Floodplain Forest Communityfloodplain Abstract Forest, Page 1

Floodplain Forest CommunityFloodplain Abstract Forest, Page 1

Community Range

Prevalent or likely prevalent Photo by Joshua G. Cohen Infrequent or likely infrequent Absent or likely absent

Overview: Floodplain forests occupy the low-lying forest in the Lake States (MI, WI, and MN) circa 1800, areas adjacent to streams and rivers which are third order just over 3,000 hectares (7,400 acres) of unlogged or greater and subject to periodic over-the-bank flooding floodplain forest remain today. Only 29 hectares (72 and cycles of erosion and deposition. The floodplain acres) of unlogged floodplain forest are located in forest is a broadly defined community type, where species Michigan, which formerly supported approximately composition and community structure vary regionally 1.1 million hectares (2.7 million acres) of floodplain along with varying flooding frequency and duration.Acer forest circa 1800 (Frelich 1995). The damage caused saccharinum (silver maple) and Fraxinus pennsylvanica to floodplain forests during logging operations of the (red ash) are the major overstory dominants. These late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries was not dynamic forested systems represent an interface between limited to the removal of overstory trees. Logs from terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. floodplains as well as adjacent upland forests were transported along rollways to rivers and streams where Global and state rank: G3?/S3 splash dams were used to transport the logs, altering stream flow and channel characteristics. In addition, Range: Floodplain forests dominated by silver maple and the clearing of floodplain forests was often followed red ash occur throughout the midwestern states, in much by cultivation, homesteading, or livestock grazing of the eastern U.S., and in southern Canada (Manitoba and (Malanson 1993, Verry and Dolloff 2000). Where Ontario), ranging primarily from Minnesota east to New agricultural practices were not conducted, forests England, south to Virginia and west to Arkansas (Faber- regenerated following cutting. Such regeneration Langendoen 2001, NatureServe 2003). In Michigan, accounts for the current 21,500 hectares (53,100 acres) floodplain forests are found along major rivers and streams of floodplain forest greater than 120 years old in throughout the state but are most extensive in the Lower Michigan and 98,300 hectares (242,800 acres) in the Peninsula (Kost et al. 2007). Species richness is greatest 80-120–year age class (Frelich 1995). Currently there in the southern Lower Peninsula where many floodplain are 47 documented occurrences of floodplain forest species reach the northern extent of their range. in Michigan (approximately 7,160 hectares or 17,700 acres). Seventeen of these occurrences, constituting Rank Justification: Although there were an estimated approximately 4,850 hectares (12,000 acres), are high- 1.8 million hectares (4.4 million acres) of floodplain quality representations of the type.

Michigan Natural Features Inventory P.O. Box 30444 - Lansing, MI 48909-7944 Phone: 517-373-1552 Floodplain Forest, Page 2

Ecoregional map of Michigan (Albert 1995) depicting distribution of floodplain forest (Albert et al. 2008)

Michigan Natural Features Inventory P.O. Box 30444 - Lansing, MI 48909-7944 Phone: 517-373-1552 Floodplain Forest, Page 3

In addition to disturbances related to the turn-of-the- surfaces at higher elevations than the floodplain that were century logging, floodplain forests of Michigan are highly abandoned when the river channel incised lower into the susceptible to more recent and ongoing disturbances that valley floor. Within the broader landscape, river valleys alter their hydrology (Ligon et al. 1995). Throughout represent an unusually diverse mosaic of landforms, North America, almost all large rivers and their floodplains physical environmental factors, species, and biological are subject to multiple hydrologic alterations, such as communities because of their abrupt environmental human-made levees, impoundments, channelization, gradients and complex ecological processes (Brinson dams, and changes in land use (Gergel 2002, Gergel et 1990, Gregory et al. 1991, Naiman et al. 1993). Floodplain al. 2002). By changing the flow of water, such hydrologic forests occur along streams or rivers that are third order alterations interrupt flood pulses, which are critical in the or greater (Strahler 1952). dynamics of seed dispersal, plant establishment, nutrient cycling, channel scouring, sediment deposition, and the Fluvial Landforms maintenance of species richness (Gergel et al. 2002). The dynamic process of channel migration creates a Changes in land cover surrounding the floodplain have also diversity of landscape features in floodplains. Due to the altered species composition and structure within floodplain geomorphic processes of over-the-bank flooding, transport forests. Agricultural land cover often leads to high nutrient and deposition of sediment, and erosive and abrasive water inputs into the floodplain (Lowrance et al. 1984), and the movement, the floodplains of large rivers exhibit a typical abundance of non-pervious surface in urban landscapes pattern of fluvial landforms, each of which is associated often results in a flashy discharge into nearby rivers. with a particular kind of vegetation (Hupp and Osterkamp 1985, Baker and Barnes 1998) (see Figure 1). Such fluvial The introduction of non-native organisms to floodplain landforms are distinguished by their size, shape, elevation, ecosystems in North America is so pervasive that few soil characteristics, and location in relation to the stream communities remain unaffected. The high frequency of channel. Due to the global distribution of river valley natural disturbances and high nutrient availability, which landscapes, a variety of names have been applied to their characterize floodplain ecosystems, facilitate colonization fluvial landforms. Several of the most characteristic fluvial of the floodplain by non-native plant species (Planty- landforms are described below and illustrated in Figure 1 Tabacchi et al. 1996). Once established, their dispersal (Hosner and Minckler 1960, Buccholz 1981, Baker and is enhanced by the connectivity of the riparian corridor. Barnes 1998): In addition to exotic plant species, exotic pathogens and insects have profoundly affected floodplain forests. For • natural levee – relatively high feature located adjacent example, the mortality of Ulmus americana (American to the river channel where the coarsest sediment is elm) caused by Dutch elm disease has virtually eliminated deposited by the fastest moving floodwaters (Brinson elm as a dominant overstory tree even though it was 1990); in comparison to other parts of the floodplain, historically one of the major dominants in many floodplain levees have soils of coarser texture and greater depth forests of Michigan (Barnes 1976). In 2002, a new exotic to water table, which result in better soil drainage and pest, the emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis), was soil aeration (Buccholz 1981) (Figure 1) identified in southeastern Michigan. This Asiatic beetle • point bar – formed by deposition of relatively coarse has already killed millions of ash trees and will likely alter sediment on the inner side of a curve in the river; often the species composition and structure of floodplain forests colonized by early successional vegetation that stabilizes (USDA Forest Service 2002, Roberts 2003). the soil (not shown in figure) • front – fine-textured new land deposits along stream Landscape Context and Natural Processes: River margins (Hosner and Minckler 1960); typically support valleys are linear depressions that contain a river channel early successional vegetation (not shown in figure) and its floodplain, often embedded within a series of • first bottom – low, poorly drained bottomland located higher terraces. River valleys, formed by the meltwater adjacent to the levee (Figure 1); formed by the present of glaciers, occur in glacial outwash channels. The river drainage system and subject to frequent over-the-bank floodplain is the low-lying area adjacent to the river that flooding; soil texture is typically finer than that of the was formed under the present drainage system and is levee. Although the range of topographic relief on the subject to periodic flooding and cycles of erosion and first bottom is often less than two meters, the first bottom deposition. In contrast, terraces are former floodplain is typically composed of low levees and adjacent wetter

Michigan Natural Features Inventory P.O. Box 30444 - Lansing, MI 48909-7944 Phone: 517-373-1552 Floodplain Forest, Page 4

SM SM QR FG

QA JN AN TA QM PO AS FP FP AS PD AS FN QB UA Riser Riser

River Levee First bottom Backswamp Second bottom Low terrace

AN = Acer nigrum QA = Quercus alba AS = Acer saccharinum QB = Quercus bicolor FG = Fagus grandifolia QM = Quercus macrocarpa FN = Fraxinus nigra QR = Quercus rubra FP = Fraxinus pennsylvanica SM = Acer saccharum JN = Juglans nigra TA = Tilia americana PD = Populus deltoides UA = Ulmus americana PO = Platanus occidentalis

Figure 1. Idealized cross-section of river valley, southern Lower Michigan, illustrating the relation of canopy trees to fluvial landforms (Adapted from Baker and Barnes 1998; not drawn to scale).

• first bottom (continued) – swales, creating a • meander-scar swamp – located at the foot of a valley landscape feature where small differences in elevation wall where the stream channel formerly cut into the can lead to large differences in the frequency and bank along the outside of a meander; groundwater seeps duration of flooding, floodwater depth, and the typically saturate the soil; elevation is lower and soil distribution of vegetation. organic matter content is higher than that of the first bottom flat; and muck or peat often accumulates.Similar Major features of the first bottom are defined below: features may occur on higher terraces where • first bottom flat – the general flat terrain of the first groundwater seeps saturate the soil at the foot of large bottom; often located immediately adjacent to the levee; terrace slopes (not shown in figure) typically contains fine-textured mineral soil (Figure 1) • meander scrolls – topography of low ridges and swales • backswamp – more poorly drained, at a lower elevation, where former channels, point bars, levees, and composed of finer-textured soil than the first bottom and backswamps were cut off and abandoned by the flat; located further from the levee than the first bottom meandering stream (not shown in figure) flat; formed because surface elevation decreases and • oxbow – abandoned channel of permanently standing progressively finer sediment is deposited with increasing water that has been cut off by the meandering distance from the river; often experiences prolonged stream; often the most hydric part of the floodplain; soil saturation due to the lower elevation, higher water hydroperiod may be too long and water depth may be table, and more moderate water level fluctuations too great for trees to become established. Instead, than the first bottom flat; soil organic matter content is oxbows are typically shallow lakes or herb-dominated typically higher than that of the first bottom flat (Baker communities, often with deep deposits of fine mineral and Barnes 1998) (Figure 1) and organic sediments (not shown in figure) • slough – area of dead water that forms in meander scrolls and along valley walls (not shown in figure)

Michigan Natural Features Inventory P.O. Box 30444 - Lansing, MI 48909-7944 Phone: 517-373-1552 Floodplain Forest, Page 5

• second bottom – situated adjacent to the first bottom River floodplain forests are often noted for their high basal and at a slightly higher elevation; flooded less frequently area and large-diameter trees relative to adjacent upland and for a shorter time than the first bottom; may contain forests (Curtis 1959, Brinson 1990). Such high basal area any of the topographic features of the first bottom. results from the combined influences of high nutrient Additional bottoms may occur adjacent to the second availability, an abundance of soil water throughout much bottom and further from the river, where each additional of the growing season, and higher humidity levels than bottom is flooded progressively less frequently and for a the upland landscape. Due to the input of nutrients from shorter time (Figure 1) uplands, the fine texture of alluvial soils, and redeposition • terrace – abandoned floodplain surfaces that were of sediments during flood events, nutrient availability formed by historical drainage systems and are not subject in the floodplain is typically high. Because soil-water to cycles of erosion and deposition under present drainage availability is typically much greater than that of the conditions (Hosner and Minckler 1963). High terraces, adjacent uplands, productivity is high for species tolerant formed early in the development of the river valley, of the low oxygen levels associated with inundation during are often characterized by deep sand soil and are typically floods. dominated by dry-mesic or xeric plant communities. Lower terraces, formed later in the development of the Microclimate river valley, typically have more silt and clay in their soil Microclimatic conditions of river valleys may enhance and are often dominated by mesic communities the ability of southerly species to compete in floodplain (Figure 1) forests, enabling them to extend their ranges farther • riser – the steep slope between adjacent bottoms or northward than in the adjacent uplands. Due to their low terraces of a river valley; also referred to as a terrace topographic position, river floodplains warm up more slope (Figure 1) slowly than the adjacent uplands, causing a given tree species to flush out later in the floodplain than it would Soil in the adjacent upland. The later flushing in the floodplain The mineral soil texture and organic soil content of each reduces the risk of late spring frost. The lower risk of frost fluvial landform is strongly associated with its position in damage allows species not well-adapted to late spring relation to the river channel. The coarsest sediments are frost to compete more successfully in floodplains than deposited immediately adjacent to the river channel, where they could in the upland landscapes where frost damage flow velocity is greatest. Soils of levees are frequently is more likely. Woody species at the northern edge of sandy loams or loam. Progressively finer soil particles their range that occur in floodplains of southern Michigan are deposited with increasing distance from the stream but are rarely found in upland landscapes include Celtis channel, where the friction of floodplain vegetation leads occidentalis (hackberry), Cercis canadensis (redbud), to lower floodwater velocity. Soil texture of the first bottom Euonymus atropurpurea (burning bush or wahoo, state is often silt loam, with silty clay loam to clay-textured soil special concern), Gleditsia triacanthos (honey locust), often occurring in swales and backswamps. Fine particle Gymnocladus dioicus (Kentucky coffee-tree, state deposition away from the river often results in poor soil special concern), Fraxinus profunda (pumpkin ash, state drainage. In general, cycles of over-the-bank flooding and threatened), Morus rubra (red mulberry, state threatened), regular soil aeration when floodwaters recede prevent the Platanus occidentalis (sycamore), Populus deltoides accumulation of organic matter close to the river (Brinson (eastern cottonwood), and Salix nigra (black willow). 1990). Farther from the river in backswamps and meander- scar swamps, where groundwater level is less strongly Landscape Context and Hydrogeomorphic Processes associated with the river level (Bell and Johnson 1974), River floodplains occur within the four major physiographic an accumulation of deep organic matter can result from systems (landforms) of Michigan: moraine, outwash plain, prolonged soil saturation with a high water table during the ice-contact terrain, and lake plain. However, because growing season. This isolation from the river also results the present drainage system is closely associated with in relatively low flood frequency and low flow velocity drainage patterns that developed during the retreat of the (Baker and Barnes 1998). Soils of floodplain forests are Wisconsinan glaciers, river floodplains most frequently generally circumneutral to mildly alkaline, but acidic soils occur within former glacial meltwater (outwash) channels. may be found on hummocks in the organic soils of River floodplains occur within broad outwash plains backswamps and meander-scar swamps. as well as narrow outwash plains situated between end

Michigan Natural Features Inventory P.O. Box 30444 - Lansing, MI 48909-7944 Phone: 517-373-1552 Floodplain Forest, Page 6 moraines, and the river channels occasionally cut through Barnes 1998). The development of narrow valleys also moraines. In glacial lake plains, large stretches of rivers occurs where rivers occupy narrow outwash channels flow through sand channels that formed where glacial situated between end moraines. The high topographic meltwater carried and deposited sand into the proglacial relief, relatively steep slope gradients, and fine-textured lakes, but some stretches cut through finer silty and clayey soil of morainal landscapes restrict lateral channel lacustrine sediments. migration, resulting in narrow, sinuous floodplains that are frequently dissected by a series of higher terraces. Because A key series of relationships link the physiography of the channel migration is restricted, the micro-topography of river valley with that of the upland landscape. Basin size, low ridges and swales that characterizes the first bottom topographic relief, and geologic parent material of the of many floodplains is often lacking. The frequency of upland landscape determine river discharge, river grade, over-the-bank flooding in morainal landscapes is generally sediment load, and sediment type. These in turn control the less than that in outwash plains and lake plains. Instead, hydrogeomorphic processes that account for the formation groundwater plays a stronger role, and constant soil of fluvial landforms: rates of erosion, deposition, and saturation due to groundwater seepage often supports large channel migration. The formation of fluvial landforms by accumulations of organic soil (Baker and Barnes 1998). such physical processes appears to be largely independent of floodplain vegetation (Hupp and Osterkamp 1985).

The size, shape, and diversity of fluvial landforms in a river floodplain and their spatial pattern are the result of the interaction between a river and the local landscape (Crow et al. 2000). Because physiographic systems are characterized by their topographic form and parent material, floodplains within different physiographic systems are characterized by differences in stream gradient, channel pattern, local hydrology, and fluvial landforms (Baker and Barnes 1998, Crow et al. 2000). When a river flows through a flat region, such as a broad outwash plain or a lake plain, a wide, continuous floodplain develops. Because the rate of channel migration Photo by Joshua G. Cohen tends to increase as bank sand content increases, river floodplains in outwash plains and sand lake plains are Floodplain forests in broad outwash plains are characterized characterized by broad first bottoms. Within these wide by wide, frequently inundated first bottoms. floodplains, extensive lateral channel migration and the deposition of progressively finer-textured sediment with The influence of broad physiographic features on increasing distance from the river lead to the formation of floodplain characteristics including stream gradient, a variety of fluvial landforms, including natural levees, first channel pattern, and fluvial landforms is illustrated in the bottoms, meander scrolls, oxbow lakes, backswamps, and distinct segments of the river valley that can be identified meander-scar swamps (Baker and Barnes 1998, Crow et in landscapes where a river flows from one type of al. 2000). With uniformly low topography and a relatively physiographic system into another. For example, the Big high water table, the broad first bottom of rivers within South Branch of the Pere Marquette River in northern outwash plains and lake plains is periodically inundated Lower Michigan flows through a broad outwash plain, during the growing season. The continuous floodplains but it also occurs adjacent to moraines, where the valley of such rivers rarely contain higher terraces (Baker and encounters the underlying till (Crow et al. 2000). Within Barnes 1998). the outwash plain, the floodplain is broad and continuous with uniformly low topography, and it is rarely dissected In contrast, both the higher topographic relief and finer- by higher terraces. When the river flows adjacent to the textured parent material of moraines encourage the moraine and it comes in contact with the underlying till, development of narrow river valleys with more restricted the river valley becomes narrow with numerous terraces floodplains and a reduced duration of flooding (Baker and (Baker and Barnes 1998). Many of the fluvial landforms

Michigan Natural Features Inventory P.O. Box 30444 - Lansing, MI 48909-7944 Phone: 517-373-1552 Floodplain Forest, Page 7 that characterize the first bottom in the outwash plain position in relation to the stream channel, provide the landscape are absent from the first bottom in the morainal most meaningful framework for understanding species landscape. In addition, natural levees in the outwash plain composition of the floodplain forest. are lower and wider than levees in the moraine (Crow et al. 2000). As the river leaves the moraine, a broad, continuous In addition to local variation in species composition and floodplain forms again (Baker and Barnes 1998). structure within a site, there are major differences in species composition between floodplain forests in the Interrelationship between Terrestrial and Aquatic northern and southern parts of the state. Although Acer Systems saccharinum (silver maple) and Fraxinus pennsylvanica Direct interaction between terrestrial and aquatic (red ash) are the primary overstory dominants of floodplain ecosystems occurs in floodplain forests through the forests throughout the state, overall species diversity is processes of over-the-bank flooding, bank cutting, and typically much greater in floodplain forests of southern sedimentation (Gregory et al. 1991). Over-the-bank Michigan than northern Michigan. While conifers flooding can directly cause treefall or indirectly lead to are typically absent, or they account for only a minor windthrow through increased soil saturation. Seasonal component of southern Michigan floodplain forests, they inundation results in the absence of a substantial seedling are often abundant in the floodplain forests of northern and shrub layer in these systems. Spring floodwaters Michigan. Such shifts in species composition occur along often carry ice floes and debris which can scour canopy a gradient from south to north, and to a lesser extent trees, leading to the development of multiple-stemmed from lake-moderated areas along the coast of the state canopy trees (Curtis 1959). Through the input of organic to the interior of the state. Because species composition matter, floodplain forests provide sources of energy for shifts along a gradient from south to north, southern and aquatic organisms. Shade from streamside vegetation northern floodplains are summarized separately with the moderates temperature regimes in aquatic systems, understanding that there is a continuum of conditions preventing excessive warming of the water during between the regional variants of floodplain forests. Fluvial summer months. Woody debris from floodplain vegetation landforms provide a useful framework for understanding influences the development of channel morphology and forest composition and structure in the floodplain forest, provides necessary habitat for many aquatic organisms. and therefore trends in species composition are discussed Riparian vegetation affects overland flow of water and along hypothetical transects from the river’s edge to the also influences sediment transport (Crow et al. 2000). upland. Through the processes of nutrient uptake by floodplain vegetation and denitrification by soil bacteria, floodplain 1. Floodplain forests of southern Lower Michigan: forests decrease the terrestrial inputs of nutrients into Along the river’s edge, shrub species such as Cephalanthus aquatic systems (Lowrance et al. 1981). Such processes occidentalis (buttonbush), Cornus amomum (silky are especially important in landscapes dominated by dogwood), Cornus stolonifera (red-osier dogwood), agricultural or urban land cover, where nutrient output Decodon verticillatus (water-willow), and Staphylea from upland ecosystems is typically high. trifolia (bladdernut) are common. These species, which are tolerant of the anaerobic soil conditions along the Vegetation description: The floodplain forest is a broadly edge of the stream, thrive under the high light levels defined community type with numerous variations in characteristic of the stream margin. Point bars and fronts species composition and vegetative structure. As a result are often colonized by pioneer tree species, including of the dynamic, local nature of natural disturbance along Populus deltoides (eastern cottonwood), Salix exigua stream channels, a typical floodplain forest consists of (sandbar willow), and Salix nigra (black willow). The many small patches of vegetation of different species occurrence of bare mineral soil in these new land deposits, composition and successional ages. Within a given located adjacent to the stream channel where light levels floodplain forest, vegetation changes along a gradient are high, favors the establishment and growth of these of flooding frequency and duration (Brinson 1990). Due trees, which are very intolerant of shade (Barnes and to local variability in soil texture, internal drainage, and Wagner 1981), but moderately tolerant of inundation aeration, trends in species composition do not necessarily of the soil surface during the growing season (Hosner correspond with elevation. Fluvial landforms, which 1960). Herbaceous plants that are frequently found along are defined by their size, shape, elevation, soil, and river edges include Lobelia cardinalis (cardinal-flower),

Michigan Natural Features Inventory P.O. Box 30444 - Lansing, MI 48909-7944 Phone: 517-373-1552 Floodplain Forest, Page 8

Peltandra virginica (arrow-arum), and Pontederia cordata Asarum canadense (wild ginger), Aster lateriflorus (calico (pickerel weed). A large number of tree species are likely aster), Boehmeria cylindrica (false nettle), Calamagrostis to occur on the higher, more stable terrain of the levee, canadensis (blue-joint), Carex grayi (Gray’s sedge), where the frequency and duration of flooding are relatively Cinna arundinacea (wood reedgrass), Elymus virginicus low and the sandy soil drains rapidly when floodwaters (Virginia wild rye), Equisetum arvense (field horsetail), recede. Such species include Carya ovata (shagbark Geum canadense (avens), Impatiens capensis (jewelweed), hickory), Celtis occidentalis (hackberry), Juglans cinerea Iris virginica (southern blue flag), Laportea canadensis (butternut), Juglans nigra (black walnut), Platanus (wood nettle), Lysimachia ciliata (fringed loosestrife), occidentalis (sycamore), Quercus bicolor (swamp white Matteuccia struthiopteris (ostrich fern), Onoclea sensibilis oak), Quercus macrocarpa (bur oak), Salix amygdaloides (sensitive fern), Pilea spp. (clearweed), Ranunculus (peachleaf willow), and Tilia americana (basswood). hispidus (swamp buttercup), Saururus cernuus (lizard’s Numerous records for the rare trees Gymnocladus dioicus tail), Senecio aureus (golden ragwort), Smilacina stellata (Kentucky coffee-tree) and Morus rubra (red mulberry) (starry false Solomon’s seal), Smilax ecirrhata (carrion are known from levees. Due to the lower frequency and flower),Solidago gigantea (late goldenrod), Symplocarpus duration of flooding on the levee than on other parts of foetidus (skunk cabbage), Thalictrum dasycarpum (tall the floodplain and the relatively high light levels due to meadow rue), and Urtica dioica (stinging nettle) (Goforth its location adjacent to the stream channel, the understory et al. 2002). is often dense. A variety of tall shrubs and small-tree species may be abundant, including Carpinus caroliniana (musclewood), Cercis canadensis (redbud), Cornus spp. (dogwoods), Fraxinus quadrangulata (blue ash), Lindera benzoin (spicebush), Prunus virginiana (choke cherry), Sambucus canadensis (common elder), Viburnum lentago (nannyberry), and Zanthoxylum americanum (prickly- ash). Euonymus atropurpurea (burning-bush or wahoo, state special concern) is a rare shrub that is found primarily on levees.

Adjacent to the levee, the first bottom flat is dominated by silver maple and red ash, with few other tree species present. Prior to the Dutch elm disease epidemic of the Photo by Joshua G. Cohen 1960s, Ulmus americana (American elm) was formerly a Local variability of flooding frequency and duration canopy dominant. However, the disease has relegated elm generates high floristic diversity within floodplain to a common species of the subcanopy and understory: in forests. many stands, all elms greater than six inches in diameter have been killed (Beaman 1970, Frye 1976). Understory Adjacent to the first bottom flat is the backswamp, where vegetation is typically sparse. While short shrubs, such silver maple and red ash often share canopy dominance as Ribes americanum (red courant) and Rubus strigosus with Fraxinus nigra (black ash). Swamp white oak can (red raspberry) may be common, tall shrubs and small- also be an important component of the canopy. The tree-species are typically absent. However, vines coverage of ground-cover vegetation in the backswamp including Parthenocissus quinquefolia (Virginia creeper), is typically low due to prolonged inundation of the soil Toxicodendron radicans (poison ivy), and Vitis riparia surface during flooding and saturation of the soil surface (riverbank grape) are abundant, often achieving optimum when floodwaters recede. Although the overall coverage of growth (Curtis 1959). Other than in small sloughs and ground-cover vegetation in the backswamp is considerably depressions where standing water occurs, the ground-cover lower than that of the first bottom flat, species including layer is often continuous following floodwater recession, Caltha palustris (marsh-marigold), Carex lacustris and an enormous diversity of species may be present. (sedge), and Glyceria striata (fowl manna grass) may be The following species are among the most characteristic more abundant in the backswamp than in the first bottom ground-cover species of the first bottom in southern flat. Lower Michigan: Arisaema dracontium (green dragon),

Michigan Natural Features Inventory P.O. Box 30444 - Lansing, MI 48909-7944 Phone: 517-373-1552 Floodplain Forest, Page 9

The species composition of the second bottom is markedly as wild ginger, green dragon, and lizard’s tail, either are different from that of the first bottom. In contrast to forests absent from northern Michigan floodplains or are a minor of the first bottom flat that are only dominated by two component of the ground cover. Grasses, including blue- species (silver maple and red ash), many overstory species joint, fowl manna grass, Leersia oryzoides (cut grass), occur on the second bottom. These include Acer nigrum Leersia virginica (white grass), Virginia wild rye, and a (black maple), basswood, black walnut, bur oak, Carya variety of sedges (Carex lacustris, Carex intumescens, cordiformis (bitternut hickory), Carya ovata (shagbark Carex lupulina, and Carex tuckermanii) often account hickory), Fraxinus americana (white ash), hackberry, for a much larger proportion of the ground-layer coverage and occasionally Acer saccharum (sugar maple), Fagus in northern Michigan than they do in southern Lower grandifolia (American beech), and Quercus rubra (red Michigan. In addition to grasses and sedges, species oak). Rare tree species including Kentucky coffee-tree and such as false nettle, jewelweed, sensitive fern, and skunk red mulberry may also be present on the second bottom. cabbage may be abundant in the first bottom of northern Michigan floodplains. Conifers are typically absent from floodplain forests of southern Lower Michigan: occasionally groundwater In landscapes where broad, continuous floodplains seepages associated with meander scars support Larix develop, the vegetation of backswamps and meander-scar laricina (tamarack), and less often Thuja occidentalis swamps in northern Michigan is markedly different from (northern white-cedar). Such groundwater seepages that of southern Lower Michigan. In both northern and are typically not directly influenced by over-the-bank southern Michigan, backswamps are often dominated by flooding. Low terraces within the floodplain are often silver maple, red ash, black ash, and subcanopy American dominated by American beech and sugar maple, often with elm. However, conifers such as northern white-cedar, red oak and basswood. Higher terraces typically support Pinus strobus (eastern white pine), and Tsuga canadensis drier, oak-dominated forests. (eastern hemlock) are often present in backswamps of northern Michigan. Characteristic ground-cover species 2. Floodplain forests of northern Michigan (Northern in northern Michigan backswamps include Carex stricta Lower Michigan and Upper Michigan): Point bars and (tussock sedge), false nettle, sensitive fern, and skunk fronts in northern Michigan floodplains are often dominated cabbage. Meander-scar swamps of northern Michigan by Alnus rugosa (speckled alder) and shrub willows, floodplains are typically dominated by black ash and compared to black willow and eastern cottonwood, northern white-cedar, along with Acer rubrum (red maple), which are the dominant colonizers in southern Lower Betula alleghaniensis (yellow birch), eastern hemlock, and Michigan floodplains. Natural levees in northern Michigan eastern white pine. Characteristic ground-cover species floodplains are typically dominated by basswood, along of northern Michigan meander-scar swamps include with silver maple, red ash, and subcanopy American elm. Osmunda regalis (royal fern), Rubus pubescens (dwarf Although a wide variety of tree and shrub species are raspberry), and Thelypteris noveboracensis (New York likely to occur on the natural levee in the southern part of fern) (Baker and Barnes 1998), species typically absent the state, many species characteristic of southern Lower from floodplain forests of southern Lower Michigan. Michigan levees, such as shagbark hickory, redbud, and Speckled alder is also common in meander-scar swamps. hackberry, do not occur in the northern part of the state. Similar forests dominated by northern white-cedar often occur along groundwater seepages and at the base of In broad outwash plain and lake plain landforms, where terrace slopes on second bottoms or higher terraces within rivers form a wide, continuous first bottom, the overstory the river valley. and understory vegetation of the first bottom flat is similar to that of the first bottom flat in southern Lower Michigan, In northern Michigan, the vegetation of the first bottom but many of the characteristic ground-cover species are of narrow floodplains that develop in river valleys of absent. In both northern and southern Michigan, the first narrow outwash plains that are constrained between end bottom flat is dominated by silver maple and red ash moraines or where rivers cut through moraines is markedly with subcanopy elm and few other tree species present, different from that of narrow floodplains in southern and low understory stem density with few tall shrubs or Lower Michigan. While narrow floodplains in southern small-tree species. Many characteristic ground-cover Lower Michigan are often dominated by silver maple, red plants of southern Lower Michigan floodplains, such ash, and basswood, such floodplains in northern Michigan

Michigan Natural Features Inventory P.O. Box 30444 - Lansing, MI 48909-7944 Phone: 517-373-1552 Floodplain Forest, Page 10 are often dominated by basswood, red ash, northern white state special concern), Carex typhina (cat-tail sedge, state cedar, and Populus balsamifera (balsam poplar) (Baker threatened), Chasmanthium latifolium (wild oats, state and Barnes 1998). endangered), Chelone obliqua (purple turtlehead, state endangered), Corydalis flavula (yellow fumewort, state The second bottom of northern Michigan floodplain threatened), Dasistoma macrophylla (mullein-foxglove, forests is often dominated by basswood, eastern white state endangered), Dentaria maxima (large toothwort, pine, or northern red oak. Swamps and groundwater state threatened), Diarrhena obovata (beak grass, state seepages within the second bottom are typically dominated threatened), Dryopteris celsa (log fern, state threatened), by northern white cedar, often with black ash, eastern Euonymus atropurpurea (burning bush or wahoo, state hemlock, red maple, and yellow birch (Baker and Barnes special concern), Fraxinus profunda (pumpkin ash, state 1998). Low terraces within the floodplain are typically threatened), Galearis spectabilis (showy orchis, state dominated by northern hardwood forests, where species threatened), Gentianella quinquefolia (stiff gentian, state such as American beech, eastern hemlock, and sugar threatened), Hybanthus concolor (green violet, state maple may be abundant. Higher terraces are typically special concern), Hydrastis canadensis (goldenseal, dominated by drier, oak-pine forests. Terrace slopes are state threatened), Jeffersonia diphylla (twinleaf, state often dominated by eastern hemlock. special concern), Justicia americana (water-willow, state threatened), Lithospermum latifolium (broad-leaved Michigan Indicator Species: Acer nigrum (black maple), pucoon, state special concern), Lycopus virginicus (Virginia Acer saccharinum (silver maple), Arisaema dracontium water-horehound, state threatened), Mertensia virginica (green dragon), Aster lateriflorus (calico aster), Boehmeria (Virginia bluebells, state endangered), Morus rubra (red cylindrica (false nettle), Celtis occidentalis (hackberry), mulberry, state threatened), Panax quinquefolius (ginseng, Euonymus atropurpurea (burning bush or wahoo, state state threatened), Plantago cordata (heart-leaved plantain, special concern), Fraxinus pennsylvanica (red ash), state endangered), Poa paludigena (bog bluegrass, state Fraxinus profunda (pumpkin ash, state threatened), threatened), Polemonium reptans (Jacob’s ladder or Gleditsia triacanthos (honey locust), Gymnocladus dioicus Greek-valerian, state threatened), Pycnanthemum pilosum (Kentucky coffee-tree), Hybanthus concolor (green violet, (hairy mountain mint, state threatened), Ruellia strepens state special concern), Hydrastis canadensis (goldenseal, (smooth ruellia, state endangered), Silphium perfoliatum state threatened), Jeffersonia diphylla (twinleaf, state (cup-plant, state threatened), Trillium nivale (snow special concern), Juglans cinerea (butternut), Laportea trillium, state threatened), Trillium recurvatum (prairie canadensis (wood nettle), Lindera benzoin (spicebush), trillium, state threatened), Trillium sessile (toadshade, Morus rubra (red mulberry), Platanus occidentalis state threatened), Valerianella chenopodiifolia (goosefoot (sycamore), Quercus bicolor (swamp white oak), Quercus corn-salad, state threatened), Valerianella umbilicata macrocarpa (bur oak), Salix nigra (black willow), (corn-salad, state threatened), Viburnum prunifolium Staphylea trifolia (bladdernut), Toxicodendron radicans (black haw, state special concern), and Wisteria frutescens (poison ivy), Ulmus americana (American elm), Urtica (wisteria, state threatened). dioica (stinging nettle), and Vitis riparia (riverbank grape). Rare herptiles that utilize floodplain forests include Other Noteworthy Species: Numerous rare plants are Clonophis kirtlandii (Kirtland’s snake, state endangered), associated with floodplain forests: Arabis perstellata Pantherophis spiloides (gray ratsnake, state special (rock cress, state threatened), Aristolochia serpentaria concern), Emydoidea blandingii (Blanding’s turtle, state (Virginia snakeroot, state threatened), Aster furcatus special concern), Glyptemys insculpta (wood turtle, state (forked aster, state threatened), Bromus nottowayanus special concern), Sistrus catenatus catenatus (eastern (satin brome, state special concern), Camassia scilloides massasauga, state special concern), and Terrapene carolina (wild-hyacinth, state threatened), Carex conjuncta (sedge, carolina (eastern box turtle, state special concern). state endangered), Carex crus-corvi (raven’s-foot sedge, Seasonally inundated portions of floodplains provide state threatened), Carex davisii (Davis’ sedge, state special crucial habitat for reptiles and amphibians. Amphibian concern), Carex decomposita (log sedge, presumed species most dependent on ephemeral pools in Michigan extirpated from Michigan), Carex lupuliformis (false hop are Ambystoma maculatum (spotted salamander), sedge, state threatened), Carex squarrosa (sedge, state Ambytoma laterale (blue-spotted salamander), Bufo special concern), Carex trichocarpa (hairy-fruited sedge, americanus (American toad), Hyla versicolor (gray tree

Michigan Natural Features Inventory P.O. Box 30444 - Lansing, MI 48909-7944 Phone: 517-373-1552 Floodplain Forest, Page 11 frog), Psuedacris triseriata (chorus frog), and Rana snail), Discus patulus (domed disc, state special concern sylvatica (wood frog). Rare herptiles associated with these snail), Lepisosteus oculatus (spotted gar, state special pools include Ambystoma opacum (marbled salamander, concern), Moxostoma carinatum (river redhorse, state state endangered), Ambystoma texanum (smallmouth threatened), Noturus stigmosus (northern madtorn, state salamander, state endangered), Blanding’s turtle, and endangered), Opsopoeodus emiliae (pugnose minnow, Nerodia erythrogaster neglecta (copperbelly water snake, state endangered), Percina copelandi (channel darter, state endangered). state endangered ), Percina shumardi (river darter, state endangered), and Pomatiopsis cincinnatiensis (brown Myosotis sodalis (Indiana bat, state endangered) walker, state special concern snail). establish roosts and nurseries in standing snags within floodplain forests. Floodplain forests in Michigan support disproportionately large numbers of breeding bird species as compared to upland landscapes (Inman et al. 2002). Floodplain forests are especially important for obligate riparian bird species, including Dendroica dominica (yellow-throated warbler, state threatened), Protonotaria citrea (prothonotary warbler, state special concern), and Seiurus motacilla (Lousiana waterthrush, state threatened) and several breeding species of concern that are regionally rare or declining, including Dendroica cerulea (cerulean warbler, state threatened), Empidonax virescens (Acadian flycatcher), Melanerpes erythrocephalus (redheaded Photo by Joshua G. Cohen woodpecker), and Wilsonia citrina (hooded warbler, state special concern) (Inman et al. 2002). Nesting raptors that Floodplain forests, interfaces between aquatic and occur in floodplains includeAccipiter cooperii (Cooper’s terrestrial ecosystems, support high levels of hawk) and Buteo lineatus (red-shouldered hawk, state biodiversity. threatened). Ardea herodias (great blue heron) often construct rookeries within floodplain forests and hardwood Conservation and biodiversity management: Successful swamps. conservation management of floodplain forests can contribute significantly to regional biodiversity because Numerous rare aquatic animals are associated with these systems possess an unusually high diversity of Michigan rivers that support floodplain forest. Rare plant and animal species, vegetation types, and ecological mussels include Alasmidonta marginata (elktoe, state processes (Nilsson 1992, Naiman et al. 1993). By providing special concern), Cyclonaias tuberculata (purple necessary hibernacula, breeding sites, foraging areas, and wartyback, state threatened), Epioblasma torulosa travel corridors, floodplain forests often support a high rangiana (northern riffleshell, state endangered), diversity of birds, herptiles, and mammals. Wider and Epioblasma triquetra (snuffbox, state endangered), more contiguous riparian systems were found to support Lampsilis fasciola (wavy-rayed lampmussel, state higher levels of native plant species diversity compared to threatened), Obovaria olivaria (round hickorynut, state narrow, fragmented riparian systems (Goforth et al. 2002). endangered), Obovaria subrotunda (round hickorynut, Riparian corridors may harbor twice the number of species state endangered), Pleurobema clava (northern clubshell, occurring in adjacent upland areas (Gregory et al. 1991). state endangered), Pleurobema sintozia (round pigtoe, state special concern), Simpsonaias ambigua (salamander Conservation and management of floodplain forests mussel, state endangered), Toxolasma lividus (purple require an ecosystem management perspective because lilliput, state endangered), Venustaconcha ellipsiformis of the complex longitudinal, lateral, and vertical (ellipse, state special concern), Villosa fabalis (rayed dimensions of river systems (Sparks 1995, Ward 1998). bean, state endangered), and Villosa iris (rainbow, The implementation of management approaches may state special concern). Rare fish and snails include be complicated and specific to individual river systems Accipenser fulvescens (lake sturgeon, state threatened), (Sparks 1995, Verry et al. 2000). However, some general Anguispira kochi (banded globe, state special concern conservation management guidelines have emerged from

Michigan Natural Features Inventory P.O. Box 30444 - Lansing, MI 48909-7944 Phone: 517-373-1552 Floodplain Forest, Page 12 the study of the basic ecology of floodplain ecosystems cathartica (common buckthorn), Rhamnus frangula (Brinson 1990, Nilsson 1992, Naiman et al. 1993, Ward (glossy buckthorn), and Rosa multiflora(multiflora rose) 1998, Verry et al. 2000). It is crucial to maintain the (Goforth et al. 2002). In general, there are fewer non- connectivity and longitudinal environmental gradients native species in northern Michigan floodplains, and they from headwater streams to the broad floodplains are usually not as abundant as in the southern part of the downstream. The recognition of floodplain forests as state. Common non-native species in northern floodplains important ecotones between aquatic and terrestrial include Japanese barberry, moneywort, Myosotis ecosystems demands the maintenance or re-establishment scorpoides (forget-me-not), and Solanum dulcamara of lateral connectivity and environmental gradients along (bittersweet). Once these species become established, riparian and upland areas. Because hydrologic regime is control (often through manual removal) becomes costly a primary driving force structuring floodplain forests, the and intensive. natural spatial and temporal patterns of stream flow rates, water levels, and run-off patterns must be maintained or re-established. Restoration of channel morphology may be important in areas where stream channelization, channel constriction, and dams have altered water delivery and geomorphology. Floodplain forests are located in riparian areas that integrate the effects of human activities on the larger landscape. Thus, conservation management must also take into account the importance of chemical inputs, timber harvest, agriculture, grazing, and exotic species invasion (Brinson 1990, Nilsson 1992, Naiman et al. 1993, Ward 1998, Verry et al. 2000). Floodplain forests are unusually susceptible to invasions by exotic species (Planty-Tabbachi et al. 1996). Because of their linear shape and location between aquatic and Photo by Joshua G. Cohen terrestrial environments, floodplain forests have a high Within fragmented landscapes, floodplain forests function as ratio of edge to interior that may facilitate the movement critical reservoirs of biodiversity and travel corridors. of opportunistic species. Rivers and streams provide a route of transport that may encourage the spread of species across the landscape. Floodplain forests are highly Research Needs: An important research question to and frequently disturbed systems that contain extensive be addressed is how the ecological processes, structure, areas of exposed mineral soil and have high nutrient and species composition of this community will availability; these are characteristics that also facilitate change as the Great Lakes region becomes increasingly invasion by exotics. Preemptive measures to minimize fragmented. At what level of fragmentation will these impacts of invasive species include maintaining mature systems stop functioning as suitable habitat or travel floodplain forest, minimizing and eliminating trails and corridors for different species? Given the prevalence of roads through floodplains, and buffering riparian areas invasive species in these highly disturbed systems, it is with mature, continuous uplands. Invasive exotics that imperative to determine how non-native species alter can dominate the groundlayer include Alliaria petiolata species composition and structure. Resource managers (garlic mustard), Glechoma hederacea (gil-over-the need to know how best to manage against exotics not only ground), Hesperis matronalis (dame’s rocket), Lysimachia locally but also at the landscape scale. As noted by Curtis nummularia (moneywort), Lythrum salicaria (purple (1959), many of the overstory dominants of floodplain loosestrife), and Phalaris arundinacea (reed canary forests are resistant to ground fires. Little is known about grass). Prevalent exotic shrubs include Berberis vulgaris the role of fire in the disturbance regime of floodplains. (Japanese barberry), Elaeagnus umbellata (autumn olive), Prescribed fire may prove a useful tool in controlling Ligustrum vulgare (common privet), Lonicera tatarica invasive exotics. Historically, introduced tree diseases and (tartarian honeysuckle), Lonicera morrowii (morrow insects have had a profound impact on Michigan forests. honeysuckle), Morus alba (white mulberry), Rhamnus A recently discovered Asiatic beetle, the emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis), has already killed millions

Michigan Natural Features Inventory P.O. Box 30444 - Lansing, MI 48909-7944 Phone: 517-373-1552 Floodplain Forest, Page 13 of ash trees in southeastern Michigan and southeastern I.B.2.N.d.24; Acer (rubrum, saccharinum) – Ulmus Ontario and threatens to drastically alter floodplain forests americana Temporarily Flooded Forest Alliance; Acer (USDA Forest Service 2002, Roberts 2003). A crucial saccharinum – Ulmus Americana / Onoclea sensibilis research need is to determine if it is possible to prevent Forest; Silver Maple – Elm / Sensitive Fern Forest. this pest from radically altering ash-dominated forests. Using hindsight gained from assessing past epidemics, I.B.2.N.e.1; Acer rubrum – Fraxinus pennsylvanica researchers can formulate strategies for prevention and Seasonally Flooded Forest Alliance; Acer (rubrum, hypothesize about impacts future outbreaks may have on saccharinum) – Fraxinus spp. – Ulmus americana forest structure and composition. Forest; Maple – Ash – Elm Swamp Forest.

Similar Communities: Hardwood-conifer swamp, mesic Related Abstracts: beaked grass, Blanding’s turtle, southern forest, mesic northern forest, northern hardwood channel darter, cerulean warbler, Cooper’s hawk, swamp, southern hardwood swamp. eastern box turtle, eastern massasauga, elktoe, ginseng, goldenseal, hardwood-conifer swamp, lake sturgeon, large Other Classifications: toothwort, mesic northern forest, mesic southern forest, northern clubshell, northern goshawk, northern hardwood Michigan Natural Features Inventory Circa 1800 swamp, northern madtom, northern riffleshell, pugnose Vegetation (Comer et al. 1995): Mixed Hardwood minnow, purple lilliput, rayed bean, red-shouldered hawk, Swamp and Floodplain river redhorse, round hickorynut, salamander mussel, showy orchis, snuffbox, spotted gar, Virginia snakeroot, Michigan Department of Natural Resources wavy-rayed lampmussel, and wood turtle. (MDNR): E - Swamp Hardwoods Selected References: Michigan Resource Information Systems Albert, D.A. 1995. Regional landscape ecosystems of Michi- (MIRIS): 4146 (Lowland Hardwood), 6110 gan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin: A working map and (Wooded Wetland), 4148 (Undifferentiated Lowland classification. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-178. St. Paul, MN: Hardwood), 4144 (Cottonwood), 4145 (Elm) USDA, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station, St. Paul, MN. http://nrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/242 (Ver-

The Nature Conservancy National Classification: sion 03JUN1998). 250 pp. Albert, D.A., J.G. Cohen, M.A. Kost, B.S. Slaughter, and CODE; ALLIANCE; ASSOCIATION; COMMON H.D. Enander. 2008. Distribution maps of Michigan’s NAME Natural Communities. Michigan Natural Features Inventory, Report No. 2008-01, Lansing, MI. 174 pp. I.B.2.N.d.4; Acer saccharinum Temporarily Flooded Baker, M.E., and B.V. Barnes. 1998. Landscape ecosystem Forest Alliance; Acer saccharinum – Ulmus americana diversity of river floodplains in northwestern Lower – (Populus deltoides) Forest; Silver Maple – Elm – Michigan, U.S.A. Canadian Journal of Forestry (Cottonwood) Forest. Research 28: 1405-1418. Barnes, B.V. 1976. Succession in deciduous swamp I.B.2.N.d.4; Acer saccharinum Temporarily Flooded communities of southeastern Michigan formerly Forest Alliance; Acer saccharinum – (Populus dominated by American elm. Canadian Journal of deltoides) / Matteuccia struthiopteris Forest; Silver Botany 54: 19-24. Maple Floodplain Forest, Ostrich Fern Variant. Barnes, B.V., and W.H. Wagner, Jr. 1981. Michigan Trees: A Guide to the Trees of Michigan and the Great Lakes I.B.2.N.d.11; Fraxinus pennsylvanica – Ulmus Region. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, americana – Celtis (occidentalis, laevigata) MI. 383 pp. Temporarily Flooded Forest Alliance; Fraxinus Beaman, J.H. 1970. A botanical inventory of Sanford pennsylvanica – Ulmus americana – (Acer negundo, Natural Area. I. The environment. Michigan Botanist Tilia americana) Northern Forest; Northern Ash – Elm 9: 116-139. Floodplain Forest. Bell, D.T., and F.L. Johnson. 1974. Ground-water level in the floodplain and adjacent uplands of the Sangamon River. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science 67: 376-383. Michigan Natural Features Inventory P.O. Box 30444 - Lansing, MI 48909-7944 Phone: 517-373-1552 Floodplain Forest, Page 14

Brinson, M.M. 1990. Riverine forests. Pp. 87-141 in D. Hupp, C.R., and W.R. Osterkamp. 1985. Bottomland Goodall, A. Lugo, M. Brinson, and S. Brown (eds.), vegetation distribution along passage creek, Virginia, Ecosystems of the World, Forested Wetlands, Vol. 15. in relation to fluvial landforms. Ecology 66: 670-681. Elsevier, New York. 527 pp. Inman, R.L., H.H. Prine, and D.B. Hayes. 2002. Avian Buchholz, K. 1981. Effects of minor drainages on woody communities in forested riparian wetlands of southern species distribution in a successional floodplain forest. Michigan, USA. Wetlands 22: 647-660. Canadian Journal of Forestry Research 11: 671-676. Kost, M.A., D.A. Albert, J.G. Cohen, B.S. Slaughter, Crow, T.R., M.E. Baker, and B.V. Barnes. 2000. Diversity R.K. Schillo, C.R. Weber, and K.A. Chapman. in riparian landscapes. Pp 43-65 in E.S. Verry, 2007. Natural Communities of Michigan: J.W. Hornbeck, and C.A. Dolloff (eds.), Riparian Classification and Description. Michigan Natural Management in Forests of the Continental Eastern Features Inventory, Report Number 2007-21, United States. Lewis Publishers, CRC Press, Boca Lansing, MI. 314 pp. Raton, FL. 432 pp. Ligon, F.K., W.E. Deitrich, and W.J. Trush. 1995. Curtis, J.T. 1959. The Vegetation of Wisconsin. University Downstream ecological effects of dams. Bioscience of Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI. 657 pp. 45: 183-192. Faber-Langendoen, D., ed. 2001. Plant communities of Lowrance, R.R., R.L. Todd, J. Fail, O. Hendrickson, R. the Midwest: Classification in an ecological context. Leonard, and L.E. Asmussen. 1984. Riparian forests as Association for Biodiversity Information, Arlington, nutrient filters in agricultural watersheds. Bioscience. VA. 61 pp & appendix (705 pp). 34: 374-377. Frelich, L.E. 1995. Old forest in the Lake States today Malanson, G.P. 1993. Riparian Landscapes. Cambridge and before European settlement. Natural Areas University Press, Cambridge. 296 pp. Journal 15: 157-167. Naiman, R.J., H. Decamps, and M. Pollock. 1993. The Frye, D.M. 1976. A botanical inventory of Sandhill role of riparian corridors in maintaining regional Woodlot, Ingham County, Michigan. I. The vegetation. biodiversity. Ecological Applications 3: 209-212. Michigan Botanist 15: 131-140. NatureServe. 2003. NatureServe Explorer: An online Gergel, S.E. 2002. Assessing cumulative impacts of encyclopedia of life [web application]. Version 1.8. levees and dams on floodplain ponds: A neutral- NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia. Available http:// terrain model approach. Ecological Applications 12: www.natureserve.org/explorer. (Accessed: October 1740-1754. 24, 2003). Gergel, S.E., M.D. Dixon, and M.G. Turner. 2002. Nilsson, C. 1992. Conservation management of riparian Consequences of human-altered floods: Levees, communities. Pp 352-372 in L.Hansson, ed., floods, and floodplain forests along the Wisconsin Ecological Principles of Nature Conservation. River. Ecological Applications12: 1755- 1770. Elsevier Applied Science, London. Goforth, R.R., D. Stagliano, Y.M. Lee, J. Cohen, and Planty-Tabacchi, A., E. Tabacchi, R.J. Naiman, C. M. Penskar. 2002. Biodiversity analysis of selected Deferrari, and H. Décamps. 1996. Invasibility riparian ecosystems within a fragmented landscape. of species-rich communities in riparian zones. Michigan Natural Features Inventory. Lansing, MI. Conservation Biology 10: 598-607. 126 pp. Roberts, D.L. 2003. The emerald ash borer: A threat to Gregory, S.V., F.J. Swanson, W.A. McKee, and K.W. ash in North America. Michigan State University Cummins. 1991. An ecosystem perspective of riparian Extension, East Lansing, MI. Available: http://www. zones. Bioscience 41: 540-551. msue.msu.edu/reg_se/roberts/ash/eab_threat03.pdf. Hosner, J.F. 1960. Relative tolerance to complete (Accessed: March 1, 2004). inundation of fourteen bottomland tree species. Forest Sparks, R. 1995. Need for ecosystem management of large Science 6: 247-251. rivers and their floodplains. Bioscience 45(3): 168-182 Hosner, J.F., and L.S. Minckler. 1960. Hardwood Strahler, A.N. 1952. Dynamic Basis of Geomorphology. reproduction in the river bottoms of southern Illinois. Geological Society of America Bulletin 63: 923-938. Forest Science 6: 67-77. USDS Forest Service. 2002. Pest Alert – Emerald Ash Hosner, J.F., and L.S. Minckler. 1963. Bottomland Borer. St Paul, MN. Available: http://www.na.fs. hardwood forests of southern Illinois regeneration fed.us/spfo/pubs/pest_al/eab/ eab.htm.(Accessed: and succession. Ecology 44: 29-41. March 1, 2004).

Michigan Natural Features Inventory P.O. Box 30444 - Lansing, MI 48909-7944 Phone: 517-373-1552 Floodplain Forest, Page 15

Verry, E.S., and A. Dolloff. 2000. The challenge of Updated June 2010. managing for healthy riparian areas. Pp 1-20 in E.S. Verry, J.W. Hornbeck, and C.A. Dolloff (eds.), Copyright 2004 Michigan State University Board of Riparian Management in Forests of the Continental Trustees. Eastern United States. Lewis Publishers, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. 432 pp. Michigan State University Extension is an affirmative- Verry, E.S., J.W. Hornbeck and C.A. Dolloff, eds. 2000. action, equal-opportunity organization. Riparian Management in Forests of the Continental Eastern United States. Lewis Publishers, CRC Press, Funding provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Boca Raton, FL. 432 pp. Administration (NOAA) Coastal Services Center via Great Ward, J.V. 1998. Riverine landscapes: Biodiversity patterns, Lakes Commission. disturbance regimes, and aquatic conservation. Biological Conservation 83: 269-278.

Abstract Citation Tepley, A.J., J.G. Cohen, and L. Huberty. 2004. Natural community abstract for floodplain forest. Michigan Natural Features Inventory, Lansing, MI.15 pp.

Floodplain forest along the Muskegon River, Clare County, Michigan. Photo by Joshua G. Cohen.

Michigan Natural Features Inventory P.O. Box 30444 - Lansing, MI 48909-7944 Phone: 517-373-1552