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Appendix: Regional Summaries:Southeast and Caribbean This work was supported in part by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. The findings and conclusions in this publication are those of the authors and should not be 426 construed to represent any official USDA or U.S. Government determination or policy. Appendix: Regional Summaries Juzwik J, Appel DN, MacDonald WL, Burks S (2011) U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) (2012b) Asian Challenges and successes in management of oak wilt in longhorned beetle and its host trees. U.S. Department of the United States. Plant Dis 95:888–900 Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Area State and Kalisz S, Spigler RB, Horvitz CC (2014) In a long-term Private Forestry. NA-PR-05-12, New Town Square experimental demography study, excluding ungulates U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) (2017) Gypsy moth reversed invader’s explosive population growth rate and digest database. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest restored natives. Proc Natl Acad Sci 111:4501–4506 Service, Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry, Knight TM, Dunn JL, Smith LA et al (2009) Deer facilitate Newtown Square. https://www.fs.usda.gov/naspf/pro- invasive plant success in a Pennsylvania forest understory. grams/forest-health-protection/gypsy-moth-digest Nat Areas J 29:110–116 Zaya DN, Leicht-Young SA, Pavlovic NB et al (2015) LaBonte NR, Ostry ME, Ross-Davis A et al (2015) Estimating Genetic characterization of hybridization between native heritability of disease resistance factors that contribute to and invasive bittersweet vines (Celastrus spp.). Biol long-term survival in butternut (Juglans cinerea L.). Tree Invasions 17:2975–2988 Genet Genomes 11:63. https://doi.org/10.1007/ Zhang B, Oakes AD, Newhouse AE et al (2013) A threshold s11295-015-0884-8 level of oxalate oxidase transgene expression reduces Liebhold AM, McCullough DG, Blackburn LM (2013) A Cryphonectria parasitica-induced necrosis in a transgenic highly aggregated geographical distribution of forest pest American chestnut (Castanea dentata) leaf bioassay. invasions in the USA. Divers Distrib 19:1208–1216 Transgenic Res 22:973–982 Marks CO (2017) The ecological role of American elm (Ulmus americana L.) in foodplain forests of northeastern North America. In: Pinchot CC et al (eds) Proceedings of Southeast and Caribbean the American elm restoration workshop 2016; 2016 October 25–27; Lewis Center, OH. General Technical Albert E. Mayfeld III, Humfredo Marcano-Vega, and Report NRS-P-174. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Ariel E. Lugo Forest Service, Northern Research Station, Newtown Square, pp 74–98 Introduction Northeastern Area Association of State Foresters (NAASF) Wide climatic variations characterize the Southeastern (2017) Northeastern Area Association of State Foresters United States (Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, webpage. http://www.northeasternforests.org/ Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, Pimentel D (2005) Aquatic nuisance species in the New York Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia) State Canal and Hudson River systems and the Great and Caribbean (Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands) Lakes Basin: an economic and environmental assessment. region, including tropical, subtropical, warm-temperate, and Environ Manag 35:692–702 temperate environments, as well as diverse ecosystems from Pinchot CC, Flower CE, Knight KS et al (2017) Development coastal wetlands and dunes to piedmont savannahs and of new Dutch elm disease-tolerant selections for montane forests (Fig. A8.1). More than 85% of the forest restoration of the American elm in urban and forested land in the continental Southeast is privately owned, with the landscapes. In: Sniezko RA et al (tech. coords) 2017 Gene region experiencing rapid population growth (particularly conservation of tree species—banking on the future. around urban centers), as well as increased landscape and Proceedings of a workshop. General Technical Report ownership fragmentation (Butler and Wear 2013). This PNW-GTR-963. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest population growth and urbanization, along with changing Service, Pacifc Northwest Research Station, Portland, climate, are likely to put stressors on southeastern ecosystems pp 53–63 in ways that may increase their invasion by, or decrease their Shultz J (2003) Conservation assessment for butternut or resilience to, non-native invasive species (Duerr and Mistretta white walnut (Juglans cinerea L.). USDA Forest 2013; Miller et al. 2013a). The Atlantic, Gulf, and Caribbean Service, Eastern Region. Hiawatha National Forest. Coasts in the region are home to numerous major commercial www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/ ports. The large quantity of shipments arriving from fsm91_054130.pdf international ports daily serves as a constant potential U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) (2012a) Gypsy pathway for new invasive pests and/or their propagules into moth management in the United States: a cooperative the region. approach. Supplemental environmental impact statement. Invasive species in the Southeast and Caribbean region U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service and include a wide variety of taxa and affect both terrestrial and Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. NA-MB-01- aquatic systems. Wood-boring insect species, such as 12, Washington, DC ambrosia beetles and their microbial associates and Appendix: Regional Summaries 427 Fig. A8.1 The Southeast and Caribbean Region. (Figure courtesy Daniel Ryerson and Andy Graves, USDA Forest Service Southwestern Region, Forest Health Protection) symbionts, are easily introduced in solid wood packing native species of trees, shrubs, vines, grasses, and forbs material; the warm, humid climate facilitates their establish- (Miller et al. 2004). Many of these species cause environ- ment in southern forests (Marini et al. 2011). The climate is mental and economic effects that decrease the value of eco- also very hospitable to the establishment of new invasive system services to humans in both terrestrial and aquatic plants, which pose a threat not only through their own eco- environments. The region has invasive plant collaboration logical effects but also via other organisms (e.g., insects and networks organized at local, State, and regional levels, pathogens) they may harbor upon arrival through interna- including the Southeast Exotic Pest Plant Council (https:// tional plant trade (Miller et al. 2013a). In both the terrestrial www.se-eppc.org), various cooperative weed management and aquatic systems of the Southeast, numerous invasive ani- areas, and government agriculture and forestry organiza- mal species, including birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fsh tions. These networks function to share information on the have, been introduced via the commercial pet trade, for identifcation, control, and management of invasive plant which Florida is a major center of activity (Mazzotti and species and to foster collaborative management and research Harvey 2012; Padilla and Williams 2004; Ruiz-Carus et al. efforts (Miller et al. 2013a). Invasive plants of substantial 2006; Russello et al. 2008; Townsend et al. 2003). management importance in the Southeastern United States Compared to the continental Southeast, the ecosystems of are numerous; detailed profles on these plants have recently the Caribbean islands of Puerto Rico and the US Virgin been covered elsewhere (Miller et al. 2013a, b). Here, key Islands, with their diverse sizes and respective levels of examples representing different plant taxonomic groups are anthropogenic activities or land reserve statuses, experience introduced to illustrate the types of impacts and management unique environmental and economic effects of non-native needs associated with invasive plants in the region. invasive species. This chapter will highlight invasive species issues of importance in the region, with separate coverage Cogongrass Cogongrass (Imperata cylindrica) is a dense, for the continental Southeast and the Caribbean islands. aggressive, colony-forming grass and is considered one of the top ten worst invasive weeds in the world (MacDonald Continental Southeast 2004). In southeastern US forests, it outcompetes native plant species for nutrients, alters decomposition rates, Invasive Plants reduces native plant species diversity, and limits light levels Invasive plants in natural and wildland-urban interface envi- near the forest foor to the detriment of endemic fora (Brewer ronments of the continental Southeast include over 470 non- 2008; Brewer and Cralle 2003; Daneshgar and Jose 2009; 428 Appendix: Regional Summaries Daneshgar et al. 2008; Holly et al. 2009). Cogongrass infes- Mississippi, Tennessee, Texas (Miller et al. 2004), North tations also increase fne fuel loads, fre intensity, and fre- Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana. Control relies heavily on related tree mortality in pine stands (Lippincott 2000; Platt repeated applications of herbicides, but a number of cultural and Gottschalk 2001) (Fig. A8.2a). Cogongrass forms a management techniques may be integrated to prevent new or dense underground mat of rhizomes with abundant vegeta- treat existing infestations (MacDonald 2004; Miller et al. tive buds, making propagules diffcult to eradicate and easy 2013b). Additional research and technology development on to spread via heavy equipment. Population genetic studies effective control and restoration strategies for cogongrass are support historical records of at least two separate introduc- ongoing. tions of cogongrass into the Southeastern United States from
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