Progress report

Progress in Human 36(4) 518–526 ª The Author(s) 2012 Echoes of the New Geography? Reprints and permission: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav History and philosophy of 10.1177/0309132511411880 geography I phg.sagepub.com

Richard C. Powell , UK

Abstract Taking as its cue the debates in 2009 at the Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers) about the relative role of the institution in geographical exploration, science and pedagogy, this essay reviews recent work in the history and philosophy of geography. It argues that there is a long tradition of debates between educators and explorers within the RGS, and shows how these have been revisited in current work on Halford Mackinder and Charles Darwin. It concludes that attention to the processes of remembering and forgetting should be particularly acute at this moment in the history of geographical practices.

Keywords Charles Darwin, Halford Mackinder, histories of geography, philosophies of geography, ‘New Geography’, Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers)

Freshfield saw that recognition of geography by the 1885 report, on behalf of the RGS, into the Universities was essential to secure a supply of teaching of geography in schools (Keltie, 1885). competent teachers. It was his advocacy which led The response to this by the RGS, Oxford and our Society to subsidize geographical teaching at Cambridge instituted what became known as the Oxford in 1888 and at Cambridge in 1903. This cost our Society some £20,000; but there is now no ‘new Geography’ of the 1880s. University in Britain without a School of Geography. Dr Tom Longstaff, the author of Freshfield’s It is perhaps the greatest work we have accomplished, obituary above, was himself an accomplished for exploration would have gone on somehow even mountaineer in the , Spitsbergen and had our Society never existed. (Longstaff, 1934: 259) west Greenland, and the pioneer of ‘‘‘travelling light’’, unencumbered by the gangs of porters I Introduction and excessive baggage trains’ (Roberts, 1965: Douglas Freshfield (1845–1934) was a Victorian 776). Longstaff received the Gill Memorial mountaineer who, among other exploits, Award in 1908, and the Founders Medal in composed a classic account of climbing in the 1928, from the RGS (Shipton, 1964), and was , apparently ‘with no trace of self-glori- fication’ (Longstaff, 1934: 258). Having been elected as a Fellow in 1869, between 1881 and Corresponding author: 1894, Freshfield served as an honorary secretary School of Geography and the Environment, South Parks of the Royal Geographical Society. Critically, it Road, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QY, UK was Freshfield who commissioned J.S. Keltie’s Email: [email protected]

Downloaded from phg.sagepub.com at Oxford University Libraries on November 16, 2015 Powell 519 elected President of the Alpine Club in 1947 Lumley and have been called upon (Roberts, 1965). Perhaps my favourite anecdote to debate our purpose. For some geographers, about Longstaff is that, as the leading British perhaps we should be grateful that anyone cares. authority on Mount Everest by the 1930s, he For others, this sounds the death-knell for a cer- would dispense advice at the RGS to expectant tain type of geography. Welcome to the history novices thus: ‘The man who collapses above the and philosophy of geography for 2009 and 2010. North Col is a scoundrel – a scoundrel,Sir!’ (Shipton, 1964: 444, original emphasis). As the author of one of Longstaff’s obituaries com- II Classical ? plains, ‘[h]e was one of the last survivors of an I have often thought that a striking aspect of the age of amateur exploration which is already pedagogical tradition in geography is the rapid- becoming legendary’ (Roberts, 1965: 777). ity with which geographers, and their writings, So far, so obvious: exploratory praxis com- are elevated to the status of classics. A cursory memorated through nostalgia for feats of mascu- glance at this journal’s excellent ‘Classics in linity and self-reliance. But Longstaff, like ’ reveals the relatively recent Freshfield, was also committed to geographical date of the majority of the selected papers, as education. During the 1930s, while serving as does the list of those geographers chosen to be honorary secretary and then Vice-President of recorded in Hubbard and Kitchin’s (2011) Key the RGS, Longstaff was able to appreciate the Thinkers on Space and Place. Moreover, this efforts of earlier fellows like Freshfield, as classic status can be lost again just as quickly. Honours Schools in Geography were finally As approaches fall out of favour, so too does the being confirmed in universities across Britain reputational power of the geographer. It is geo- and Ireland. Without the RGS’s funds, would graphy, peculiarly among the serious social anything have become of the preposterous idea sciences, that seems to be cursed by the culture of university geography? of celebrity. This means that many central The activities of individuals like these litter figures from geography’s past are purposefully the pages of dusty old geography journals. forgotten. No doubt there are many good reasons Figures many of us do not want to remember, for this. Who wants to be reminded about the undertaking practices that we would rather for- central role that Ritter or Haushofer played in the get. Who cares? Well, Freshfield’s obituary institutionalization of geography in Germany? raises all sorts of questions about remembrance, Or, indeed, about Halford Mackinder’s role in disciplinarity and social networks, but I use it for the establishment of the Oxford School or the its relevance in recent debates about the his- growth of a certain form of violent ? tories, philosophies and purposes of geography. Why does this matter? Well, it does seem that In short, discussions about the relative role of the the geographical community is rather distinct in RGS in geographical pedagogy and exploration this, in comparison to introductory courses in have preoccupied its constituent Fellows for a Anthropology, Sociology, History or, even, very long time. Biology and Geology. I do not think anyone It is worth saying this again now, because we would go so far as to identify a canon, but should geographers live in interesting times. This is an students perhaps be required to read Mackinder, era in which many myths circulate about geogra- Isaiah Bowman or Ellen Semple, or other geogra- phy. Even Fellows of the RGS despondently ask, phical thinkers such as Charles Darwin or Franz well, ‘what is geography?’, as Departments of Boas? Without a sense of these texts, geographers Geography are merged into larger Schools of become increasingly divorced from any sense ofa Environmental and Geosciences. Even Joanna community of practice or, indeed, of a shared,

Downloaded from phg.sagepub.com at Oxford University Libraries on November 16, 2015 520 Progress in Human Geography 36(4) contested enterprise. Yet, over the period of this David Grann (2009) has provided a popular report, historians of geography have begun to account of Lieutenant-Colonel Percy Harrison recover many of these figures. Moreover, this Fawcett’s RGS expeditions to the Amazon in the matters because as universities in the UK and 1920s. across restructure into larger administra- There has been a vast range of excellent work tive units, the discipline is entering an epoch in on the hidden histories of geography over the which geographers, on the whole, are no longer past decade or so, and this continues to be making decisions about the institutional emplace- produced. Indeed, this corpus has perhaps ment ofgeography.Consequently, myths begin to reached its apogee in Avril Maddrell’s (2009) circulate about geography not being a real sub- Complex Locations, an exhaustive prosopogra- ject, or being an artifice of the British system, and phy of female geographers during the formative geographers positioned in these new institutional development of the discipline in UK universi- structures often lack sufficient knowledge to ties. In Maddrell’s fascinating account, biogra- speak back to this power. phical accounts are presented that show the What has been conspicuous about the current critical importance of various women in the period, then, has been the return to biographies spaces through which the geographical tradition of ‘big’ geographers.1 The previous compiler has been enacted. There has also been innovative of these reports, Trevor Barnes, often discussed work in dissemination in histories of geography. the importance of obituaries, and reading the Felix Driver and Lowri Jones, in collaboration vast archive that continues to mark Denis with the RGS-IBG, held an AHRC grant on the Cosgrove’s passing in 2008 indicates what can ‘Hidden Histories of Exploration’ that produced be learnt from these about the past practices of an exhibition at the refurbished exhibition space geography (Brotton, 2010; Driver, 2009). at the RGS at the end of 2009 (Royal Geographi- Obituaries have been produced for other influen- cal Society, 2009). Involving a website and tial historical geographers with important views podcast, this was an intriguing attempt to open on the history and philosophy of geography, up thinking about the histories and spaces of such as Michael Williams (Baigent, 2010b) and exploration (Driver and Jones, 2009). Bob Woods (Williamson, 2011), while a histor- iographical essay on Jack Langton’s approach is included in a festschrift marking his retirement III Ages of exploration? (Baigent and Mayhew, 2009). During 2009, debates about the proper conduct It should also be noted that work has continued of geographical science and pedagogy have to examine other key themes in history and emerged again in the public arena. A number philosophy of geography. The role of the space of Fellows of the Royal Geographical Society of the laboratory in scientific practice has been laid the blame for geography’s problems upon re-examined (Gieryn, 2008; Gooday, 2008; the RGS’s funding of certain types of research Kohler, 2008; Withers, 2009). A collection of and argued that, instead, the Society should essays on 20th-century exploration has been return to establishing its own expeditions. The brought together by Simon Naylor and James disgruntled fellows asserted that, by diverting Ryan, including discussions of exploratory praxis funding instead to many short-term projects by in the deserts of Australia (Collis, 2010; Naylor, university geographers, the RGS was, in effect, 2010) and North Africa (Thomas and Hill, 2010), in breach of its Royal Charter of Incorporation. the Arctic (Baigent, 2010a; Korsmo, 2010), In an appropriation of the sesquicentennial of Antarctica (Dodds, 2010; Yusoff, 2010) and the first edition of The Origin of Species and the outer space (Godwin, 2010; Macdonald, 2010). bicentennial of Charles Darwin’s birth, this

Downloaded from phg.sagepub.com at Oxford University Libraries on November 16, 2015 Powell 521 became known as the Beagle Campaign after the RGS-IBG. Moreover, given the tepid relation- RGS-funded expedition to the Galapagos. ship between the RGS and the IBG since The exploration campaigners were certainly 1995, it is important to stress that the found- successful in promoting their cause. Articles and ing institution of critical geography became the opinion pieces were published in major UK effective tool in organizing support for the newspapers (Hemming, 2009; Marozzi, 2009a, Council of the RGS. This need not detain us 2009b; Thomson, 2009). The Beagle Campaign much longer, but there is potential for some recruited polar explorers (e.g. Pen Hadow), interesting work to be done about the relation- mountaineers (e.g. Chris Bonnington), and pub- ships between space, knowledge and power lic celebrities (e.g. Joanna Lumley and Stanley involved in this debate. Johnson). The fellows gained the required sig- However, there is increasing anxiety among natures to force a Special General Meeting UK and other European geographers that their (SGM) to debate and vote upon the resolution geeky image is having real consequences for that, in effect, the RGS-IBG should again fund future student enrolments and, ultimately, for dis- its own expeditions. ciplinary survival. Maddrell wondered whether Although there was absolute silence from academic geography bore some responsibility for academic geographers in the mainstream media, ‘the hackneyed and inaccurate representations of there was response in the blogosphere, including geographical work’ in popular culture, and set out the Guardian blog (Reid-Henry, 2009). Avril a number of strategies for wider public engage- Maddrell (2010) argues that this was directly due ment (Maddrell, 2010: 150; see also Bonnett, to the gagging of academics. Nerdy geography is 2008). Nick Middleton (2010) urged university the narrative to which media editors adhere, and geographers to present their stories in media- dissenting voices were not able to access the friendly ways to help combat geography’s major avenues of communication. However, the slightly comic, if mildly endearing, public image. email discussion lists of human geography, such Even the current President of the RGS-IBG, as crit-geog-forum, so often hostile to every- Michael Palin, marked the end of his first year thing that the RGS-IBG represents, were flooded of office with a similar call, urging that ‘the with ‘get-out-the-vote’ missives in support of Society must do its utmost to encourage teachers the RGS Council. Indeed, given that crit-geog of today to raise similar awareness and enthusi- had been set up as oppositional forum for anti- asm in what I’m tempted to call ... God’s Own establishment geographers following the merger Subject’ (Palin, 2010: 254). of the Institute of British Geographers with the RGS in 1995, it perhaps indicates just how much the institutions of geography can serve different IV Forgetting Darwin? communities of practice simultaneously. Another acerbic debate about origins and The SGM was held at the RGS on 18 May 2009. ancients arose around the commemoration, or All 10,500 FRGS were balloted to vote either in rather the lack of it, by geographers of Charles person, by post or by proxy. Given the issues at Darwin during 2009. This was sparked by an stake for the Society, it is perhaps surprising that essay by Noel Castree (2009) that complained, only 4197 bothered to do so. In the event, the along the same lines as David Stoddart (1966) motion was defeated by 2590 (61.7%)to1607 over four decades previously, that geographers (38.3%) votes.2 Perhaps the Beagle Campaign had been largely silent around these latest underestimated just how many academic geogra- Darwinian anniversaries. Because so many of phers, although they do not like to talk about it, Darwin’s ideas were ‘deeply, deeply geographi- still actually constitute the Fellowship of the cal’ (Castree, 2009: 2295; Kennedy, 2006;

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Stoddart, 1966), this was apparently a missed the ‘only two world-famous thinkers we have opportunity for geography to cash in, quite good reason to discuss within and without the literally, on the Darwin industry.3 Biodiversity discipline’ (Castree, 2009: 2297).4 In the loss, species extinction and related environmental early 20th century, the only geographer problems are constitutively geographical, so the thought worth discussing by historians was argument goes, but geographers are still too Halford Mackinder. Despite the best efforts reluctant to say so. Given Castree’s (2009) rather of the discipline, Mackinder’s presences con- pessimistic tone about specialization and intradis- tinue to saturate geographical thinking. In a ciplinary conversation, it was refreshing that a recent companion for ‘Environmental Geogra- lively debate was initiated about Darwinian lega- phy’, for example, Castree et al. (2009) use cies from across geography. As well as historical ‘Scope and Methods’ to outline a new intellec- geographers, other responses to the debate came tual project that would straddle the ground from planning (Batty, 2009), geomorphology between human and physical geography. (Summerfield, 2010), social geography (Dorling, Given the wider ramifications of the purpose 2010) and GIScience (Sui, 2010). of geography in the public arena, this is an What was troubling Castree, then, was lack apposite time for Gerry Kearns (2009a) to have of interest currently shown by geographers in published his long-awaited biographical study long-term social and environmental change. of Mackinder. Thirty years in the writing, this For H.C. Darby, all geography was historical is an important study of Mackinder and his lega- geography, but apparently not any more. cies. Kearns endeavours to show that the project Indeed, Castree asseverated that ‘where histori- that Mackinder outlined for geography made a cal geography once seemed almost synonymous connection to imperial thinking inevitable. This with geography tout court, today it is a fairly is accomplished by presenting a series of takes small subfield of diminished intellectual influ- on Mackinder’s thinking about geography, ence’ (Castree, 2009: 2295). It is therefore not political education and empire and then adjudi- that surprising that the majority of disciplinary cating these against the range of other possible responses, and their name was legion, were by geographical futures that were presented by his historical geographers angry at Castree’s dispatch contemporaries, such as Mary Kingsley and of their subdiscipline to, just about, the enormous Peter Kropo´tkin.5 Kearns does seem to devote condescension of posterity (Driver, 2010; Finne- rather less discussion to Mackinder’s role in the gan, 2010; Kearns, 2010a). Driver (2010) drew disciplinary development of Geography, instead attention to Castree’s failure to discuss the Beagle concentrating on his later attempts on Mount Campaign, an obvious case of Fellows ofthe RGS Kenya in 1899 and the development of imperial using Darwin to draw media attention to their interests through his political career. The dis- cause. Finnegan (2010), in an enjoyably clever cussion of Mackinder’s expedition to climb response, outlined just how laden with Darwi- Mount Kenya is particularly good, and Kearns nian metaphor many of the posthumanist the- uses discrepancies between the original and ories currently popular in human geography published versions of his field notebooks to ask actually are, a point echoed, in a different way, serious questions of Mackinder’s treatment of by Sui (2010). Swahili and Kikuyu porters. Kearns also makes some interesting links between the crisis of masculinity involved in Mackinder’s different, V A Mackinder for all seasons? and often epistemically conflicting, geographical Another contentious aspect of Castree’s piece practices. Some memorable passages, for was his emplacement of Darwin and Marx as instance, concern Mackinder’s correspondence

Downloaded from phg.sagepub.com at Oxford University Libraries on November 16, 2015 Powell 523 about his marital difficulties during his time in VI Conclusions Kenya. For Mackinder, domesticity invaded In this context, it has been interesting to follow the field. Perhaps, is Kearns’s implication, his the resurgence of debates in anthropology, our difficulties in and Oxford influenced sister field science, about its method and pur- Mackinder’s increasingly ruthless, and violent, pose. In his eponymous 2007 lecture before the behaviour in Africa. British Academy, Tim Ingold (2008) attempted Kearns (2010b) examines the link of the to recover aspects of Radcliffe-Brown for a new geography to the development of imperial reconstituted sense of what anthropology ought policy. Indeed, Kearns argues that Mackinder- to be. For Ingold, armchair scholars and simple- ian echoes remain so strong in the discipline ton technicians have no place in anthropology’s that ‘engaging with Mackinder and his critics future. Anthropology has embarked on many is more than a historical exercise, it is an projects, argues Ingold, but all have resulted in urgent political responsibility’ (Kearns, 2010b: 198). As Kearns demonstrates convincingly, directions ‘at a tangent from the world we inha- there has been a succession of intellectual bit. It is no wonder, then, that anthropologists are recoveries of Mackinder over the past century left feeling isolated and marginalized, and that or so. These have often been in American they are routinely passed by in public discus- think-tanks and military academies. The most sions of the great questions of social life’ recent recovery of Mackinder as the father of (Ingold, 2008: 90). geopolitics has been by US journalist and stra- It is here that I wonder for the legacies of tegist Robert Kaplan (2009). Kaplan places Mackinder and the perennial debates about geo- Mackinder’s ‘geographical pivot’ at the centre graphy’s purpose at the RGS. The issues raised of a revivified, or perhaps just revisited, argu- by the New Geography continue to be discussed ment about the importance of physical geography today – no longer just in our lecture halls and in the structuring of global politics. Again, unsur- classrooms, but also, for the first time in a prisingly, a number of dissatisfied political geo- long time, in the mainstream media. My imme- graphers responded, outlining just some of diate predecessor, Trevor Barnes, stated that the the many disciplinary developments in thinking general theme for his set of (it must be said, over the past century (Blouet, 2009; Dalby, rather ghoulish) reports would be to stress that 2009; Kearns, 2009b; Morrissey, 2009; Morrissey ‘philosophies and ideas are embodied in the his- et al., 2009; Toal, 2009). tories of the humans who make them, including What requires further consideration are the their finitude’ (Barnes, 2008: 650). Inevitably reasons behind the periodic recovery of drawn back to the writings of a succession of Mackinder’s corpus. Kaplan claims that scho- dead geographers, both of his generation and lars ‘must revise Mackinder for our time’ otherwise, Barnes finished his last report claim- (Kaplan, 2009: 100). As Brian Blouet argues, ing, perhaps hoping, that ‘there be life in the his- his ‘writing allows commentators to generate tory and philosophy of geography’ (Barnes, many interpretations, which helps explain why 2010: 674). each generation rediscovers Mackinder’ (Blouet, As my former colleague, the late Bob Woods, 2009: 11). Moreover, each recovery angers pro- once put it after a seminar in Liverpool, the prob- fessional geographers, because our collective lem with the is that it accomplishments since 1887 are rarely acknowl- assumes that geography is a field of inquiry that edged. It is as if our discipline, for such military deserves a history. I countered that it does and strategists, might have been best served by stick- that all geographies deserve to be remembered. ing to the principles of the New Geography. At the same time, the very act of remembering

Downloaded from phg.sagepub.com at Oxford University Libraries on November 16, 2015 524 Progress in Human Geography 36(4) is an act of disciplining. Over the past five years 3. That being said, historian of biology Jim Moore pub- or so, there has been a generational shift in the lished his excellent lecture on Darwin at the RGS- philosophies of geography, as those scholars so IBG Annual Conference in Manchester 2009 in this influential in geography’s register of ‘new’ journal (Moore, 2010). idioms during the 1970s and 1980s move on to 4. Castree’s definition of world-famous, it is worth noting, seems rather more stringent than that employed during other spaces – Denis Cosgrove, Allan Pred, RAE 2008, when rather more of the research output of Michael Williams, Bob Woods, Les Hepple, UK Geography Departments was judged to have Torsten Ha¨gerstrand. The list continues. I reached this threshold. remember an old joke about first feeling the 5. It is worth stating that this sort of study of a geographer Grim Reaper tapping you on the shoulder when within a wider political ambit marks the achievement of you have actually heard of the people in the Vincent Berdoulay’s (1981) call, 30 years ago, for con- obituaries. Perhaps this explains the obsession textual histories of geography. In this, Kearns’s book with pasts and futures that I have detailed here. has similarities with Neil Smith’s (2003) study of Perhaps these legacies intimidate my own gener- American geographer Isaiah Bowman. ation of geographers, unwilling to grasp the net- tle and returning instead to the relative safety of References erstwhile authorities such as Darwin, Marx and, Baigent E (2010a) ‘Deeds not words’? Life writing and even, Mackinder. early twentieth-century British polar exploration. In But what seems to unite all generations with Naylor S and Ryan JR (eds) New Spaces of Explora- that of Mackinder and his contemporaries is the tion: Geographies of Discovery in the Twentieth endless quest for something ‘New’ for geography Century. London: IB Tauris, 23–51. – Cosgrove’s new cultural geography, Pred’s Baigent E (2010b) Obituary: Michael Williams, 1935– ‘new economic geography’ (Barnes, 2009: 694) 2009. Journal of Historical Geography 36: 466–472. or Woods’s new population geography. The Baigent E and Mayhew RJ (2009) ‘Geography as part of a question to be taken up in my next report is what problematic, not an integral discipline’: A personal and this generation’s new geographies might look intellectual biography of Jack Langton. In Baigent E like, because attempts are being made. Like other and Mayhew RJ (eds) English Geographies 1600– 1950: Historical Essays on English Customs, Cultures, generations of geographers, we still search for a and Communities in Honour of Jack Langton. Oxford: philosophy to link our research and pedagogical St John’s College Research Centre, 4–22. practices with the worlds we study. And, after Banner LW (2009) Biography as history. The American Ingold,let uscall this new philosophy of ours geo- Historical Review 114: 579–586. graphy. It is always worth remembering why this Barnes TJ (2008) History and philosophy of geography: is our responsibility. Life and death 2005–2007. Progress in Human Geo- graphy 32: 650–658. Acknowledgements Barnes TJ (2009) Obituaries, war, ‘corporeal remains’, and I dedicate this report to Professor R.I. Woods, my life: History and philosophy of geography, 2007–2008. late mentor at Liverpool, for helping me to think Progress in Human Geography 33: 693–701. properly about the point and purpose of histories of Barnes TJ (2010) Taking the pulse of the dead: History and geography. philosophy of geography, 2008– 2009. Progress in Human Geography 33: 693–701. Notes Batty M (2009) Editorial: Darwin at 200 and the evolution 1. There have also been recent re-evaluations of the role of of planning. Environment and Planning B: Planning biography by historians (Banner, 2009; Brown, 2009; and Design 36: 954–955. Nasaw, 2009). Berdoulay V (1981) The contextual approach. In Stoddart 2. For a fuller account of the debate and its outcomes, see DR (ed.) Geography, Ideology and Social Concern. Maddrell (2010) or Driver (2010). Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 8–16.

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