to the East. While neutrality is portant role in the Scandinavian an obvious choice for a nation in this security pattern that we have come to position, it is a neutrality that is some­ Publishedcall "The by U.S. Nordic Naval Balance."War College Digital Commons, 1980what different from that of other self- 25 Naval War College Review, Vol. 33 [1980], No. 1, Art. 28

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Events in Afghanistan at the turn of t/Je year gave considerable evidence to the 1 11 existence of an 'extema} funotion of Soviet Armed Forces. This article was completed just prior to the coup in and Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Prh1ting r schedules have prevented the author fom making other than an acknowledgment of that event.

THI!: "EXTERNAL FUNCTION"

Of' SOVIET AHMEO FOHCES

by Avi�dor llas!'llwrn

Over the past several years Western ploits targets of opportuni· concern over Soviet external military ty . , Our essential role in activities, primarily in Third World Europe is political and psycho­ countries, has grown dramatically. For logical, which gives the Western example, U.S. Secretary of Defense allies a measure of confidence and Harold Brown observed recently that enhances their ability to work there were various explanations for the together as we attempt to deal 11undeniable growth" of Moscow's mili• with the peripheral crises that are tary power. Some see it as a product of boundto come. 1 bureaucratic inertia, some as part of a This article is designed to highlight deliberate plan Hto work the Soviet will three related aspects of the U.$,S.R's on the international communhy, and increased military involvement abroad: others as a tool for supporting political the changes in the doctrine regarding goals. Events in Angola and the Hom of the role of the Soviet Armed Forces. Africa in this I last named I view could Second1 improvements in Soviet capa­ well be prototypes for more ambitious bility ta project power into distant projections of Soviet power in the trouble spots, and third, recent opera• 1 future." tional tests of this growing capability Interestingly enough, former NATO which, in conjunction with doctrinal Commander Gen, Alexander Haig also principles, may indicate Soviet inten� stated: tions and future areas of operations, As long as we maintain a viable deterrent in Europe, conflict is Smrid llocl ri1w, The modification in more likely to arise on the pe• Soviet military doctrine to include an 1 riphery1 as the Soviet Union ex� 'external function II for the Soviet https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol33/iss1/28 38 War College: January & February 1980 Review

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" ... {I]n any profession real independence of thinking is always rare .. , {b]ut 11 t11e military profession provides some of the most barren soil of all for its nurture. The accuraoy of this view is measured by examining the U.S. Navy's most widely read professional journal. AN EXAMINATION OF PROFESSIONAL CONCERNS OF NAVAL OFFICERS AS REFLECI'EDIN THEIR PROFESSIONAL JOURNAL

by Captain L.F. Brooks, U.S. Navy

Jntroduction. This article investigates affairs contrasts unfavorably with a the collective professional concerns of legendary golden age of Mahanian naval officers as reflected in their pro. thought some time in the past, an age fessional journal duringa 5-year period when naval officers did consider and in the late 1960s, a period when the debate their role in the nation's defense. Navy's present leaders were in mid­ The basic premise underlying this study career. The research arose from a desire is that some insight into the validity of to test several interrelated preconcep­ these preconceptions can be gained tions. The most significant of these is from an examination of the subjects that the Navy has, as one author notes, that naval officers chose to write about "proven fundamentally incapable of and to reada bout. conceptualizing the value of naval forces Two theoretical assumptions are in terms that carry conviction within significant. The first is that Hunting. the administration or even in the pub­ ton's concept of the military profession lic. 111 A second preconcepti on is that as Ha special type of voaation" dis­ this inability to present a reasoned tinguished by its "expertise, responsi­ definition of the role of the Navy in bility and corporateness" is a valid 2 national defense is in part the result of one. As a result the profession as a an absence of serious thinking about whole is assumed, by virtue of its naval missions and strategy within the corporateness, to be capable of formu­ profession. The final preconception is lating an agreed vision of its role in that a disproportionate amount of what national defense. Another way of ex­ thinking does exist is being done by pressing this concept is to assert that the nonmilitary men. This is coupled with notion of a uNavy point of view, 11 in the the perception that the present state of sense of a generally shared professional Published by U.S. Naval War College Digital Commons, 1980 49 Naval War College Review, Vol. 33 [1980], No. 1, Art. 28

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This, the first lecture of the Charles H. Davis Lecture Series, jointly sponsored by the Office of Naval Research and the National Academy of Sciences, was presented at the Naval War College on 14 November by the President of that Academy. The Serles is named for Rear Admiral Charles Davis who, with colleagues Louis Agassiz, Joseph Henry, and Alexander Bache, was instrumental in the negotiations that led to the establishment of the National Academy of Sciences under congressional charter signed by President Llncoln in 1863. THE FUTURE OF AMERICAN SCIENCE

by Pbilip Handler

It has been quite a year-the 100th That is an elitist view of history. To anniversaries of Albert Einstein and be sure, each human being should be Oerk Maxwell and the I 00th anniver­ enabled to live life to the fullest of his sary of the electric light. And it has or her potential. But in a historic sense, fallen my lot to participate in special only a handful of human beings have ceremonies commemorating each of been privileged to leave a permanent, those events. The combination of Max­ positive mark on the course of human well and Edison made for one of the events, to have affected in significant most notable transition points in the degree the quality of life for those who history of our species-the gift of elec• come after. Not all who have done so trical power and of light to mankind-an are known to us. But it would not be event comparable with the beginnings of difficult to agree on a very small list of agriculture, the early refining of metals, those whose legacy has dramatically and the invention of the printing press. altered the nature of our own lives: Yesterday's discoveries and inventions Shakespeare, Galileo, Newton, Darwin, are so easily accepted as today's com­ Pasteur, Maxwell, Einstein, Edison, and monplace, and taken for granted, that it only a few others. The advent of the is imperative that we seek special occa· electric light and centrally generated sions to mark the great triumphs of the electricity constituted what a physicist human spirit. It is that elusive, tri­ would te rm ''a change in state 11 for the umphal quality of the human mind that entire human race. Nothing could have we term .:creativity" that, appearing in given more dramatic evidence of that especialforce in very rare human beings, change than the fact th at, when Mr. has blazed the way from the caves of Edison died in 1931, President Hoover our ancestors-only a moment ago, as contemplated a proclamation that geologic time is measured--t o the rich would have turned off all electric fabric of life in the industrialized power in the United States for 2 nations of the world and most par• minutes-but then recognized that such ticularly in this one. an action had become about as https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol33/iss1/28 60 War College: January & February 1980 Review

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Whether or not the negotiating texts of the Law of the Sea Conference result in a 11 11new law of the sea, it ls becoming clear that "the potential for conflict between developing coastal states and the naval powers is significant enough that the latter should begin to develop policies for meeting challenges to their military uses of the oceans." This paper reviews some of the areas of potential conflict and suggests several points to be consideredin the development of policy. LAW AND CONFLICT AT SEA

by

Lieutenant Roger D. Wiegley JAG Corps, U.S. Navy

There is a burgeoning literature that strategist; the 12-mile territorial sea and deals with military implications of the the recognition of a special status for new law of the sea regime. Within that waters lying between the islands of literature, the range of predictionscould arohipe!agoes. Yet even before the hardly be wider. One author has argued RICNT, the 12-mile territorial sea was that the rules emerging from the Third becoming, if it was not in fact, a custom 5 United Nations' Conference on the Law of international law, and the concept of the Sea (UNCLOS Ill) signal the of 11archipelagic waters" was also gain­ 6 exclusion of naval forces from all but ing support. friendly waters.1 But another knowl­ edgeable writer has hypothesized that �aval ConcernR. What, then, has naval diplomacy will become more ef­ caused so much concern to the pro­ fective because deployed forces will be ponents of unrestricted mobility for 112 able to cross new symbolic 11borders. naval forces? Two things; first, that a Despite the disparate cooolusions, how­ convention similar to the RICNT, if ever, the analysts have with few excep­ adopted, would become a source of tions projected a new era In which dispute rather than an established order "freedom of the seas" will be a concept and second, that a new convention under ever-increasing challenge, 3 would simply be the first in a progres­ Ironically, the negotiating texts pro­ sive series of demands by developing duced at UN CLOS III do not themselves coastal states.' Whether such pessimism bode ill for the naval powers. In the is warranted remains to be seen but the latest text, the Revised Informal Com­ picture has probably been overdrawn. posite Negotiating Text (RICNT),4 only Undoubtedly there will be disputes and two provisions are clearly restrictive adjustments in the new order, just as Publishedfrom bythe U.S. Navalpernpectlve War College of Digital the Commons,naval 1980there were prior to UNCLOS III, but 71 Naval War College Review, Vol. 33 [1980], No. 1, Art. 28

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Vigilance- an old,fashioned word ;rnd all ageless and constant requirement. Risks and dangers at sea comprehend rhe sea itself and some of those things above, in, and on lt including, for H,M,A,S, Sydney, a mercl,ant ship flying friendly colors. WIIA'f PRICE VIGILANCE'!

THE KORJllORAN-SYDNEY BATTLE

by U,•m Admiral William H. Langcnberg, U.S. N.tval Reserve

lnlrO{hwlion. In November1941, far Line, built at Krupp-Germania of Kiel in 1 off the west coast of Australia, a bizarre 1938. As a raider1 Kormoran was naval battle was fought which has great heavily armed with six 5, 9-inch and four implications for all struggles at sea, past 3. 7-inch guns, five antiaircraft machine­ and future. It is, to this day, little guns, and six torpedo tubes, ono sub­ known and even less publicized but that merged and two on deck on each side. does not detract from its significance, it She also carried two Ar

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https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol33/iss1/28 116 War College: January & February 1980 Review

Published by U.S. Naval War College Digital Commons, 1980 117 Naval War College Review, Vol. 33 [1980], No. 1, Art. 28

https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol33/iss1/28 118 War College: January & February 1980 Review

Published by U.S. Naval War College Digital Commons, 1980 119 Naval War College Review, Vol. 33 [1980], No. 1, Art. 28

https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol33/iss1/28 120 War College: January & February 1980 Review

Published by U.S. Naval War College Digital Commons, 1980 121 Naval War College Review, Vol. 33 [1980], No. 1, Art. 28

https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol33/iss1/28 122