1005 Asia Minor 1006 through the 3rd/2nd centuries BCE. “Ashur,” in a kingdom, the setting of the mountains of Ararat number of late biblical texts, stands for “Syria” where Noah’s ark supposedly lay (Gen 8 : 4). Ionian (e.g., Isa 11 : 11–16; 19 : 23–25; 27 : 13; Mic 7 : 12; colonies appear in the P source’s Table of Nations Zech 10 : 10–11; Ps 83 : 8), and a Minaean text from (Gen 10 : 2–5), the sole Hebrew reference to the the 3rd century BCE has Asur in the same sense. Greeks before the coming of Alexander. Javan (LXX Ιων α) and Lud (LXX Λυδ α) are among the future Bibliography: ■ D. Edelman, “The ‘Ashurites’ of Eshbaal’s State (2 Sam. 2,9),” PEQ 117 (1985) 85–91. ■ E. A. Knauf, witnesses to God’s glory (Isa 66 : 19). Javan came to “Saul, David and the Philistines,” BN 109 (2001) 15–18. mean the whole Aegean world and its king, Alexan- ■ F. V. Winnett, “The Arabian Genealogies in the Book of der (Dan 8 : 21; 10 : 20; 11 : 2). The Septuagint Genesis,”inTranslating & Understanding the Old Testament, makes Asia Minor more prominent than in the He- FS H. G.May (eds. H. T. Frank/W. L. Reed; Nashville, Tenn. brew Bible: Cappadocia (Amos 9 : 7; HB Caphtor); 1970) 171–96. Rhodians (Ezek 27 : 15; HB Dedanites); Cilicia (Jdt Ernst Axel Knauf 1 : 12; 2 : 21–25); “crown of Asia” (1 Macc 11 : 13– 14; 12 : 39; 13 : 32). In the New Testament, Acts 21 : 39 presents Ashvath Paul as Asian, a citizen of Tarsus, Cilicia, who trav- Ashvath (MT Asˇwa¯ t; LXX Ασιθ) only appears in els through much of Asia Minor as an apostle. His 1 Chr 7 : 33 as a 4th-generation descendant from co-worker Lydia, a “dealer in purple cloth” (Acts Asher. The meaning of the name can be derived 16 : 14), comes from the Roman province of Asia from the Arabic asˇa¯ , “be blind” or asˇwat, “lack of and shares in its commercial prosperity. Ephesus, intelligence” (Noth: 228). Within the Hebrew man- the capital city, was an early Christian missionary uscript tradition and the Septuagint a number of center, from which as much as half of the New Tes- orthographic variants are attested. Two Hebrew tament may have originated (most of Paul’s letters, manuscripts evidence As´ wa¯ t in contrast to MT. Luke–Acts, the Pastoral Epistles, and Revelation Within the Greek translations, the Lucianic recen- from nearby Patmos). The great Ephesian Temple sion reads Ασσυαθ, while LXXBA has Ασειθ. The of Artemis numbered among the seven wonders of LXX variations can be explained by the graphic the ancient world, and Acts 19 : 23–41 criticizes its similarity between waw and yod. On the other hand, commercialization of religion. The wealth and cul- the Lucianic recension recognizes the Hebrew let- tic Roman integration of Asia’s major cities (e.g., ters and read the waw as a mater (the Vulgate fol- Ephesus, Pergamum, Smyrna, Sardis) receive vitu- lowed this reading, translating Asoth). peration in the Apocalypse (Rev 2 : 1–3 : 22). Galatia is the address of a major Pauline letter. The term ■ Bibliography: M. Noth, Die israelitischen Personennamen denoted both a general region (central Anatolia) (BWANT 46; Hildesheim 1980 [= Stuttgart 11928]). and a Roman province (with variable borders), Peter Altmann which makes understandable a debate in New Tes- tament studies over whether the letter addresses in- habitants of Roman Galatia proper (North Galatian Asia theory) or in the southern cities around Pisidian /Asia Minor; /East Asia; /South Asia; Antioch (South Galatian theory). To the east of Ga- /Southeast Asia latia lay the frontier land of Cappadocia, extending to the Euphrates River and the border of Armenia. Jews resided in the region (Acts 2 : 9), as did early Asia Minor Christians (1 Pet 1 : 1).

1. Asia Minor in the Bible Bibliography: ■ A. Y. Collins, Crisis and Catharsis (Philadel- 2. Archaeology phia, Pa. 1984). ■ S. M. Elliott, Cutting Too Close for Comfort 3. History (JSNT 248; London 2003). ■ S. J. Friesen, Imperial Cults and 4. Society the Apocalypse of John (Oxford 2001). ■ O. R. Gurney, The 5. Religion Hittites (New York 21954). ■ P. H. Harland, Associations, 6. Culture and Arts Synagogues and Congregations (Minneapolis, Minn. 2003). 7. Asia Minor and the Bible ■ H. Koester (ed.), Ephesos (HThS 41; Valley Forge. Pa. 1995). ■ B. W. Winter (ed.), The Book of Acts in its First Century Setting, 1. Asia Minor in the Bible 6 vols. (Grand Rapids, Mich. 1993–). Asia Minor means not only Anatolia but also the Ae- J. Albert Harrill gean world. For the Old Testament the term is an- achronistic, being unattested before the Roman era. 2. Archaeology It encompassed the Hittite Empire, among the This article will survey the beginnings of archaeol- greatest ancient Near Eastern powers, whose suze- ogy in Asia Minor. It will tell the story of Anatolian rainty treaties parallel the biblical idea of covenant, archaeology by describing the history of excavation an occasional partner with ancient Israel in trade at representative biblical sites and mentioning the and war (1 Kgs 10 : 29; 2 Kgs 7 : 6); and the Urartu significant personalities and discoveries associated

Authenticated | [email protected] Download Date | 1/5/19 7:18 PM Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception 2 (© Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 2009) 1007 Asia Minor 1008 with them. It will conclude with a discussion of the the English artist T. Allom visited the Seven current state of archaeology in Turkey today. Churches. A year later his Constantinople and the Scen- a. Beginnings and First Travelers. The beginning ery of the Seven Churches of Asia Minor appeared. of the scientific study of Asia Minor’s ancient sites Through Allom’s art, the ancient sites of Asia Mi- can be traced to the messianic and millenarian nor were brought to life visually for Europeans. Al- movements of 1666. Apocalyptic expectations though the scenes are idealized, the gravures never- among European Christians coupled with the an- theless show the biblical sites as they existed in the nouncement in Smyrna by Sabbatai Zevi that he early 19th century. was the Jewish messiah created great interest in the Best known for his discoveries at Xanthus in Seven Churches of Revelation. In 1667 P. Rycaut Lycia, C. Fellows made four trips to Asia Minor be- was appointed by the Levant Company as consul tween 1838 and 1844. In 1852 Fellows prepared a at Smyrna. Before his return to Turkey, the Royal popular abridged version of his journals for publi- Society asked Rycaut to “inquire after these excel- cation. Fellows’ published accounts of his travels lent Works of Antiquity.” Rycaut assured H. Olden- and researches created even more interest in the an- burg, the society’s secretary, that he would be dili- tiquities of Asia Minor. gent to give him an account of the ruins of the In 1869 A. Svoboda provided the earliest photo- Seven Churches of Asia. In the next two years Ry- graphic record in his The Seven Churches with accom- caut visited all of the sites, discovering the site of panying text. These photographs are historically Thyatira at Akhisar in the process. His observa- and archaeologically significant because they show tions, published in 1678 at the command of the ruins that have either deteriorated further or else king, summarized the present state of the Seven have disappeared today. Churches. One of the most famous names associated with In 1670 T. Smith, the British chaplain at Con- archaeology in Asia Minor is W. M. Ramsay, who stantinople, traveled in the Aegean, and eight years made repeated visits beginning in 1880. His re- later published in Latin and English an account of search resulted in the publication of two classics – his visit to the Seven Churches. Smith blamed the The Historical Geography of Asia Minor (1890) and The carelessness of the Greeks for the neglect of the ru- Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia (1895). His journeys to ins, while at the same time faulting western Chris- Turkey continued until 1914. Ramsay’s example of tians for “either not caring or not daring to visit on-site research was soon followed by younger Eu- them.” Smith commented on the architectural re- ropean scholars who began to take similar archaeo- mains and did pioneering epigraphic work by re- logical journeys through Asia Minor. cording 36 inscriptions. b. Archaeology at Select Biblical Sites. i. Assos. Smith’s book created much interest among The Archaeological Institute of America sent J. T. other scholars. One was E. Chishull, the chaplain Clarke and F. H. Bacon to Assos in 1880 to begin of the Levant Company at Smyrna. His Travels in the AIA’s first excavation. Their work continued Turkey (1847) chronicled his visits to Ephesus and until 1883, although it was fraught with leadership Smyrna. The French traveler J. P. de Tournefort problems, lack of field experience, and ineptness in published a two-volume work in 1718 called Travel working with the Turkish authorities. Only 13 out to Asia Minor. The volume included a description of of 50 cases of excavated artifacts were allowed to be numerous biblical sites as well as gravures of se- shipped to the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. In lected sites. R. Pococke in 1739 traveled from 1884 a change in Ottoman antiquities law prohib- Smyrna to Ankara, but his A Description of the East ited all antiquities from leaving the empire. The (1743–1745) is largely concerned with regions of Anatolia previously unexplored by the British. publication of the site lingered for years. Finally A number of other travelers visited Asia Minor Clarke’s selective notes on the Athena temple were during the intervening years. W. M. Leake in 1824 published in 1898. In 1909 and 1921 Bacon pub- published his Journal of a Tour in Asia Minor. The lished two volumes of Investigations at Assos with focus of Leake’s research was inner Asia Minor. Clarke and German architect R. Koldewey. The During his stay in Smyrna F. V. J. Arundell, the books featured site plans drawn to careful scale, chaplain to the British factory, collected many an- drawings of partial restorations of monuments, and tiquities, coins, and manuscripts that were later site elevations. Bacon’s drawings helped to stir sold to the British Museum. In 1826 Arundell American interest in excavating classical sites. Ex- made two journeys to the Seven Churches, publish- cavation at Assos stopped until 1981 when a Turk- ing his notes in A Visit to the Seven Churches of Asia ish team resumed excavations. A different Turkish (1828). The volume also included over 50 inscrip- team took over the excavations in 2005. Objects tions. Arundell was accompanied by a missionary from Assos are displayed at the Louvre, the Boston named J. Hartley, who in 1833 published his own Museum of Fine Arts, and the Istanbul Archaeol- account, Researches in Greece and the Levant. ogy Museum. After the 1833 Greek War of Independence, ii. Derbe. Derbe is one of the three unexcavated bib- travel to Turkey was possible again, and in 1838 lical sites with a tell (Turkish höyük) in Turkey.

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(Lystra and Colossae are the other two.) In 1888 excavation at the Artemesium in 1904–5. This was Sterret, later followed by Ramsay, proposed that led by D. G. Hogarth, who investigated the archaic Derbe’s location was southeast of Lystra at Gude- phases of the shrine. Meanwhile, in 1893 O. Benn- lisin. However, epigraphic and numismatic evi- dorf proposed to the Austrian Ministry of Culture dence was lacking. In 1956 M. Balance discovered that Ephesus become the target of an excavation an inscription at Kerti Höyük northeast of Kara- project. C. Humann, the excavator of Pergamum, man that mentions Derbe. In 1967 B. Van Eldersen submitted a technical report supporting the exca- discovered another inscription nearby that names a vation. In 1895 the Austrians under Benndorf’s di- bishop of Derbe named Michael. These important rection began their work at the Artemisium. In the discoveries allowed the site of Derbe finally to be next two decades excavations had begun at 16 addi- established. The two inscriptions are now displayed tional buildings. Preliminary reports by the excava- at the archaeological museums in Konya and Kara- tion director began to be published in 1898, and in man. 1906 the first volume of the series Forschungen in iii. Ephesus. E. Falkener was the first archaeologist Ephesus (FiE) was published. The Austrians have to work at Ephesus. In 1845 he attempted unsuc- worked continuously at Ephesus for over a century, cessfully to find the temple of Artemis. However, except for breaks surrounding the two world wars Falkener did identify many buildings and pro- (1914–26; 1939–54). Three Roman copies of the duced the first city plan. In 1863 J. T. Wood also cult statue of Artemis Ephesis were found ritually began to search for the Artemisium. He also exca- buried under the floor of the Prytaneum. The ongo- vated at the odeion and the theater, where in 1866 ing excavations in the terrace houses has provided he found the Salutaris inscription. Wood used this important insights into how the city’s rich and fa- inscription to lead him finally to the Artemisium, mous lived. Anastyloses has been accomplished at which he discovered on New Year’s Eve 1869. Exca- several places including the Celsus Library and the vation was difficult because of the high water table Pollio Fountain. Ephesus also proved to be a rich and sickness. Wood abandoned his excavations in epigraphic source with over 3,800 texts discovered. 1874, donating his meager finds to his sponsor, the These have been published in the Inschriften von British Museum. The Museum again sponsored an Ephesos (IE; 1979–84), which forms a subset of the

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Inschriften griechischer Städte aus Kleinasien (IK). IE con- cavations. In 1935 I˙nan had become the first sists of eight volumes in nine parts plus a supple- Turkish woman to train as an archaeologist in Ger- ment. Finds from Ephesus are displayed at Istanbul many. In her four decades as a professor at Istanbul Archaeology Museum, the Ephesus Museum in Vi- University she trained hundreds of Turkish archae- enna, and the archaeology museum in Selçuk. ologists. She also helped to establish the archaeo- ˙ iv. Hattusha. In 1834 C. Texier discovered the ruins logical museums at Antalya and Side. Inan’s ex- of Hattusha, believing it to be a Median city. W. J. pertise in Roman statuary contributed to the Hamilton (1836), G. Perrot (1861), and K. Humann conservation of numerous pieces found in the exca- (1882) were among the many travelers to visit the vations. These are now displayed in the Antalya site. In 1906 the Germans H. Winckler and T. Mak- Museum. Her work in the monumental tombs of ridi recovered 2,500 fragments of cuneiform tab- the west necropolis has unearthed two inscribed lets, which allowed its first identification as the sherds (6th century BCE) – one in Greek and the Hittite capital Hattusha. The German Archaeologi- other in epichoric Pamphylian script. These show cal Excavation (DAI) initiated excavations in 1907; the coexistence of the two languages in archaic its work has continued to the present interrupted Perga. The Hellenistic city gate through which Paul only by the two world wars. Large-scale excavations walked has recently been restored. have cleared the remains of the royal citadel, the vii. Pergamum. Since Cyriacus of Ancona in the 15th lower and upper cities, and the Great City. Limited century, Pergamum’s remains have been described excavations have occurred at the rock sanctuary of by travelers. From 1878–86 C. Humann worked to Yazılıkaya. In 1935 work began at the nearby Hit- expose the frieze of the altar of Zeus that was built tite site of Alacahöyük, the first excavation to be into the Byzantine city wall. With the permission sponsored by the Türk Tarih Kurumu. The Turkish of the Turkish authorities the sculptural fragments History Foundation, which received its initial man- were shipped to Germany for later reconstruction. date from Atatürk, has gone on to sponsor over 50 Under the auspices of the German Archaeological other excavations. Approximately 30,000 cunei- Institute (DAI), A. Conze directed the excavations form tablets have been found at Hattusha. In 1915 during this period and unearthed much of the up- B. Hrozny succeeded in deciphering the Hittite lan- per city. From 1900 through 1911 W. Dörpfeld, ex- guage. Museums at Bogazkale and Alacahöyük dis- posed monuments in the middle and lower city. T. play finds as well as the Museum of Anatolian Civi- Wiegand resumed the excavations in 1927, and his lizations in Ankara. teams worked mainly on the arsenal, heroon, the v. Laodicea. Laodicea was well-known to early trav- Asclepium, and the Red Hall until 1936. From elers in Asia Minor. G. Weber conducted the first 1957–68, E. Boehringer resumed work at the Askle- archaeological research at the site in 1883 and pro- pieion and attempted unsuccessfully to find the duced a city plan. In 1895 W. M. Ramsay conducted sanctuary of Athena Nikephoros in the lower city. detailed research at the site. No further work was W. Radt directed the excavations from 1971–2005. done until 1961–63 when a French archaeological The Trajan temple on the acropolis was restored in team from Quebec Laval University excavated at the 1980s. Another focus was the city’s residential the nymphaeum. Included in their 1969 excavation quarter where a richly decorated mansion of the report was a discussion of its inscriptions by the Hellenistic/Roman periods was discovered. This noted French epigrapher L. Robert. In 1997 T. Cor- Building Z was opened to the public in 2004. The sten published the first volume of Laodicea inscrip- inscriptions of Pergamum, originally published by tions for the IK series. Formal excavations were re- the DAI between 1896–1913, are now being repub- sumed again in 2002 led by the archaeology lished and updated by Commission for Ancient department of Pamukkale University in nearby History and Epigraphy. These are now available on- Denizli. Excavations have progressed rapidly along line at the DAI web site. The archaeology museum the Syrian street and north between the east and in Bergama and the Pergamon Museum in Berlin west theaters. A column fragment found in the display finds from Pergamum. nymphaeum displays the only known graffito of a viii. Pisidian Antioch. Pisidian Antioch has drawn menorah with a cross inscribed above it. The mu- much attention from travelers and archaeologists. seum at Hierapolis displays finds from the site. In his Discoveries in Asia Minor (1834) Arundell de- vi. Perga. Perga was well known to travelers includ- scribed the ruins accurately. J. R. S. Sterrett visited ing Fellows who visited the site in 1840. Formal Pisidian Antioch on his two epigraphic journeys excavations did not begin, however, until 1946 (1884, 1885), copying over 60 new inscriptions. when A. Mansel directed the work sponsored by the W. M. Ramsay first visited Pisidian Antioch in Türk Tarih Kurumu. He also excavated from 1953– 1882. After his 1905 visit he published a complete 57 and 1967–75. Restorations were completed at description in Cities of St. Paul. In 1911 Ramsay, his the southern gate and at the well-preserved sta- wife, and W. M. Calder discovered the shrine of dium. A large Roman bath complex was also exca- Men Askaenos on the peak of nearby Karakuyu. vated. After Mansel’s death, J. I˙nan directed the ex- Ramsay, Calder, and J. G. C. Anderson did a hap-

Authenticated | [email protected] Download Date | 1/5/19 7:18 PM Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception 2 (© Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 2009) 1013 Asia Minor 1014 hazard dig in the Men sanctuary during 1912 and ship of Bryn Mawr University. It was on this 1913. After their funding ran out, the Ramsays ex- mound that the pioneer Jewish female archaeolo- cavated the propylon leading to the Augustan tem- gist found evidence of continuous settlement from ple. They discovered and published fragments of the Neolithic period. Bryn Mawr resumed excava- the Res Gestae. Work was suspended during World tions at Gözlükule in 2007 in cooperation with Is- War I, and it was not until 1924 that Ramsay and tanbul’s Bogaziçi University. In 1993 a rescue exca- F. W. Kelsey of the University of Michigan received vation was begun in downtown Tarsus when a permission from the Turkish government to renew well-preserved section of colonnaded street with excavations. The Michigan expedition was led by shops was discovered. In 2007 a section of Roman D. M. Robinson. It greatly improved upon the ini- bridge that spanned the former course of the Cyn- tial efforts of Ramsay and his colleagues. Perhaps dus River was discovered during renovations to the this was the reason behind the bitter dispute that Makamı S¸ erif Mosque. Little restoration work has occurred between Ramsay and Robinson. Ramsay been done to the large, concrete temple called Do- worked there alone in 1925 and 1926, and after nuktas¸ . North of Tarsus near the village of Saglık- Kelsey’s death in 1927 no further excavations by lıköy is one of the best preserved sections of Roman the University of Michigan were attempted. After road in Turkey. Finds are displayed at the archaeol- Ramsay, there was no further archaeological work ogy museums in Tarsus and Adana. done in Pisidian Antioch. In the 1980s Turkish ar- c. Archaeology in Turkey Today. The General Di- chaeologist Mehmet Tas¸ lıalan began the extensive rectorate of Monuments and Museums currently excavations that are seen today. Tas¸ lıalan’s research administers over 80 museums in Turkey. This di- at the Augustan sanctuary confirmed the tradi- rectorate likewise oversees the management of all tional view that it was an imperial cult temple and archaeological sites in Turkey. The results of ongo- not a temple to an Anatolian deity. Ramsay’s con- ing archaeological work are presented each May at jecture that the central church was built on the site the annual Symposium of Excavations, Surveys, of the synagogue where Paul preached has now and Archeometry sponsored by the Turkish Minis- been discredited. The museum in Yalvaç displays try of Culture. Since 1980 these findings have been finds from the site. published in a series of annual excavation reports ix. Sardis. The first known map of Sardis was drawn (Kazı Sonuçları Toplantısı). In 1983 the publication in 1750 by G. B. Borra, a member of the Society of of survey results (Aras¸ tırma Sonuçları Toplantısı) Dilettanti who was touring ancient ruins. In 1854 began, and in 1985 the archaeometry results (Arke- L. P. Spiegelthal, the Prussian consul in Smyrna, ometri Sonuçları Toplantısı). In 1990 a fourth se- tunneled into a tumulus and discovered the burial ries was added dealing with museum recovery exca- chamber of the Lydian king Alyattes. The first exca- vations (Müze Kurtarma Kazıları Semineri). The vations at Sardis were sponsored by Princeton Uni- excavation reports are summarized and translated versity and led by H. C. Butler. The team worked into English on a web site called “Current Archae- from 1910–14 and unearthed the temple of Arte- ology in Turkey.” The American Journal of Archeology mis as well as over 1,000 Lydian tombs. The work (AJA) annually publishes a summary of archaeologi- was suspended during the war, and the American cal activity in Turkey. The journal ANMED annually effort did not begin again until 1958. In coopera- publishes news of archaeology in the Mediterra- tion with ASOR, Harvard and Cornell Universities nean region. The TAY Project has inventoried all fielded another expedition led by G. M. A. archaeological excavations in Turkey and has pub- Hanfmann. Reconstruction of the Marble Court of lished a summary of these sites. Most archaeologi- the bath and gymnasium complex ran from 1964– cal excavations in Turkey now have their own web- 73. The largest synagogue in Asia Minor was dis- sites. covered in the 1960s and subsequently restored. In- Bibliography: ■ E. Akurgal, Ancient Civilizations and Ruins vestigations of the Lydian burial grounds at Bin of Turkey (Istanbul 1993). ■ S. H. Allen, Excavating Our Past Tepe were also conducted. From 1977–2008, the (Boston, Mass. 2002). ■ G. M. Cohen/M. S. Joukowsky, field director was C. H. Greenewalt, Jr. Recent exca- Breaking Ground (Ann Arbor, Mich. 2005). ■ W. H. C. Frend, vations under the Greco-Roman theater have re- The Archaeology of Early Christianity (Minneapolis, Minn. ■ vealed several Lydian houses and their contents. 1996). A. Hoffmann, Erinnerungen (Istanbul 2004). ■ S. L. Marchand, Down from Olympus (Princeton, N.J. 1996). Since 1958 over 11,000 objects have been invento- ■ J. McRay, Archaeology and the New Testament (Grand Rapids, ried by the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis. Mich. 1991). ■ G. Wiplinger/G. Wlach, Ephesus (Vienna Some of these finds are displayed at the area mu- 1996); trans. of id./id., Ephesos (Vienna 1995). seum in Manisa and at the Metropolitan Museum Mark Wilson of Art in New York. x. Tarsus. Excavation at Tarsus has been difficult 3. History because the modern city is built over the ancient The history of Anatolia is rooted in geography. The one. H. Goldman excavated at Gözlükule from peninsula has been compared with a hat, with brim 1934–39 and again in 1947–48 under the sponsor- and indented crown. Only in the west, where river

Authenticated | [email protected] Download Date | 1/5/19 7:18 PM Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception 2 (© Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 2009) 1015 Asia Minor 1016 valleys make deep inroads, has the brim any width. aohs, who called the kingdom Kheta. There were Along the Black Sea and Mediterranean it is very marriage alliances with Egypt, but relations were narrow. The crown sinks in the middle to form normally hostile. The battle of Kadesh (ca. 1285 rolling plains. In the east the mountains rise until BCE) secured Hittite control of Syria. (The later they merge with the Caucasus, and the roots of the “Hittites” [MT høtym] in the Syria of the Hebrew Bi- range belong in the Himalaya and beyond. The ble to the end of the 8th century were relics of this number of areas to be mentioned here under their control.) In the 12th century the kingdom was classical names (see “4. Society”; “5. Religion”; “6. overwhelmed by the “Peoples of the Sea” men- Culture and Arts”) shows how geography broke up tioned under 1182 in records of Ramesses III: Mysi- the peninsula and allowed diverse human systems ans and Phrygians, coming from the west. The to develop. In antiquity its fertility made it attract- Phrygians, Balkan immigrants, figure in Homer’s ive to invaders: it could provide grain, fruit, and Iliad on the Trojan side (their territory on the west- timber, obsidian and then metals (except tin). Di- ern uplands made them influential horsebreeders). versity is the keynote: while the central plateau They dominated central and north-western Anato- earned the designation “Axylon” (woodless), and lia until the Cimmerians, invading from Russia, still deserves it, it nevertheless was divisible into caused the suicide of the fabulously rich King Mi- zones and had its fertile corners. das (738–696/5). The Cimmerians took Sardis (644), Anatolia has also been compared with a bridge killed its king Gyges (ca. 680–645), and terrorized with an east-west axis. The peninsula has been Ionia. But the warfare with Lydia helped wear them fought over and shared by powers with their bases down. Gold in a tributary of the Hermus (Gediz to the east or west – Iranians and Greeks; Byzan- Çay) and access to sea-routes also made Lydia’s rul- tines and Turks. Two main routes ran along this ers rich. The Mermnad dynasty ruled successfully axis: the northern highway, known as the Royal ca. 700–546 BCE, but the proverbially wealthy (Persian) road, the administrative artery linking the Croesus looked to expand eastwards and brought west coast at Sardis (Sert) with Ancyra (Ankara) and the equally expansionist Achaemenid Persians the Euphrates crossings and on to the Persian capi- down on Sardis. The fall of Lydia carried perma- tal at Susa, and the southern highway, the geogra- nent Persian rule under satraps to the western pher Strabo’s Koine Hodos (Common Road), which coast, creating a significant Iranian legacy (see “6. carried merchandise to and from Ephesus (Efes) Culture and Arts”). through Apamea Celaenae (Dinar) north of the More significant still were the waves of Greeks mountains of Pisidia, down through the pass in the settling round the coast of Anatolia, especially in Taurus called the Cilician Gates into the Levant. the rich west. The Aeolians came from Boeotia and Thessaly towards 1000 BCE, settling lands from the These routes were followed by armies campaigning Hellespont to the Hermus and intermarrying with in Anatolia. Sea routes along the coasts also need local people. Further south, Ionians claimed de- to be borne in mind, and those that linked Anatolia scent from Athens; they intermarried with the Cari- with the Balkans and south Russia. ans and developed precociously from the mid-8th Anatolia emerges into history in the Neolithic century (see “6. Culture and Arts”). Their revolt period, with Çatal Hüyük the first of its quasi-ur- against Persia (499) provoked the attacks on Greece ban developments, fortified citadels that arose in repulsed in 490 and 480/79. After that Persian Ana- the centre and west; then in the Bronze Age came tolia itself was fair game for Greek ambitions, and Hacılar and Alaca Hüyük; Troy (Hisarlık) in the it was liberated by Alexander the Great in 334. north-west is the most famous example. Trade in Alexander went on to destroy the Persian Em- metals was the support of Kanes (Kültepe), an As- pire, but his own empire did not survive his death syrian settlement of the Middle and Late Bronze in 323. Syria and the greater part of Anatolia fell to ages documented on cuneiform tablets. It survived his general Seleucus I Nicator (ca. 358–281) whose as Hanisa, and was absorbed into the capital of descendants, the Seleucids, kept control of much of Cappadocia at Mazaca (later Caesareia, now Kayseri) the peninsula until Antiochus III the Great (ca. in the late Hellenistic age. The mixed origin of the 242–187) fell under the suspicion of the Romans city population is shown by nomenclature and (designs on mainland Greece were the charge) and cults: Assyrian Astarte, Greek Zeus and Herakles. was defeated by them at the battle of Magnesia One power that arose on the plateau was that (Manisa) in 190 BCE. He lost Lydia, Phrygia, Mysia, of a mixed people, the Hittites, whose main centre and Caria, keeping Pamphylia and Rough and was HattusˇaatBogazköy, 160 km east of Ankara. Smooth Cilicia. The beneficiaries were Rome’s al- The empire of Hatti lasted from about 1700–1190 lies, Rhodes, which was given charge of districts on BCE. Making effective use of chariot warfare, it ex- the south-west corner of Anatolia, and, inland, the tended from the west coast of Anatolia to the dynasty of Attalus I (269–197) of Pergamum (Ber- south-east, and brought contact with the Hurrians, gama), which had its own ambitions. The Pergam- who were establishing themselves on the upper Ti- ene kingdom had already achieved resounding suc- gris and Euphrates, with Babylonians and the Phar- cess by defeating new arrivals, the Gauls.

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The Celts, taking advantage of the disorganiza- 247 BCE, had taken over the rump of the Persian tion of Macedonia and the wars between Alexan- Empire, and aspired to its place in the world. der’s successor kings, descended on Greece at the Trouble with dependencies weakened it as a claim- beginning of the 270s and crossed en masse into the ant to Anatolia, but it was powerful enough for the north-west of Anatolia looking for booty, merce- Romans to regard it as a serious rival. First contact nary wages, or land, devastating the Hellespont was made in the 90s BCE when the Roman com- (Dardanelles), Aeolis and Ionia, and the hinterland. mander L. Cornelius Sulla negotiated with a Par- It was Attalus I who is claimed to have confined thian general about the future of states east of Pro- them to the area round Ancyra. Their three vincia Asia. Later there was war over the same issue, branches kept their independence down to the ex- and M. Licinius Crassus suffered a fatal defeat at pedition of Cn. Manlius Vulso against them in 189 Carrhae (53 BCE), involving the loss of Roman BCE, selling their services as allies, and they sur- standards. In 40 BCE, with the help of a Roman vived, still nomadic, eventually giving their name republican, Q. Labienus, the Parthians overran to a Roman province, Galatia, annexed in 25 BCE. western Anatolia, to be driven out two years later. The Attalids survived as friends of Rome until In the division of the empire between Mark Antony Attalus III died in 133, bequeathing his kingdom and his fellow Triumvirs after Octavian and Lepi- to the Romans. They left the further reaches to de- dus Anatolia came to be in Antony’s portion. An- pendent monarchs; it was Roman policy to leave tony set himself up as a new Alexander, but even difficult areas in the hands of local dynasts, who with the resources of the eastern provinces and of had forces on the spot. Many autonomous cities Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt behind him, he failed within the kingdom also remained free. Rome put to achieve permanent success against Parthia. down a pretender, Aristonicus, in the process of an- Antony and Cleopatra were destroyed by their nexation (129), and Provincia Asia, so called because rival Octavian in 30 BCE. Under his new name, Au- the commander’s sphere of control was not delim- gustus, the victor reached détente with the Parthi- ited, settled down under senators entitled “procon- ans in 20 BCE. Control of Armenia Major, south suls.” Provincia means “job,” and etymologically of the Caucasus, was the issue on which disputes something “for the conquering.” Rome delimited focused Under the agreement the Romans ap- such provinces for administrative convenience, pointed its king and the standards were restored. without following linguistic or racial divisions. The system was prestigious for Rome, but unstable The peacetime activities of governors were when the Armenian ruler died or was rejected. Two largely juridical. They went on circuit to a dozen Roman princes, C. Caesar and Germanicus Caesar, or so assize centres (conventus), where they could be sent east to restore the status quo, lost their lives approached by local residents; the 10th book of (4 and 19 CE). By 54 CE, when Emperor Claudius Pliny the Younger’s Letters, written as governor of died, Armenia was again in Parthian hands, and Bithynia-Pontus (ca. 109–12), richly illustrates the Nero sent a powerful general to recover the posi- issues. Roman rule was greedy and tyrannical, tion. By 63 CE, however, he was ready to accept a though there were a few conscientious administra- Parthian nominee for Armenia, provided he had tors. These were liable to fall foul of the tax collec- been recognized by Rome. In the face of the dan- tors, whose activities were regulated in vain. A gers one emperor after another had solidified Ro- comprehensive series of customs regulations was man control over Anatolia: Galatia was followed by published in Ephesus in 62 CE. The weakening of the Seleucids had allowed Cappadocia and Commagene (17 CE), Lycia-Pam- smaller powers established after Alexander’s death phylia (43 CE), and Pontus Polemoniacus (64 CE). to assert themselves. One of the most important Attention to the north of the peninsula was devel- was that of the Iranian Mithridates VI Eupator oped in the face of a perceived threat from tribes (120–63 BCE), centred on Cappadocia. Rulers of beyond the Caucasus, related to dangers from those this kingdom claimed to regulate the succession of on the Danube. Vespasian (69–79 CE) strengthened smaller realms such as Commagene and Armenia the Euphrates frontier by deploying legions at Me- Minor. In 88 BCE, Mithridates’ quarrel with the litene (Malatya) and Satala (Sadag). Nero had united Romans culminated in his invasion of Asia and the the provinces of Galatia and Cappadocia under a massacre allegedly of 80,000 Romans, carried out consular governor. Vespasian confirmed the ar- in Greek cities at his behest. War continued inter- rangement. mittently until Pompey the Great forced Mithri- The presence of troops on the Euphrates and dates to suicide in 63. Pompey, who also brought those guarding routes through Anatolia, and their the Seleucid monarchy to a formal end, added to settlement in colonies or individually after dis- Roman possessions in Anatolia by setting up the charge, made a profound difference to eastern and province of Bithynia-Pontus in the former kingdom central Anatolia, and intensified in the troubled of Bithynia. 3rd century. The construction of a road system in Meanwhile, east of the Euphrates, a new power, eastern Anatolia was beneficial, (though achieved that of the Parthian Arsacids, whose era dates from only with corvée manpower), and there was nothing

Authenticated | [email protected] Download Date | 1/5/19 7:18 PM Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception 2 (© Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 2009) 1019 Asia Minor 1020 comparable until the end of the 19th century; but threatening phase of eastern conflict. A theme was a the passing through of Roman troops might be large military zone partly populated by discharged devastating to communities forced to supply them. soldiers, under a strategos (general): Anatolia was (Even local police, the paraphylakes, were guilty of sliced east-west to the Halys (Kızıl Ιrmak) into the extorting supplies and accommodation.) Opsikion, Anatolikon (hence the designation of the Nero’s economical arrangement lasted until the whole peninsula), and Cibyrrhaiote themes; to the courtesies were neglected in 113 CE, when the Par- east was the Armeniakon. thians installed a monarch in Armenia without The new phase began when the Sassanids were consulting Rome. The soldierly Trajan (98–117 CE) replaced in the 7th century by the Saracens, Mus- embarked on campaigns which culminated in his lim conquerors, who had come out of Arabia and, imposition of a Roman puppet on the throne of based in caliphates in Damascus and Baghdad, were Parthia itself. The success was momentary, and the bent on achieving as wide a realm as they could. structure broke down even before Trajan’s death. Constantinople was attacked in 669, 674, and 716, Wars of conquest continued in the 2nd and 3rd Cilicia lost in 692; raids reached Sardis and Perga- centuries, which again led to the creation of provin- mum in 715 and continued into the 9th century. ces beyond the Euphrates, until the Parthian em- But by 1038 Baghdad was in the hands of a Turkish pire collapsed in the face of a resurgent Persian general of the Selçuk clan. power that claimed to be the true heirs of the Alp Arslan, the second Selçuk sultan, occupied Achaemenid dynasty. From 226 CE on, the Romans Cilicia and Cappadocia in 1067 and, attacking Ar- had to face the Sassanians. menia, defeated Emperor Romanus IV Diogenes at This change of control was the beginning of a Manzikert four years later. Romanus’ commanders new phase of relations, usually fought out east of fled, leaving the countryside open to the Turks, the Euphrates, but sometimes disastrously for who acquired Nicaea (Iznik) in 1080. In 1107 the Rome, as when the emperor Valerian (253–60 CE) Selçuks of Rum (“Roman” central Anatolia) de- was captured by Sapor I. It was not only with the clared themselves an independent kingdom, with south-east that Rome had trouble. The Germanic Iconium (Konya) as their capital. For the first time Heruli came down the Hellespont in 268–70 CE, since the Hittite Empire, Anatolia was itself the and the Goths from the Vistula, to be countered by centre of a major power. The Crusader Frederick I Gallienus (253–68 CE), Claudius II Gothicus (268– Barbarossa took Konya in 1190 but moved off for 70 CE), and Aurelian (270–75 CE). Already concern Syria. Byzantine attacks were repulsed, and the for the empire’s northern and eastern fringes was southern and northern coasts had been reached (At- clear, like the importance of the route through the taleia (Antalya) in 1211, Sinope (Sinop) in 1214. By his death in 1234 Kaikobad I had annexed Erzın- Balkans and Anatolia prescribed in the “Antonine can, Harput (near Elazıg), and Seleucia (Silifke); Itinerary,” a late 3rd-century document whose even the surviving Christian princedoms of Nicaea, name recalls the expedition against the Parthians Trapezus (Trebizond, Trabzon), and Lesser Arme- of the emperor Caracalla (211–17 CE). After the di- nia were his tributaries. But Anatolia was also sub- vision of responsibility under Diocletian’s “Te- ject to Turko-Mongol invasion and the the Selçuks trarchy” (293: two “Augusti” and two “Caesars”) were defeated by them: Genghiz Khan reached the and Constantine’s foundation in 324 CE of the new Straits in 1219, and Timur (Tamerlane) of Samar- capital of Constantinople (Istanbul), on the western kand was present from 1399–1404. The Selçuk dy- side of the Bosporus and replacing an earlier centre nasty, which had already conceded land round An- at Nicomedia (Izmit), defence was no longer in the kara to the Ottoman Turks, died out ca. 1299 and hands of Rome; it was not until 395 CE that the was succeeded by their more durable regime, cre- two halves of the Roman Empire were finally sepa- ated by Osman (1288–1326) in Bithynia. Gradually rated. In Anatolia provinces had been split: Phry- the Byzantines yielded Anatolia, until no territory gia-Caria was detached from Asia, Pontus was sun- was left except what was closest to Constantinople. dered from Bithynia, troublesome Isauria from The correspondence of Manuel II Palaeologus Galatia. Instead of the seven or so provinces into (1391–1425) paints a piteous picture of cities in his which Anatolia was divided in the later 1st century first year, notably Pompeipolis (Tas¸ Köprü), ruined CE there were two dozen in late antiquity. and deserted. In 1453 the capital finally fell to After the 4th century, deficient sources make Mehmet II (1451–1481). With the exception of the history of Anatolia (as opposed to that of Con- some successor states, such as that of Trebizond, stantinople) problematic, though wars are well doc- Anatolia, like swaths of Europe (Greece and the Bal- umented. Certainly the Byzantine Empire de- kans), was firmly under Muslim Turkish rule. The pended on Anatolian supplies for its European Ottoman Empire in Europe decayed and came to campaigns. Reorganization of what remained of an end with its defeat in the war of 1914–18. The Justinian’s empire (427–65 CE) by Maurice (582– Republic, turning its back on Istanbul as an admin- 602 CE) played a part in the development of the istrative capital in favor of Ankara, became the theme system that was devised to meet an even more third major power based centrally on Anatolia.

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Bibliography. Primary: ■ A. F. Pauly/G. Wissowa (eds.), komai, ruled by (elected) headmen, were attributed Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft (Stuttgart to cities, like the 32 responsible for the territory of 1894–1972). ■ Veröffentlichungen der Kommission für die Tabu- Oenoanda (Incealiler) in Lycia; others were owned lae Imperii Byzantini (Wien 1973–). ■ Turkey, 2 vols. (Geo- by local landowners as part of large estates. graphical Handbook Series B. R. 507; The Naval Intelli- gence Division; London 1942). ■ S. Hornblower/S. In the Roman period property helped qualify Spawforth (eds.), Oxford Classical Dictionary (Oxford 1996). owners for Roman citizenship, creating an addi- [Forth edition forthcoming] ■ R. Stillwell (ed.), The Prince- tional social stratum. When St. Paul travelled to Pi- ton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites (Princeton, N.J., 1976). sidian Antioch (Yalvaç) from Cyprus it was no ran- Secondary: ■ O. R. Gurney, The Hittites (London 21990). dom choice. Cyprus was governed by L. Sergius ■ J. M. Cook, The Greeks in Ionia and the East (London 1962). Paullus, whose family is believed to come from An- ■ D. Magie, Roman Rule in Anatolia, 2 vols. (Princeton, N.J., tioch (they owned estates at Lycaonian Vetissus (Sü- 1950) ■ S. Mitchell, Anatolia: Land, Men, and Gods in Anato- lüklü). Paullus (or his son) was suffect consul in 70 lia, 2 vols. (Oxford 1993). ■ J. Reynolds, Aphrodisias and Rome (JRS Monographs 1; London 1982). CE. His son-in-law, C. Caristanius Fronto, certainly a native of Antioch and descended from a Roman 4. Society colonist, received the same honour in 90 CE. Many estates came into imperial ownership, through be- Rich though Anatolia was in resources, harsh con- quest or confiscation or as Roman public land (ager ditions, cold and drought, caused want, and that publicus), war booty. Such were those among the was aggravated by class privilege. Hence war, pi- Orondeis east of Beysehir Gölü. Estates kept innu- racy, rebellion, and lawlessness (see “3. History”). ¸ merable (cultivators) busy, under procurators, The claim of Aelius Aristides, the 2nd-century CE coloni orator, that the Cilician Gates presented no terrors pragmateutae (businessmen), misthotae (renters), and is significant. Law enforcers appear regularly, the oikonomoi (Lat. vilici; managers). city eirenarch (security officer) in the same period, Both Hellenistic monarchs and Roman dynasts when prosperity was at it height. For, besides rural promoted the development of poleis to do the work perils, there was violence within cities (often over of the imperial power. Macedonian military settle- grain), as well as between cities, over control of ments provided homes for discharged veterans and land and resources, then later over status. Orations protection against the Gauls. Pompey the Great im- of Dio of Prusa (Bursa) repeatedly deplore inter- mortalized himself as a founder in the Mithridatic and intra-city strife. He himself was besieged as a kingdom (see “3. History”) and in the south, where grain-hoarder by a mob during a famine. Opportu- he settled ex-pirates: Nicopolis and Pompeiopolis nities offered during Roman civil wars: Nicaea (Iz- (Pürk; Mezetli). City magistrates included the nik) and Nicomedia (Izmit) vented their enmity in “ruler” (archon), secretary (grammateus), who at the war between Septimius Severus and Pescennius Ephesus (Efes) quelled a riot in the theatre by Niger (194 CE). threatening the intervention of the governor, mar- But it was villages that predominated in Anato- ket supervisor (agoranomos), censor (timetes), gymna- lia. Variously referred to in Greek as komai, katoik- sium supervisor (gymnasiarch), organizer of games iae, choria, and demoi (villages, settlements, districts, (agonothetes), and legal representative (ekdikos). The peoples), their status in Greek thinking was low. range depended on a city’s origins and history: Sel- Greek city-states, poleis (see “3. History”), organized eucid foundations had boards of stephanephoroi (gar- in Roman provinces as leagues (koina: the Asian koi- land-bearers) with religious and honorific func- non was “the Greeks in Asia”), exploited them. The tions, making it possible for women to serve. variety of natural conditions In Anatolia made it (Societies were patriarchal, though there is evidence possible for it to offer a variety of products. They of matrilinearity, both among the Hittites and in were marketed under local names; so the styrax Lycia). gum of Selge (Zerk); Angora (Ancyra, Ankara) wool Within the polis were full citizens and incomers, remains famous. It was cities, however, that gave as well as suppressed classes sometimes called par- their names to these products. Villages became in- oikoi (dwellers on the side): the linen workers of creasingly significant in the organization of Anato- Tarsus could not pay the cost of full citizenship. lia, especially under the theme system (see “3. His- Admission was a possibility, and membership of tory”). Movement between city and village status more than one polis. Popular assemblies gradually was possible, as Julian’s demotion of Caesareia lost power. With Roman encouragement poleis were (Kayseri) shows (see “5. Religion”), and the 4th-cen- run by the wealthy, who dominated councils (boulai tury elevation of Orcistus (near Alikel), which could of 100–600 members). Popular power rested on in- provide the requisite number of councillors. The formal demonstrations. In towns guilds could two types of community were antagonistic, but make themselves felt: at Ephesus the silversmiths quarrels between villages are also known; responsi- were effective against Paul, and there was a riot bility for supplying the imperial transport system provoked by a bakers’ association at the end of the was an issue, as between Anosa and Antimacheia 2nd century. Suspicions of misconduct by the (near Sulmenli) in early 3rd-century Phrygia. Some wealthy were well justified: public money intended

Authenticated | [email protected] Download Date | 1/5/19 7:18 PM Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception 2 (© Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 2009) 1023 Asia Minor 1024 for construction (theaters, gymnasia, baths, or the and could be reared by the childless or those who Roman novelty, aqueducts) was lost by waste or were after cheap labor. These foundlings occupied corruption, as Pliny’s letters to Trajan (ca. 109–12) an ambiguous position in the house, often being attest. In return for dominance, the wealthy were named on the extended family tombstones that expected to provide amenities, and they and their pre-Christian antiquity favoured, but at the end, or fellow-citizens commemorated their gifts. A 1st- sometimes as dedicators. Genuine affection might century CE list of priests of Rome and Augustus mark the relationship. from Ancyra mentions hecatombs, banquets, oil, There was always natural change: In the west, gladiatorial and wild beast shows. Such ceremonies silt carried down by the rivers affected the fortunes and priesthoods encouraged the development of of Miletus, Priene, and Ephesus (Milet, Samsun Ka- civic and in particular Hellenic institutions in re- lesi, Efes). But prosperity was shaken in the 3rd moter communities. century, when only exceptional areas such as Pam- Urbanization and settlement were continued by phylia were immune; Side (Eski Antalya) had a new Augustus, whose military colonies were in areas aqueduct in the 2nd half of the century, demon- contiguous with difficult tribes such as those of Pi- strating confidence, and Caria escaped impoverish- sidia, and by later emperors. Under Roman rule ment. Inflation, invasion, and plague affected the central Anatolia was transformed by a network of survival of cities, although the underlying struc- cities. Emperors also allowed communities that ture, based on agriculture, remained; local coinage showed loyalty or enterprise to use their name, as ceased. Especially in wartime officials and disaf- with Claudiopolis, Flaviopolis, and Hadriani (Mut; fected soldiers travelling through Anatolia pillaged Kadırlı; Gâvur Ören). Cities were strengthened by villages (see “3. History”). At Agabeyköy near Phila- the influx of Roman businessmen, who suffered in delphia (Alas¸ ehir) in Lydia, nine workers were ab- the Mithridatic massacres (see “3. History”). They ducted from the estate and, failing the return of became prominent in civic and indeed Roman pub- them all, the rest threatened to leave. An inscrip- lic life, notably in Pamphylian Attaleia (Antalya) tion from Aragua in the Upper Tembris (Porsuk and Perge (Aksu), which their gifts made more il- Çay) Valley tells the same story. After the 230s, the lustrious. The well-monetized cities were not alto- office of epanorthotes, in Latin corrector, became regu- gether parasitic on the countryside: they provided lar, attesting unease about city fortunes and con- customers and wider markets, entertainments and duct. The collection of taxes was one function that religious centres. The size of cities would have passed from the responsibility of publicani, who had ranged from the 180,000–200,000 estimated for leased the duty, and cities into the hands of state Pergamum (Bergama), on the basis of the 2nd-cen- officials. The increasing number of provinces (see tury CE physician Galen’s figures, down to 5,000– “3. History”), may have been due to the perception 25,000; the total population of Roman Anatolia has that existing ones were too big for individuals to been estimated at about 13 million. handle. Aelius Aristides claimed that a man could ride As civic life declined, service on local councils on one day through two or three cities, as if he were seemed a burden. Councillors fled to their estates, passing only through one. Decades earlier Josephus where they could command private enforcers such wrote of 500 cities. However, their density varied as the xylokaballoi (mounted club-men) who occur markedly. While the south-west – Lycia, Caria, Pi- in Paphlagonia. There is little commemoration of sidia – was strongly Hellenized, the interior re- civic activity in inscriptions of the 4th to 6th centu- mained less well endowed: one community, Gor- ries. In smaller poleis civic buildings decayed. City dium, the capital of the Phrygian kingdom government came to be dominated by bishops, (Sivrihisar; see “3. History”), became a mere village. marking the civil structures. The bishops also made Cappadocia was the least urbanized area, and its the link between communities and the Emperor. inhabitants enjoyed a correspondingly low reputa- The church laid claim to the administration of jus- tion. When Tiberius annexed it in 17 CE it was ad- tice, and crowds noisily joined in disputes. Outside ministered through domains – and enabled him to the cities and especially up-country there was reduce an unpopular tax. greater autonomy, taking the form of asceticism, Slavery, practiced throughout the Roman Em- monasticism, and heresy (see “5. Religion”). Even- pire, was most prominent in areas where there were tually even the dominance of city-based bishops no alternative labor systems. Galatia and Phrygia gave way to the moral authority of monks and holy were important suppliers of slaves to markets else- men, and from the mid-7th-century life of Theo- where in the Empire, and hierodouloi (sacred slaves) dore of Sykeon (between Constantinople and An- were familiar (see “5. Religion”), but in Anatolia cyra) no trace of city officials can be gleaned. Eco- there were also threptoi (nurslings) available. There nomic power belonged to landholders (ktetores), were enough foundlings in Bithynia-Pontus for its official to nearby imperial administrators. Social as governor Pliny to ask Trajan about their legal sta- well as civic life changed. As to charity, there was tus. Unwanted children were left at known places an advance: the poor rather than the elite benefited

Authenticated | [email protected] Download Date | 1/5/19 7:18 PM Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception 2 (© Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 2009) 1025 Asia Minor 1026 from the generosity of benefactors. And tomb- in the wilder south (Lycia, Pisidia, Isauria, and the stones commemorating extended families began to Cibyratis) cults of rider- and warrior-gods were give way to monuments stressing the relations of prominent. Temples, inscriptions, and city-coina- the deceased with God. ges (until the mid-3rd century CE) attest cults local,

Bibliography: ■ H. Brandt, Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft Pam- regional, and empire-wide. Development may be phyliens und PIsidiens im Alterthum (Asia Minor Studies 7; seen at Aezani (Çavdarhisar) in Phrygia. Nearby the Bonn 1992). ■ T. R. S. Broughton, “Roman Asia Minor,” in Meter Steunene (a topographic epithet) gave birth An Economic Survey of Ancient Rome, vol. 3 (ed. T. Frank; Balti- to her son Zeus in a cave. The cult moved to the more 1938). ■ C. Foss, Ephesus after Antiquity: a late Antique, city, handsomely reconstructed in the 2nd century Byzantine and Turkish City (Cambridge 1979). ■ H. J. Hou- CE. The new temple of Zeus contained a basement, wink ten Cate, The Luwian Population Groups of Lycia and Cili- replicating the Steunene cave, and a sacred way cia Aspera during the Hellenistic Period (Leiden 1961). ■ A. H. M. Jones, Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces of the linked the two centers. Similarly, at the Roman col- Roman Empire (Oxford 21973). ■ X. de Planhol, De la plaine ony of Pisidian Antioch (Yalvaç), founded in 25 pamphylienne aux lacs pisidiens: Nomadisme et vie paysanne BCE, Mên Askaenos was worshipped at 2nd-cen- (BAHI 3; Paris 1958). ■ L. Robert, Noms indigènes dans l’Asie tury BCE shrines on the nearby mountain, whose Mineure gréco-romaine (BAHI 13; Paris 1963). ■ L. Robert, A revenues accrued to the colonial treasury. Even to travers de l’Asie Mineure (Paris 1980). ■ C. Roueché, Aphrodi- colonists he was patrios theos (the ancestral deity), sias in Late Antiquity (JRS Monographs 5; London 1989). and a route is traceable between city and shrine. At 5. Religion Ephesus the procession devoted to Artemis became associated with honors for the Roman emperor. Religious Anatolia is complex. History (q.v.) im- Gods revealed themselves. After healing a lame posed one stratum on another (indigenous, Hittite, man in the Roman colony of Lystra (Hatun Saray) Iranian, Greek, Celtic, Roman, Jewish, Christian, Is- Paul and Barnabas were hailed as such. Some com- lamic), each pierced by survivals. Geography, too, munities were ruled by priests, most famously Ve- influenced the spread of beliefs and practices. Po- nasa (near Suvermez) and Comana (S¸ ar) in Cappa- seidon the earth-shaker was a natural deity in the docia, which had 9,000 “sacred slaves” between south-west; the extreme climate favoured the over- them. Pompey allocated Comana to an Archelaus, all dominance of sky-gods such as Zeus Bronton whose name was Greek and whose family had rela- (Thundering), and Eukarpios (Bringer of good tions with the Roman aristocracy. But the cult was crops). It was easy too for deities to be assimilated Anatolian (one of his successors died from a surfeit or associated, as Apollo was with Hosion kai Dikaion of forbidden pork). Pontus too had temple states: (Holy and Just) in the Tembris (Porsuk Su) valley, one dedicated to Ma at Comana Pontica (near and Helios with the Christian God. It is a difficult, Tokat), one to Mên Pharnakou at Cabeira (Niksar). perhaps misguided, question whether we have vari- At the shrine of Cybele, at Pessinus (near Sivrihisar) ants of one deity or distinct entities. Finally, the appeal even of regional deities was wide: in 79 CE in Phrygia, Gauls took over the high priesthood as an imperial official made dedications near Appia the Attis – after the practice of castrating him had (Abya) to Phrygian Zeus Bennios. ended. Indigenous cults abounded in the country- Early clues come from Neolithic Çatal Hüyük side: Angdistis, Papas, Sabazios; villages described and Alaca Hüyük (early Bronze Age), and from themselves as belonging to a deity, such as Mên early 2nd-millennium seals showing individual de- Tyrannos or the Great Mother Aneitis “who holds ities. The Hittite kingdom of 1650–1200 adds texts Azitta.” But Mên’s cult was widespread. North of from Hattus¸ as¸ (Bogazköy). There was a composite Pisidian Antioch inscriptions attest subscriptions pantheon of indigenous Hattian, Hittite, and Hur- paid in the 3rd century CE to an association of rian-Mesopotamian elements. The gods control Xenoi Tekmoreioi (Tekmorian Guest-Friends). The weather, sun, grain, and hunting; the king was a tekmor (sign) was an upturned crescent on a base, priest, visiting a pantheon of divine families, the associated with Mên monuments. Subscribers came female members variously important. Neo-Hittite from seventeen poleis (cities) and 120 villages. The states of the south-east (1100–700) continued these Meter Theon Zizimmene (Mother of the Gods at deities, and the Phrygian Mother Cybele emerged. Zizma) from the territory of Laodiceia Combusta Some components were close to Greek cults enter- (Ladık), linked with other Anatolian and Greek dei- ing around the coasts: sky-gods were identifiable ties, developed into the chief deity of nearby Ico- with Zeus. In the east especially, Persian rule made nium (Konya). a strong impress. Mithras was introduced by the Oracles were common: in the west, as at the Persians and fire-worshipping Magusaioi remain in shrines of Clarian Apollo and Didyma (Didim), they Cappadocia in the 370s CE. Even in the west a Per- resembled those of mainland Greece. In Lycia and sian family served Artemis of Ephesus (Efes) until Pisidia city centers offered dice oracles. For all the the same period. innovations, Anatolia remained a reservoir of an- Pre-Greek cults continued: sky-gods, mother- cient beliefs. In the 2nd century CE the oracle of goddess, the Moon-god Mên, and gods of justice; Asclepius at Cilician Aegeae (Ayas) was a centre of

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Pythagoreanism, and fostered the Alexander who ies informed emperors of their devotion. Already brought notoriety to Abunoteichus (Ineboli, from in 9 BCE, when the Asian koinon made Augustus’ its new name Ionopolis), with his oracular snake birthday the beginning of its year, its decree as- Glycon. Oracles also point the way towards belief sumes that each city will have a Caesareum; thirty- in one guiding principle, Zeus or Theos Hypsistos four cities are attested as having high priests of the (Highest God). Such cults were close to Jewish and cult, and in Paphlagonia by 3 BCE, when the entire Christian belief: Gregory of Nazianzus’ father population took oaths to the dynasty, they were ad- passed to Christianity from Hypsistos. Another link ministered in Sebasteia (shrines dedicated to Augus- between pagans, Christians, and Jews was a cult of tus) throughout the region. The cult was a tool of angels, particularly Michael, prevalent in Phrygia. Roman imperialism, but when in the Milyas the To judge from decorations on gravestones, no- previous year natives joined the Romans who were tably the widespread “doorstone” type, occupants “doing business” among them and the Thracians were expected to be preoccupied with what preoc- who were settled among them in erecting an altar cupied them in life: produce of the land, spinning, to Rome and Augustus, it was a sign of the growing personal adornment. Cults did not lack moral con- together of these elements. High priests who served tent. Some involved the hunting down of offend- the emperor had particular pre-eminence, and the ers. Very common were imprecations on grave- sophisticated organization of the imperial cult has stones against those who disturbed the grave. The been held to be the bulwark against Christianiza- penalty was a fine payable to the local community, tion. or the divine vengeance, sometimes in the form of Semitic divinities came to Anatolia in the form everlasting fire. (It was for such formulae that the of Astarte from Syria, becoming the main deity of Phrygian language survived in written form.) Tyana (Nigde). More significant were Jewish com- Sometimes all the gods, sometimes one, Hecate or munities, some settled as farmers from Babylon by Nemesis, were invoked, or the Christian or Jewish the Seleucids at the end of the 3rd century BCE, God. Phrygians were renowned for their sophrosyne notably around Apamea (Dinar). At Sardis Jewish (self-restraint) and Hosion kai Dikaion fit that char- religious freedom was repeatedly guaranteed by the acter. One of the two famous sets of “confession” Roman government. How influential communities inscriptions (some illustrated in sculptured scenes) were can be seen from Acts. Paul, himself a Jew from comes from Phrygia, from the shrine of Apollo Lair- Tarsus, approached them first on his journeys. At benus near Hierapolis (Pamukkale), the other from Pisidian Antioch his preaching caused offence and north-east Lydia. The authors narrate the offence they brought pressure to bear on the colonial elite, (theft of clothes from a bath-house; stoning sacred who, like many Romans, were attracted to Jewish pigeons; visiting a temple while defiled, perjury) monotheism. There were theosebeis (God-fearers) in and its punishment, acknowledging the power of many Anatolian communities. In Acmonia (Ahat) a the deity. woman from a dynastic family built a synagogue, Anatolia, long subject to aliens, passed in 30 and the numbers of interested gentiles are sug- BCE to Rome’s future emperor, Octavian. Relations gested by a 3rd-century inscription from Aphrodi- with him too had to be managed. In 29, the provin- sias (Geyre) that has charitable contributors to a cial assemblies (koina) of Bithynia and Asia, gave soup kitchen in a ratio of three Jews for two theose- him the status that they had accorded Julius Caesar beis. and even regular governors since the early 1st cen- In the 3rd and 4th centuries, Christianity be- tury. Octavian’s acceptance was qualified: “Greeks” came the dominant political and structural, as well were permitted to offer cult offerings to himself as religious and cultural, force. Already in the early and to Rome at Pergamum (Bergama) and Nicome- 2nd century the younger Pliny, governing Bithy- dia (Izmit); Romans were allowed only temples to nia-Pontus, found converts numerous in town and Julius Caesar at Ephesus and Nicaea (Iznik). In Ga- country. But evidence for pre-Constantinian Chris- latia too the cult was introduced; the Hellenistic- tianity is patchy and inexplicit: in the later 2nd- style temple at Ancyra (Ankara) is its imposing century gravestones of Cadi (Gediz) display bread monument. There was competition in 26 CE be- stamped with the cross and grapes with stalks in tween other cities of Asia as to which might be per- its shape. Until 313 Christians were subject to per- mitted to erect a temple to Tiberius (CE 14–37); the secution. Pliny wrote to the emperor Trajan to find celebration of prestigious games went along with out what to do with them. Later come martyr sto- the privilege. Ultimately Pergamum and Sardis ries: the pursuit of bishop Polycarp by the eirenarch (Sert) were entitled to call themselves four times and his diogmitae (flying squad) from Smyrna (Iz- neocorus (temple warden), Sardis showing its four mir, ca. 155 CE). Bishops came into their own dur- temples (one of Artemis) on coins dating from the ing the difficulties of the 3rd century, and Chris- reign of Elagabalus (218–22 CE). There were also tians suffered again during the persecution carried cults from individual cities, and a host of civic out by the emperor Maximinus in 311–113. The priesthoods and private dedications. Naturally, cit- victims became centers of fresh cults and contrib-

Authenticated | [email protected] Download Date | 1/5/19 7:18 PM Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception 2 (© Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 2009) 1029 Asia Minor 1030 uted to the burgeoning of Christianity in the coun- Rigorists were ready for ascetism and monasti- tryside, with martyrs’ relics as a prime attraction. cism. The Novatian hermit Eutychianus introduced Rural bishops (chorepiscopi) acquired great influence monasticism to Constantinople in the 340s. The and survived, despite formal abolition at the end of first epigraphically attested monasteries were those the 4th century, into the 8th. In remote areas as- of the Apotactites of Laodiceia Combusta. But Eu- cetic movements proved alarmingly hard for city stathius’ communities in Armenia, Paphlagonia, bishops to control. and Pontus were condemned for their hostility to “Paganism” did not pass without a struggle: in marriage and to less rigorous attitudes. He influ- the mid-4th century the emperor Julian (“the Apos- enced the family of Macrina, which under her lead- tate”) stripped Caesareia Mazaca (Kayseri) in obdu- ership undertook its own monastic regime. The rate Cappadocia of its city status for its anti-pagan rock-dwelling monasteries of Göreme and else- behaviour. Christianity outdid other religions, ex- where in western Cappadocia may have been in- cept Judaism, in its charitable outreach, and Julian spired by them. Near Laranda (Karaman) a commu- recognized this when he urged the high priest of nity emerged, now called Binbir Kilise (1001 Galatia to compete. When Christianity became the Churches); and at Seleucia on Calycadnus (Silifke) official religion of the empire at the end of the 4th the center devoted to Thecla and focused on a century, temples were destroyed or converted into church constructed in about 375 overshadowed the churches. At Aphrodisias intellectuals maintained metropolis; a century later Zeno the Isaurian en- pagan beliefs in a philosophical school linked with dowed an even greater church there. The 50 meter Alexandria; the temple of Aphrodite survived as basilica of St. Michael at Germia (Yürme) was con- such until the mid-5th century. temporary, another popular cult centre. The mira- Anatolia, especially Cappadocia, produced dis- cle that Theodore of Sykeon performed there in the tinguished members of the church: in the mid-4th 6th century helped spread his influence along the century, Basil and Macrina of Caesareia, their highway. But it was St. George who guided the brother Gregory, bishop of Nyssa, and Gregory of saint. Contact with the divine, conspicuous asceti- Nazianus. Besides its involvement in empire-wide cism, and wonders performed, notably mass and issues (the Council of Nicaea in 325 dealt with Ari- anism), Anatolia engendered its own heresies. It is individual exorcisms, gave holy men ascendancy uncertain to what sect those on the upper Tembris beyond that of elected bishops. belonged who dedicated gravestones as “Christians Anatolian Christianity survived Saracen, Selçuk, for Christians” even before 313. Christianity itself and Ottoman invasions and settlement. Enclaves in its Judaic origins was an expression of dissent. remained until the failed invasion of 1922, which Now it became subject to dissident pressures. Peas- sought to restore Greek power to the peninsula. ants and women found a place in sectarian religion. Bibliography: ■ S. Elm, Virgins of God: The Making of Asceti- Even an orthodox bishop might fall: Marcellus of cism in Late Antiquity (Oxford 1994). ■ R. Lane Fox, Pagans Ancyra, leader of the Ancyro-Galatians, was de- and Christians in Late Antiquity (Oxford 1984). ■ S. Mitchell, posed in 336 for extreme homoousionism. During Anatolia: Land, Men, and Gods in Asia Minor. II. The Rise of the his comeback in 337 opposing clergy and nuns Church (Oxford 1993). ■ M. N. van Loon, Anatolia in the Sec- were manhandled. According the Jerome, Ancyra ond Millennium BC (IOR.MNE 15.12, Leiden 1985). ■ M. N. harboured a plethora of heresies, including Mon- van Loon, Anatolia in the earlier First Millennium BC (IOR.MNE 15.13; Leiden 1991). ■ S. R. F. Price, Rituals and tanism. Power: The Roman Imperial Cult in Asia Minor (Cambridge Vilified as the creation of a pagan eunuch and 1984). ■ G. M. Rogers, The Sacred Identity of Ephesos: Founda- two prophetesses, this was the late 2nd–5th centu- tion Myths of a Roman City (London/New York 1991). ries “Phrygian heresy,” its monuments focused on Temenothyrae (Us¸ ak) and Acmonia. Famously it al- 6. Culture and Arts lowed female presbyters and living saints (hagioi). Montanus began to prophesy in 156–57 or 172 at Anatolian culture was diverse. Coastal Greek com- an unidentified Mysian village, and the “New Jeru- munities gave way to intermediate peoples, Phrygi- salem” was at Pepuza, also unidentified. Whether ans, Mysians, and Lydians; these were distinct in this rigorous sect had roots in Phrygian paganism their agricultural villages, linguistic features, and is disputed, but despite being condemned in 200 cults from the peoples of the Pontic mountains in CE it spread to Africa and attracted Tertullian. No- the north and the Taurus in the south. Greek pene- vatians, self-styled “Cathars,” not heretical but rig- tration was extended by Hellenistic foundations orously against the readmission of apostates after (see “3. History”), still leaving central Anatolia, the mid-3rd-century persecutions, were, like the Phrygia, Lydia, Galatia, Lycaonia, without π&λεις, Encratites of Pisidia and Laodiceia Combusta (a although Pisidia was markedly Hellenized by the centre of heresy), another manifestation of Phry- end of the 2nd century BCE. Only in the mid-4th gian puritanism. They reached Constantinople century CE could men of Pontus, Galatia, and Cap- from Bithynia, Paphlagonia, and Galatia; Isauria padocia be noted for their vigor and culture (see too had its communities. “5. Religion”).

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Hellenized areas reached the heights: in astron- Inscriptions were a feature of the Greco-Roman omy and philosophy, drawing on Mesopotamian world: the “epigraphic habit” reached a peak in the and Iranian culture, there were Thales, first to pre- first three centuries CE. It depended on the availa- dict an eclipse (546 BCE), Anaximander, and Anaxi- bility of material, funds to pay for it and for stone- menes, all of 6th-century Miletus (Milet), Heracli- cutters, and on received culture. Decorated grave- tus of Ephesus (Efes; ca. 500 BCE); mathematics, stones are particularly informative. Those of the Apollonius of Perge (Aksu) at the end of the 3rd Tembris (Porsuk Çay) Valley represent styluses and century BCE, renowned for his theorem; medicine, writing tablets, evidence of the respect in which lit- Galen of Pergamum (Bergama) in the 2nd century eracy was held in the 2nd–4th centuries CE. CE and Alexander of Tralles (Aydın) in the 6th. In Women’s monuments bear written tributes to their history Anatolia produced Herodotus of Halicar- semnotes and sophrosyne (gravity and self-restraint). nassus (Bodrum; 5th century BCE) and Cassius Dio Philosophers, like doctors and successful ath- of Nicaea (Iznik; 2nd–3rd centuries CE). The novel letes, were valued and claimed civic support. Apol- is represented by Xenophon of Ephesus (ca. 100– lonius of Tyana (Nigde; 1st century CE) was a guru 150). Anatolia was valuable to Rome, producing in- embroiled in legend but celebrated among the tellectuals, administrators, and (notably among the elite, notably Empress Julia Domna (193–217 CE). Gauls) soldiers. Arrian of Nicomedia (Izmit) com- More sober in his influence was Alexander of Aph- bined the gifts: historian (admirer of Xenophon), rodisias (Geyre) a Severan commentator on Aris- capable commander, he reached the consulship totle. Philosophers are attested even in Ancyra (An- (?129 CE). Its inhabitants would have been oblivi- kara), which sent students to study with Libanius ous of any stigma of “orientalism” that it suffered, at Syrian Antioch. As Christianity took hold, theo- long under alien control and sporting exotic cults logical controversy rivalled philosophical disputa- (see “5. Religion”). tion. Indo-European languages emerged in the early The most familiar form of Anatolian literary en- 2nd millennium, Hittite and Luwian (south and deavour is oratory. Two styles were at loggerheads. west Anatolia) the best known, with Palaic in the The florid Asiatic, of which Hegesias of Magnesia north-west. The cuneiform tablets are divided into (Manisa) was a practitioner, provoked an Attic reac- three Hittite periods (ca. 1570–1220). Then came tion. Related to philosophy and aspiring to its sta- alphabetic Lycian and Lydian (5th–4th centuries tus was sophistry, a performing art that flourished BCE), and Carian, Sidetic, and Phrygian (4th–3rd from the 1st century CE to the 3rd and was dubbed centuries BCE); much later Pisidian is found (3rd the “Second Sophistic.” Dio of Prusa (Bursa), called century CE). Anecdotal evidence shows the survival “Chrysostom” (Golden-mouthed), was a leading in oral form of many languages and dialects into practitioner in the late 1st and early 2nd centuries. the Roman Empire, including a number of Pam- He instructed young men in eloquence and cities phylian dialects. (Mithridates VI could converse in in prudence, and like a near contemporary, Aelius 22 in his own realm.) Lucian, the 2nd-century CE Aristides of Hadrianoutherae (Balıkısar), gained the satirist, who came from Samosata (Samsat), had to ear of high-placed Romans. The art survived in learn Greek; Aramaic was probably his native later 4th-century Paphlagonia: Themistius founded tongue. At Colonia Lystra (Hatun Saray) St. Paul a school of oratory at Constantinople and also as- was addressed in Lycaonian. Phrygian was particu- pired to guide imperial rulers. larly robust, as curse formulae attest (see “5. Reli- gion”), and one bishop of Cotiaeum (Kütahya) In material culture Anatolia was also distin- preached in Gothic too. Two 4th- or early 3rd-cen- guished, from the prehistoric palaces onwards. The tury BCE inscriptions from Hellenistic Docimium temples at Ephesus and Sardis were renowned, but (Isçekarahisar) illustrate cultural assimilation: in Caria possessed one of the wonders of the world, between that Phrygian has Greek male proper the pyramidal Mausoleum of a satrap of Caria names, including Nicostratus; the Greek one is for (377–353 BCE). The Attalids gave Pergamum its Tatis, his daughter, who (characteristically for hilltop complex, including the Great Altar of Zeus women) bears a native name. But Greek culture had and the Temple of Athena; in Commagene the co- special prestige: cities lacking genuine Greek origin lossal eclectic images that Antiochus I (ca. 69–38 sometimes invented it: Sparta was the implausible BCE) set up on Nemrud Dag still impress. Rivalry founder of Pisidian Selge (Zerk). between poleis was a spur. Modifying under alien The Gauls (see “3. History”) used their own lan- rule the ambitions of independent states, they guage until late antiquity, and there are Celtic re- turned to constructing civic buildings. So the Ro- mains. They were divided into three tribes, each man period too had achievements: the Ionic temple with four “tetrarchies.” The council of three hun- of Zeus at Aezani (Çavdarhisar), the 2nd-century dred, meeting at the Drynemetos (Oak Grove), de- Pergamene basilica complex, the Kızıl Avlu (Red cided murder cases. These were partly 2nd-century Courtyard), and the Library of Ephesus (dedicated developments attained under Greek influence, 110 CE). Artists from Anatolia helped decorate the partly (like the fourfold division), authentic. Mausoleum of Hadrian (117–38 CE). The spread of

Authenticated | [email protected] Download Date | 1/5/19 7:18 PM Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception 2 (© Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 2009) 1033 Asia Minor 1034 buildings for public use – aqueducts, theatres – form of a door, often highly ornamented with marks the age. Greek culture did not prevent addic- birds, animals, and allusions to the vines of the re- tion to Roman bath-houses. Under Christianity gion, and sometimes portrayed the inhabitant(s). It temples were destroyed or converted; for new struc- might present a partial inventory of their posses- tures basilicas began to be favoured. sions: besides the writing implements, ploughs, By the end of the 2nd century CE, cities were pruning hooks, (for women) mirrors, combs, card- well equipped with buildings; benefactors founded ing combs, spindles, distaffs, baskets. At the end of games and festivals, attracting visitors and so in- the 2nd century at Aezani doorstones gave way to come. Emperors encouraged such provisions: Au- sarcophagi; Pamphylian sarcophagi were exported gustus had given the quinquennial Romaia Sebasta to other parts of the Mediterranean. With the tri- of Pergamum exemption from customs during the umph of Christianity pagan mythology began to be games. Proliferation under the Severi (193–235 CE) replaced in art by biblical scenes; increasing num- and under Valerian and Gallienus (253–68 CE) bers of verse inscriptions appearing in the 3rd and links them with troop movements and the presence 4th centuries reveal continued cultural pretensions. of the emperor. They were celebrated on local coin- A flowering of culture in Anatolia was pro- ages and played a part in inter-city rivalries, as be- duced between 330 and 1453, when Constantino- tween Side (Eski Antalya) and Perge in Pamphylia. ple fell to the Ottomans, although the capital itself Festivals included poetry and music. A tuning peg possessed much of the greatest work. The end of for stringed instruments has been found, and two Justinian’s reign in 565 began a period of invasions ditties inscribed in a Carian temple, but more strik- and soon the rise of Islam; setbacks encouraged the ingly there was a “Phrygian” αEλ&ς (reed-pipe) development of devotion to icons, interrupted for with the left-hand pipe longer than the right, and periods in the 8th century when images of Christ, it was a Phrygian, Olympus, who was said to have Mary, and the Saints were banned, destroyed or brought aulos–playing to Greece. Four of the modes whitewashed. The ban was maintained intermit- (8ρμν αι) of Greek music were named after regions tently from 730–843 CE, but icons became the hall- of Anatolia: Lydian, Aeolian, Ionian, and Phrygian, mark of Orthodoxy. Byzantine architecture, sculp- the last considered to instil moderation. ture, and decorative arts, notably mosaic, spread far Lydia was reputedly the first state to mint gold- beyond Anatolia, into Italy, the Balkans, and Rus- silver coinage. It became a mark of independence sia. From the reign of Heraclius (610–41 CE) Greek for a π&λις to have its own coinage, sometimes paid replaced Latin even for law and administration. By- for by individuals (εEεργται), who won esteem zantine culture preserved Greek and much of an- within their community and esteem for it in the cient Greek literature. The reign of Constantine VII wider world, even with the Emperor. Local coina- Porphyrogenitos (913–59 CE) was remarkable for ges informatively depicted local deities and build- its art, encyclopaedic books, and the recopying of ings on their reverses and are important sources of the Classics. The Turkish conquest brought a dif- information, although not necessarily of high artis- ferent language and religion, new architecture and tic merit. art forms, notably from the Selçuks. At Konya (Ico- The art of Anatolia was intimately connected nium) diverse monuments survive: the Mevlana with religion. The temples of the Hittites contained Celaleddin Rumi Mausoleum, Iplikci Camii cult statues. They also represented deities on rock (Mosque), and Ince Manareli Medresse (School). faces, notably at Yazılıkaya near Hattusˇa, where the Bibliography: ■ A. Kammenhuber, “Hethetisch, Paläisch, pantheon is shown confronting the king, and at Luwisch, Hieroglyphischenluwisch und Hattisch,“ in HO Alaca Hüyük (the king worships the weather god). 1–2.2 (Leiden 1969) 119–357. ■ S. Swain, Hellenism and There are scenes of hunting and a procession of Empire: Language, Classicism, and Power in the Greek World AD musicians and jugglers. The Hittites were also 50–250 (Oxford 1996). ■ L. Zgusta, Kleinasiatische Personna- skilled with stamp- and cylinder-seals. Later pow- men (Monografie Orientálnilho ústavu CSAV 19; Prague 21972). ■ L. Zgusta, Kleinasiatische Ortsnamen (Beitäge zur ers that could afford it spent money on ornamenta- Namenforschungs NF 21; Heidelberg 1984). ■ M. Wael- tion. The “dying Gaul” is the most famous of the kens, Die kleinasiatischen Türsteine: Typologische und epigra- Pergamene sculptures. In Lycia imposing built phische Untersuchungen der kleinasiatischen Grabreliefs mit monuments housed the bodies of the aristocracy. Scheintür (Mainz 1986). At Aezani 2nd-century designs owed much to the Barbara Levick accomplished school responsible for the decoration of the temple. Anatolia is rich in marble, notably 7. Asia Minor and the Bible the polychrome (pavonazetto) from Docimium on Asia Minor is the name given to the peninsula the Upper Tembris. The quarries came under impe- bounded by the Mediterranean, the Aegean Sea, rial control, but the opportunities that the materi- and the Black Sea. Early Christianity quickly be- als provided encouraged the development of local came established in this region. Initially, the apos- artists. Funerary monuments are rich and diverse. tle Paul traveled extensively and founded Christian In Phrygia and beyond tombstones presented the communities in a range of cities in Asia Minor. A

Authenticated | [email protected] Download Date | 1/5/19 7:18 PM Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception 2 (© Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 2009) 1035 Asia Minor 1036 number of other early Christian leaders also had sent to a variety of readers, probably chiefly in Asia contact with Christian communities in Asia Minor. Minor, who regarded Paul as a great apostle. Some of the documents which these leaders wrote 1–2 Timothy are probably authored by a disci- to Christian communities in the area have become ple of Paul’s, and are probably to be connected with part of the New Testament. In this way, Asia Minor Ephesus (see 1 Tim 1 : 3–4; 2 Tim 1 : 18; 4 : 12) since exerted a considerable impact on the Bible, and a number of the people mentioned in the Pastoral study of the history, archaeology and culture of letters have a documented connection with the city Asia Minor has brought much insight to interpret- (Timothy, Titus, Prisca, Aquila, Tychicus, Erastus ers of the New Testament. and Trophimus). Jewish pilgrims from Cappadocia, Pontus, Asia, 1 Peter is addressed to Christians in Pontus, Ga- Phrygia and Pamphylia were the first people from latia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia (1 Pet 1 : 1), Asia Minor to hear the Gospel when they heard Pe- which are all provinces within Asia Minor (al- ter preach on the day of Pentecost (see Acts 2 : 9– though generally Bithynia-Pontus was spoken of as 11). Some of these pilgrims could well have estab- one province). Clearly the readers have been under- lished the first Christian communities in Asia Mi- going some form of persecution (see 1 Pet 1 : 6–7; nor; they remind us of the gaps in our knowledge 2 : 12, 19–25; 3 : 9–19; 4 : 1, 12–19; 5 : 9–11). 2 Peter with regard to the origins of these communities. may also have been written to readers in Asia Minor The expansion of Christian witness is one of the since 2 Pet 3 : 1 suggests the letter was addressed to chief themes of the Acts of the Apostles and Chris- some of the same churches that had received 1 Pe- tian mission in a range of cities in Asia Minor is ter, and 2 Pet 3 : 15–16 notes that the recipients described: Pisidian Antioch (Acts 13 : 13–52; knew Paul’s letters. However, a destination else- 14 : 21–23), Iconium (Acts 14 : 1–5, 21), Lystra (Acts where is also possible. 14 : 6–21; 16 : 1–5), Derbe (Acts 14 : 6–7, 20; 16 : 1), Early Christian writers associated John’s Gospel Perga (Acts 14 : 25) and Ephesus (Acts 18 : 19–20 : 1; with Ephesus (see e.g., Irenaeus, Haer. iii.1.1; 20 : 17–38). iii.3.4; see also Eusebius, Hist. eccl. iii.31.2; v.20.6; Debate continues as to whether Paul wrote “Ga- v.24.16); although this is debated, it remains the latians” to churches in the territory of Galatia, most likely locale for the composition of the Gos- which would be central Anatolia around Ankara pel. 1–3 John are clearly to be associated with (the “North Galatian” theory) or to the province of John’s Gospel, whether they were written by the Galatia (the “South Galatian” theory). If it is to the same person, or by someone closely associated with latter, then it would include the churches men- the author of the Gospel, perhaps a member of the tioned in Acts 13–14: Derbe, Lystra, Iconium and same “school.” This would mean that these epistles Pisidian Antioch. 1 Corinthians 16 : 8 indicates that are also to be located in Ephesus. Paul wrote this epistle from Ephesus. An Ephesian provenance has also been sug- The Epistle to the Colossians was written to Co- gested for Luke-Acts, but this is a minority view. lossae in the Lycus Valley, although Pauline author- The book of Revelation was written to seven ship is disputed. This epistle also mentions Chris- churches in Western Asia Minor: Ephesus, Smyrna, tian communities in Laodicea and Hierapolis (Col Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia and 2 : 1; 4 : 13) and a letter written to the church of the Laodicea. We also note that Ignatius wrote letters Laodiceans (Col 4 : 16). Similarly Philemon is writ- to churches in Western Asia Minor (Ephesus, Mag- ten to a group in Colossae (see Col 4 : 9; 12–17; nesia, Tralles, Philadelphia and Smyrna as well as Phlm 2 : 23–24). It is not known when these com- a letter to Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna) that were munities were established, but it is probable that not accepted into the canon. Later documents from Pauline co-workers traveled to the Lycus valley Asia Minor include Polycarp’s Letter to the Philippi- while Paul was in Ephesus (see Acts 19 : 10; Col ans, and Melito of Sardis’ Paschal Homily. 4 : 12). Clearly then, Asia Minor made a very signifi- Paul wrote three epistles while in prison (Colos- cant impact on the New Testament, through the sians, Philippians and Philemon). While it is pos- work of a variety of authors. It is also clear that a sible that he wrote these epistles from an Ephesian diversity of genres (Gospel, Letters (including the imprisonment, this is a minority view, and many circular letters of Ephesians and Revelation) and Apocalypse) were contributed to the New Testa- would argue that Rome is the more likely location ment by authors connected with Asia Minor. for his imprisonment, while Caesarea is also a pos- sibility. Bibliography: ■ C. K. Barrett, The Acts of the Apostles, 2 vols. With regard to the epistle now called “To the (ICC; Edinburgh 1994, 1998). ■ C. E. Hill, The Johannine Ephesians,” whose Pauline authorship is also dis- Corpus in the Early Church (Oxford 2004). ■ E. E. Lemcio, “Ephesus and the New Testament Canon,” BJRL 69 (1986) puted, there is general agreement that the phrase 210–34. ■ S. Mitchell, Anatolia, 2 vols. (Oxford 1993). ν  σω@ Ε (“in Ephesus”), found in some manu- ■ E. J. Schnabel, Early Christian Mission, 2 vols. (Downers scripts at Eph 1 : 1, was not part of the original text. Grove, Ill. 2004); trans. of id., Urchristliche Mission (Wupper- However, it seems most likely that the epistle was tal 2002). ■ P. R. Trebilco, “Asia,” in The Book of Acts in its

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Greco-Roman Setting (eds. D. W. J. Gill/C. Gempf; Grand Rap- UK Census 2001). They run grocery shops, newsa- ids, Mich. 1994) 291–362. ■ P. R. Trebilco, The Early Chris- gents and eateries, and some have made it onto the tians in Ephesus from Paul to Ignatius (WUNT 166; Tübingen richest resident list. Punjabis of India migrated to 2004). the United States in the early 1900s to work on Paul Trebilco farms and in lumber mills, and to Canada to work in the sawmill industry. More recently, skilled In- Asian Diaspora dians have moved to the United States to work in the information technology industry, including the I. Introduction famous Sabeer Bhatia, founder of Hotmail. The II. Asian Bible Translations South Asian population of the United States in III. Exegesis and Theological Reception IV. New Christian Churches and Movements 2000 was over 2.1 million, including Indians, Paki- stanis, Bangladeshis and Sri Lankans. In the 1980s, I. Introduction thousands of Tamils from Sri Lanka moved to Ca- Asians have migrated from their countries of origin nada to flee the civil war. Sri Lankan Tamils also to other lands throughout history. Some moved be- moved to find refuge in Germany. cause of severe difficulties in their place of birth, to As Asians settled around the world, they escape poverty, oppression and persecution, to find brought with them their favorite foods and clothes, new opportunities, to have better education for as well as their Asian religio-cultural heritage. their children, or to seek better, freer and more Asians had long been exposed to Hinduism, Bud- prosperous lives in nations such as the United dhism, Daoism, Confucianism and Islam before States, Canada and Australia. Like the Jews of bibli- they encountered Christianity. Although Christian- cal times who were scattered in many countries, ity arrived earlier in some parts of Asia, it was only Asians in their own diaspora often faced prejudice in the 19th century – along with the pressure of and hardship, but many have survived and even European colonization – that Christianity began to thrived in their new homelands. impact on Asian societies. Asian immigration to the New World has oc- curred in various waves. In the mid-19th century, II. Asian Bible Translations a number of Chinese were brought to Hawaii to The Malay translation of Matthew’s Gospel pre- work on sugar plantations. During the same pe- pared by Albert Cornelisz Ruyl in 1629 is the earli- riod, others migrated to the mainland US because est attested translation of any book of the Bible into of opportunities provided by the gold rush, mining an Asian language produced for evangelistic pur- and railroad building; to Canada to work on rail- poses. Bible translation into major languages of road building; and to Australia because of the gold Asia, as well as into indigenous regional and local rush. Following the Chinese, Japanese were at- languages, subsequently began to flourish. The tracted to Hawaii to work on sugar plantations, and first translation of the full Bible into Malay was to the United States mainland to work as farmers. prepared by a Dutchman, Melchior Leijdecker, in Then Filipinos were brought to Hawaii to work on 1733. The first Indian language Bible was in Tamil, sugar plantations, and later many moved to United translated by a German Lutheran missionary, Bar- States mainland to work in service industries. tholomew Ziegenbalg, in 1725. Joshua Marshman Southeast Asian refugees displaced by war, such as and Johannes Lassar published the first Chinese Bi- the Vietnamese, Cambodian, and Lao, moved to ble translation (Serampore, India, 1822), but it was various countries in Europe, the United States, and not as widely used as Robert Morrison’s Chinese Australia in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Ko- translation (Malacca, Malaya, 1823). rean’s migration to the United States peaked in Although Bible translations in Asian languages the 1980s. were at first dominated by expatriate translators, The Chinese now constitute the largest Asian as time went by more and more mother tongue ethnic group in the United States (over 2.7 million, speakers became involved in Bible translations into according to the US Census 2000), and the largest their own respective languages. Instead of retaining visible minority group in Canada (over 1 million, Bible translation as an individual enterprise, to- according to the Canada Census 2001). Filipinos are day’s Asian Bible translators value collaboration the second largest Asian ethnic group in the United and team effort in their Bible translation work. States (over 2.3 million). Bible translations in Chinese, Japanese, Korean Indians and South Asians have also contributed and Indonesian serve the speakers in their home- to the Asian diaspora. Germany, along with France lands as well as the speakers in diaspora. and Italy, benefited from Indians and South Asians However, there are special cases where a sepa- as they provided labor in rebuilding postwar Eu- rate translation has been prepared for diaspora rope. populations. An example is the Javanese diaspora South Asians are now the largest immigrant in Suriname, South America. Although the de- group in Britain (over 2 million, according to the scendants of these Javanese contract workers are

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