A Case Study in the Cameron Highlands, Malaysia

Home , Bertam Valley, Brinchang, Bukit Kutu, Cameron Highlands, Kampung Kuala Terla, Kea Farm

Geographical Review of Japan Vol. 61 (Ser. B), No. 2, 191-211, 1988

The Agricultural Development of Hill Stations in Tropical Asia -A Case Study in the Cameron Highlands, Malaysia-

Shigeru SHIRASAKA*

There are many highland settlements known as "hill stations" or "summer resorts" in Southeast Asian countries under the tropical and subtropical climate. The hill station is not a native institution, but one developed during the nineteenth century by the British and Dutch colonial masters in order to make sojourns in a foreign land more comfortable. In southern Japan, the worst period is from June through August, though its intensity does not compare with that farther south. In Malaysia and Indonesia, the period extends throughout the year. The Cameron Highlands is the most famous hill station in Peninsular Malaysia being one of colonial origin. The Cameron Highlands is located between 1,000 and 1,500 meters above sea level on the main range of central Malaysia. Today, the Cameron Highlands is mainly a summer resort, but it is also a very important mid-latitude vegetable growing area. The development of the Cameron Highlands began only after 1926, though it was discovered by, and named after, William CAMERONin 1885. Almost simultaneous with the opening of the Came ron Highlands as a hill resort was the growth and development of vegetable farming by farmers of Chinese origin. There are also three new vegetable farming settlements developed after World War II. Some 47 per cent of the inhabitants of the Cameron Highlands are Chinese Malaysian, and they shoulder the vegetable growing business. The temperate vegetables in the Cameron Highlands are mostly to be found above 1,000 meters above sea level. Some twenty-five types of mid-latitude vegetables are cultivated here, though the main crops are Chinese cabbage, English cabbage and tomatoes, which are popular with most of the people in Malaysia. Almost all the vegetable seeds are imported from Japan. Farm labor on the vegetable farms, which average one to two acres in the Highlands, is normally family labor. Large amounts of chicken dung are used as fertilizer, and farming is very intensive. Crops such as spinach, bell pepper (paprika), and celery are grown under cover to protect them from the rather heavy rains that fall around here. Each farmer follows his own judgement in the choice of crops to grow with a mind to the vegetable price in the markets. Therefore, there is no established cycle of crops. Today, most of the vegetables produced in the Cameron Highlands are transported by large trucks to the main cities in Peninsular Malaysia, and some 25-30% are exported to Singapore.

Key words: agricultural development, hill station, Cameron Highlands, Malaysia, tropical Asia

ical climate with high temperature and high I. Introduction humidity. Therefore, they used to return home to their mother countries for long vacations at We find that highland settlements, known as two or three-year intervals (SPENCER, J. and "hill stations" or "summer resorts" were THOMAS,W., 1948, BUTCHER,J., 1979). Among formed in many tropical and subtropical coun the British, the length of their stay in Malaya was tries in Southeast Asia. The United Kingdom and supposed to be six years, but in reality was the Kingdom of the Netherlands had established almost always only three or four years. However, colonies in Southeast Asia, but it was not possi it was in the 1820's in the Himalayas and ble for the expatriates to acclimatize to the trop Southern India, and in the 1880's in British

* Associate Professor, Department of Geography, Tokyo Gakugei University, Koganei-shi, Tokyo 184 192 S. SHIRASAKA

Malaya that they felt they could escape from the subtropical Taiwan by I. SAITOH and H. M. intolerable tropical climate by travelling to the CHEN (1984); Baguio in the Philippines by R. local hills. Similarly in 1886 Alexander C. REED (1976); Brastagi in Sumatra, Indonesia by SHOW, who was a British missionary, opened W. WITHINGTON(1961) and I. SAITOH(1987); the Karuizawa as a summer resort. Karuizawa is now Cameron Highlands in Central Malaysia by J. the most famous summer resort in Japan. CLARKSON(1968); Genting Highland in Malay P. K. VOON and S. H. KHOO (1980) remarked sia by R. REED (1979) and so on. on the upland settlements in Malaysia, as In this paper, the author discusses the sig follows: nificance of the development of hill stations in "Two types of land utilization have character Southeast Asia through analyzing the land use ized the highland areas of Malaysia. Certain and characteristics of the mid-latitude vegetable areas are the habitats of a few indigenous com growing in the Cameron Highlands, Malaysia. munities who have freely evolved their distinc This paper deals principally with the Cameron tive way of life in a natural setting. As nomadic Highlands as a case study of highland settle and semi-nomadic communities of hunters, ments, land use and the development of highland gatherers and agriculturists they possess varying vegetable cultivation. levels of cultural and social attainment. They The Cameron Highlands lie in the Main Range differ ethnographically and in many other of central Peninsular Malaysia in the State of Pa aspects from some and have affinities with others hang (Fig. 1). However, because of its location, among the groups. They comprise the 'au entry to the Cameron Highlands by road is tochthonous' inhabitants of some of the upland through the state of Perak. areas of the country. Some areas have been de Settlements in the Cameron Highlands were veloped as artificial settlements to accommodate largely developed after 1920 and they produce a population largely alien to the setting. A num roughly the same types of highland vegetables ber of the original inhabitants might have been as found in Japan. This produce of the Came driven away even as some others might have ron Highlands is distributed throughout Penin gravitated towards these areas. In the context of sular Malaysia, and quite a substantial amount modern day development of the uplands, involv is exported to Singapore. ing 'non-autochthonous' peoples, the single most Today, the settlements in the Cameron High fundamental attribute of such an environment lands lie roughly between 1,000 meters above sea is the adiabatic effect of altitude which produces level at Bertam Valley and 1,600 meters above an average daily temperature significantly low sea level at Kea Farm (Fig. 2). The settlements er than in the lowlands to exert a discernible ef in this area are also mainly located along a road fect on settlement and development. It is this which runs roughly in a north-south direction. climate attribute which provided the initial impe The furthest settlement at the end of this road tus to the development of 'hill stations' in Penin is the Blue Valley, which lies at an altitude of sular Malaysia. This second type of upland roughly 1,500 meters. No further road exists be development has widened in scope since then yond the Blue Valley. though the participants and the functions have The soil in this area is largely clay from changed." weathered granite, yellowish in color, with a pH The mid-latitude vegetable growing gradually value of 4.5 to 6.5. Although the physical con developed in the cool mountain climate parallel ditions of the Cameron Highlands are not that to the growth of the summer resorts. There are highly favorable for the cultivation of vegetables, already some research papers about the develop the farmers have utilized the cool temperate cli ment of hill stations and mid-latitude vegetable mate of the area to turn it into the most produc growing, that is, for Karuizawa in Central Japan tive highland vegetable producing area in the by T. ICHIKAWA(1966); the central mountains in peninsula. Agricultural Development of Hill Stations 193

Figure 1. Location, Relief and Land Use of the Cameron Highlands *The author used the One Inch to a Mile (1:63,360) map published by the Director of National Mapping, Malaysia, and vegetable cultivated areas are indicated from the author's observation, Sept., 1985. 194 S. SHIRASAKA

•œ Settlements established before World War II•›

Settlements established after World War II*

The highest growing limit of mid-latitude vegetables

Figure 2. Location of Settlements in the Cameron Highlands

Ootacamund and Kodaikonal in India. II. Population and Settlements in From 1900 onwards the population of Euro the Cameron Highlands peans, principally British, greatly increased, and in consequence there was an increased demand 1. Growth of Settlements for hill stations. Thus, soon after the establish Though the Cameron Highlands were discov ment of Maxwell Hill and Bukit Kutu (Teacher's ered by William CAMERON,a government sur Hill), the hill stations of Gunung Kledang (near veyor, in 1885, this area had always been settled Ipoh) and Gunung Angsi (near Seremban) were by the Orang Ashi (aboriginal tribes) who prac opened up, but these stations were not able to ticed shifting cultivation, hunting and gathering. develop extensively, because they were estab A study of the growth and development of the lished on the top or edge of mountains. Cameron Highlands has to be linked with a study However, the British in Malaya were then not of the growth and development of hill stations only concerned with just building bungalows and and rest houses in the Himalayan foothills of In using them as resort houses for their expatriates; dia in the 1820's by the British (BUTCHER,J., they were also very interested in developing the 1979). After all, both these countries have for hill stations agriculturally, as was done in India. long periods of time been influenced by British With such a background, the prime mover for colonialism. Hill stations were largely developed the developing of Fraser's Hill, Sir George for the enjoyment and rejuvenation of the Brit MAXWELL,proposed in 1925 the development of ish, who found the lowland too hot and humid the Cameron Highlands into a bigger hill station for prolonged periods of stay. than that in Fraser's Hill. Thus, in March 1925, The first such hill station developed in the then Sir George MAXWELLset up a research team to Malay States was in Maxwell Hill which lies to study the soil, climate and other related aspects the east of Taiping, Perak. It was here in 1884 of the Cameron Highlands. The result of this that the first bungalows were built, which, study was incorporated in a report in 1926 and together with those at Bukit Kutu, were modelled the Cameron Highlands Hill Station was estab after those resort rest houses found in Simla, lished by the govermnent. At the same time, the Agricultural Development of Hill Stations 195

Federal Agricultural Experimental Station was only 79 families were moved to Kampong Raja. established at Tanah Rata, Cameron Highlands, The 50 families that went to Bertam Valley (1,400 meters above sea level) on a 140 acre site. formed the nucleus of the settlement of New Ber By 1931, the road to Tanah Rata from Tapah tam Valley. Of the 79 families that went to Kam was opened,1) tea cultivation had already begun pong Raja, most belong to the Teochiew clan of operation and the hotel business established. Pri Chinese. vate bungalows were also being built.2) The sup Today, the Cameron Highlands, centered at ply of vegetables to this growing population in Tanah Rata and Brinchang, which altogether has the Cameron Highlands took on greater impor 55 hotels, is Malaysia's best known hill resort. tance. Thus during the 1930's, there was an in Most of these hotels began operations during the creased use of state land, especially by Chinese 1960's. The majority of these hotels are relatively farmers, for the cultivation of vegetables. These small operations run by individual families. Only Chinese were originally brought in by the Eu the Merlin Hotel carried on a profitable business ropeans, initially that is, as laborers. As a result from the 1960's, while it was the 1970's before of this there emerged a typically Chinese style of the small hotels began to pay their way. vegetable cultivating population. In Brinchang town, the west side shop build Besides those people involved with the private ings were built in 1965, and the east side ones bungalows and the hotels, most of the other peo in 1966. The major hotels in Brinchang town, ple who were involved with the agricultural busi e. g. Kowloon and Brinchang Hotels, were all es nesses were people from amongst those who first tablished after 1965, as were all the newer shop entered the Bertam Valley in 1934 (CLARKSON, buildings and the road. Most of these hotels are J., 1968). The area around the confluence of the about four stories high. Whilst the central set Bertam and Ringlet Rivers was settled initially tlements in the Cameron Highlands, as well as the by six Cantonese families.3) Between 1934 and main centers of highland vegetable cultivation, 1938, the population of this area had grown to were all established prior to World War II, those 200 families, mostly involved in agriculture. established after the 1950's have different charac Thus, it is clear that the form of settlement in teristics. The settlements, businesses and popu the Cameron Highlands was already established lation have endowed the Cameron Highlands' before World War II. The earliest area to be set vast vegetable production area with its own tled was Ringlet, and we can still see the origi peculiar characteristics. nal shop buildings which were built during the 2. Population Growth and Population 1930's. On the other hand, Chinese farmers in Structure Brinchang walked to Kea Farm for cultivating, and they established a new agricultural settlement Table 1 shows the population changes that before World War II. Other Chinese settled in have occurred in the Cameron Highlands. The Tringkap as well in those days.4) population structure of post-World War II shows The relatively newer settlements of Kampong that 59.2 per cent of the population is Chinese, Raja, 49 Miles and Kuala Terla were all estab 26.7 per cent Indians and 7.6 per cent Malays lished after World War II. Kuala Terla was es and other related races (CLARKSON,J. D., 1968). tablished during the early half of the 1950's and It is stated that in 1957 quite a large number of 49 Miles was settled between the end of the the Chinese aged 30 and above in Pahang State 1950's and the 1960's.5) were born in China. However, the present The settlement of Kampong Raja was estab Chinese population in the Cameron Highlands lished after the transfer of 129 families from Lu are in the main locally born. bok Temang, which was flooded by the waters The Indians, on the other hand, are mostly es of the Sultan Abu Bakar Dam in 1961. Work on tate workers in the tea estates, though quite a sig this dam began in 1958. The government's plan nificant number of Indians in Tanah Rata and was to move the entire 129 families to Kampong Brinchang are engaged in businesses of various Raja (ex. 53 Miles), but 50 of these families types. decided to settle in Bertam Valley. As a result, Population growth in the Cameron Highlands 196 S. SHIRASAKA

Table 1 Population Changes in the Cameron Highlands

Sources: * After the Population Census of Malaysia. ** Data from District Office of the Cameron Highlands .

varies largely between each racial group and be effects of the monsoons are particularly felt, tween age levels. Of the Chinese population, the similarly as in the northern portion of the east proportion of the population between the ages coast. This also affects vegetable production in of 0-4 is getting smaller and it is not anticipat the country. The number of days with rain is in ed that there will be any significant growth in the the region of 223, and Malaysia is amongst the future. On the other hand, most of the Malay countries with a high rainfall, and as a conse population between the ages of 15 to 19 leave the quence, the number of hours of sunshine is Cameron Highlands for one reason or other, reduced. principally employment or education. This can The Cameron Highlands has a climate which be assumed to be a pattern of the population roughly corresponds to the highland vegetable growth in the Cameron Highlands. growing areas of Central Japan. Thus under According to the research of the Malaysian these climatic conditions, it is not surprising to Agricultural Research and Development Institute find the same types of vegetables here that are

(DING, T. H., VIMALA, P. and YUSOH, S., 1981), also grown in Japan, Taiwan and China. the majority of the vegetable farmers are Chinese The lowest limit of the production area of tem

(81.1%), followed by Indians (17.8%) and Ma perate vegetables in the Cameron Highlands oc lays (1.1%).

III. Climate and Vegetable Production in the Cameron Highlands

1. Relationship Between Climatic Characteris tics and Crop Production

The various settlements in the Cameron High lands mostly lie above 1,000 meters above sea level, and are in one of the few really temperate climatic locations in Malaysia (Fig. 3). The highest monthly average temperature (between April and May) is 18.4•Ž, and the lowest month ly average temperature (December) is 16.9•Ž, thus giving an annual range of 1.5•Ž. Daily tem peratures, on the other hand, range between 23.0•Ž and 13.7•Ž, thus giving a diurnal range of 9.3•Ž. Such ranges are the exception rather than the rule in Malaysia. The total annual rainfall in the Cameron High lands is around 2,545mm. They receive the heav iest rainfall especially during the months of Figure 3. Climate of the Cameron Highlands *Data observed in Tanah Rata April-May and October-November, when the , 1,476.6 meters above sea level. Agricultural Development of Hill Stations 197 curs mainly around 1,000 meters above sea level, papaya beyond an altitude of 500 meters. though the farmers have stated that it is possi However, coconuts, which are generally cultivat ble to produce the same crops at around 800 ed around 200 meters above sea level, can still meters above sea level, which thus stretches the be found at an altitude of 900 meters. On the growing limit close to the border of lowland rain other hand, whilst it is said that durians which forests (750 meters) and lower mountain forests. local people grow for marketing are not to be On the other hand, the highest growing limit of found beyond an altitude of 500 meters, the mid-latitude vegetables in the Cameron High Orang Ashi of the Cameron Highlands are still lands is about 1,770 meters above sea level, half harvesting them around 800-900 meters above way up Mt. Brinchang, according to the author's sea level. observations. One of the fruit crops found in the Cameron 2. Farmers and Characteristics of Vegetable Highlands, i.e. citrus (sweet Mandarin oranges) Production can be grown up to a limit of around 1,800 meters. However, commercial production is best From a survey conducted by the Cameron around the 1,200 meters altitude. Therefore, in Highlands Vegetable Growers' Association in the Cameron Highlands, this citrus production 1981, the total number of households in the can be found in Ringlet, 49 Miles and Kampong Cameron Highlands numbered 4,189, out of Raja, but not in Brinchang. which 1,490 (35.6%) were vegetable farming Whilst it is generally assumed that the higher households. When we include the laborers in the limits for the growing of pineapple, mango, tea estates (mostly Indian) and the 30 households banana, sugar cane and papaya are in the Came which are involved almost exclusively in the ron Highlands, the author found from his field growing of flowers, then altogether some 50 per observations that commercial production of cent of the population in the Cameron Highlands pineapple, mango, banana and sugar cane does is involved in agriculture. not occur beyond 300 meters above sea level, and Of the settlements in the Cameron Highlands,

Table 2 Number of Farms and Farm Size by Area in the Cameron Highlands (1981)

* Including Bharat and Gunung Mas Tea Estates. Source: Based on the data from the Cameron Highlands' Agri-business Holding Sdh. Bhd. 198 S. SHIRASAKA

the largest vegetable growing areas are to be common. Besides the usual loss of soil fertility, found in Tringkap (381.80 acres), Kampong Raja such erosion has also led to problems at the Sul

(334.54 acres), and Bertam Valley (315.55 acres). tan Abu Bakar Reservoir, since the amount of These three settlements are the main vegetable silt brought down by rivers has reduced the

growing areas, because they lie on comparative volume and thus the amount of water available ly flat land. for the generation of electricity. Owing to this Some 90 per cent of the farmers in the Came problem, the state govermnent has stopped ron Highlands (Table 2) have land areas of 2.0 granting new TOLs for farmers in the catchment acres or less. In these highlands, it is quite pos area of the dam except in the newer areas on the sible for farmers to work successfully on about east of Bertam Valley and 49 Miles in another an acre of land. About 47.1 per cent of the farms valley where there are plans for new agricultur have areas of less than 1.0 acre, and these are al areas to be opened up. However, although the

principally worked by shop-keepers, some pub plans were introduced in 1978, in 1985 they were lic servants, and the like who do not depend en still not complete, and in many instances have tirely on their farms for their livelihoods. not been started. However, the majority of those who work such In the Cameron highlands, the farms are ac small plots are the Indian laborers from the tea tually converted jungle land. In many instances, estates. These people work on their plots of land the first step in the opening up of the jungle is during their spare time, and utilize mainly fami by calling in some Orang Ashi to cut down the ly labor. Some of these have become quite suc trees and then to burn them. To clear an acre cessful farmers to the extent that they own small of land in this way takes approximately two

plots of land distributed over a settlement. weeks. During the year, such clearings usually From interviews with the farmers, the author occur during the dry seasons of January and be has found that in the Cameron Highlands most tween June and August. of the farms do not use paid labor, but depend Once the land is cleared, it is now usual prac on family labor. In fact, the majority of the tice to use bulldozers to level the land for culti farms are cultivated by husband and wife teams, vation. The top soil is not preserved in any way, and normally between the two of them they cul and in fact may be carted away. It has been tivate around 1.5 acres of land. found here that the use of the top soil for culti Most of the farm land in the Cameron High vation very rapidly attracts plant pests and dis lands is state land6) and the farmers in the main eases. This discarding of the top soil and its rent their land from the state government under careless dumping results in its being washed a "temporary occupation license (TOL)", a down to the Sultan Abu Bakar Reservoir. license which is renewable annually. The present After the land has been leveled, "hand trac rental for a temporary occupation license is tors" are normally used to plough and loosen the M$150.00 (about \15,000) per annum for every soil, which is then prepared into beds for the cul two acres of land leased in 1985. tivation of vegetables. It is at this time that enor Since such licenses are rather difficult to ob mous quantities of fertilizers are used. A tain, and also since the farmers are not the real characteristic feature of vegetable farming here owners of the land they cultivate, the author feels is the use of chicken dung as the main fertilizer that the TOL system has in many ways contribut (Table 3). On the many steep slopes of the Came ed to the rather over-intensified use of the land, ron Highlands, which are also cultivated, the as well as the cultivation of slopes way above a clearing of the jungle is usually done by human

gradient of 30•‹(Plate 1). The author has ob labor, including the leveling of the land and the served cultivated slopes of around 45•‹, and has building of vegetable beds. The normal imple heard from some reliable sources that it is not ment used for such work is the changkal or hoe. uncommon for slopes of around 50•‹ to be uti On such cleared jungle land, some 25 types of lized for cultivation. Owing to such intensified vegetables are grown today. However, the more use of land and the rather careless land conser important crops cultivated in the Cameron High vation practices of the farmers, land erosion is lands are English cabbage, Chinese cabbage and Agricultural Development of Hill Stations 199

Plate 1 Vegetable farms on the slopes of Kea Farm *Water cress is cultivated in the foreground (Taken by the author , Sept., 1985). tomatoes. ography, University of Malaya, of 82 farm fa However, there are no precise statistics on the milies in Brinchang, Kea Farm, Green Cow, total acreage of vegetables grown in the Came Tringkap and Kuala Terla during 1982. This ron Highlands. Table 4 is reproduced from a study revealed that on the average, a family cul study made by students of the Department of Ge tivates around 2.05 acres of land, and these farm 200 S . SHIRASAKA

Table 3 Method of Land Preparation in the Cameron Highlands

Source: After DING, T. H. et al. (1981).

spinach. Thus, English cabbage, Chinese cab Table 4 Kinds of Vegetables and bage and tomatoes occupy 48.1 per cent of the Cultivated Area (1982) total area cultivated. The author, through interviews with the Came ron Highlands Vegetable Growers' Association, found that for 1984 of the total vegetable production, in terms of sales, Chinese cabbage accounted for 20.0 per cent of production, Eng lish cabbage 18.0 per cent, tomatoes 18.0 per cent, lettuce 5.0 per cent, spinach 4.0 per cent, spring onion 4.0 per cent, water cress 3.0 per cent, kow-kee 3.0 per cent, and tong-hoe (garland chrysanthemum) 3.0 per cent. Chinese cabbage, English cabbage and tomatoes together contributed 56.0 per cent of the total value of all vegetables sold. Ethnic grounds may account for the fact that Chinese cabbage, English cabbage and tomatoes form the bulk of vegetable production in the Cameron Highlands since they are popular with all races in the country, while lettuce and spinach are more popular with the Chinese and Europe an commmities. Water cress, kow-kee and garland chrysanthemum are highly popular with the Chinese. The fact that the Cameron Highlands have be come the most important vegetable producing area in Malaysia can be largely attributed to the improvements in road transport to the highlands from the main urban areas, especially during the 1950's. Prior to World War II, the main settle * Different types of spinach . ments in the Cameron Highlands were Tanah ** Different types of chilli . Source: After HUSSAIN,F. et al. (1982). Rata and Brinchang. Between 1960 and the 1970's Tringkap also grew as an important vegetable growing settlement and the 1980's can families are all full-time farmers. During the be said to be the period for the emergence of study, it was found that 23.6 per cent of the land Kampong Raja as a settlement of the same type. was planted with English cabbage, 12.4 per cent All this opening and development of new settle with tomato, 12.1 per cent with Chinese cabbage ments in the Cameron Highlands, especially and another 12.1 per cent with some kind of towards the interior, is the result of the expan Agricultural Development of Hill Stations 201

sion of the road from Brinchang. As a conse the fact that vegetable production in this area is quence of this, more and more people are largely influenced and controlled by market attracted to the newly opened areas, since the forces in the major urban areas. older settlements are quite crowded. However, Table 5 illustrates the growing length and from what the people are saying, ever since the production cost for some of the vegetables grown road has been extended and more land opened in these highlands; e. g. for Chinese cabbage, the up, there has been a gradual rise in temperatures growing period is 60days and harvesting takes over the last twenty years. But, since 1965, with around 10days. Thus the cycle of growth and the opening of this land for farming purposes, harvest for Chinese cabbage is around 70days; malaria has been largely eradicated. for English cabbage it is around 80days, and for The greatest influx of population into the tomatoes around 100days. Thus,it is possible for Cameron Highlands was during the 1950's and Chinese cabbage and English cabbage to be cul 1960's. These newcomers are largely from the tivated four times a year and tomatoes thrice. west coast states of Perak and Penang in Penin However, the farmers here, though to a large ex sular Malaysia.7) As expected, most of these tent concentrating on these three crops men migrants were originally farmers in their previ tioned above, also grow other vegetable types in ous areas of residence, though it is not uncom rotation, as shown in Table 4. Normally, none mon to find amongst these people some former of these three major vegetable types is grown fishermen or tin mine workers. more than twice per annum by the same farmer Fig. 4 shows vegetable production in the Came on the same plot of land. ron Highlands, particularly for Chinese cabbage, While the climatic conditions ideal for the cul and illustrates the difficulties encountered, e. g. tivation of temperate vegetables exist in the Cameron Highlands, their cultivation is actual ly governed by market conditions especially in terms of price, and it is possible to see that prices vary as much as 1.5 times. However, it is not true that vegetable produc tion in the Cameron Highlands is totally in fl uenced by market conditions: production conditions also play their part in price fluctua tions. For example, during the dry months of January and February, there is generally an in sufficiency of water, and it is also during these months that most of the pests and wild grasses fl ourish. Therefore, this is the low season in vegetable producing. On the other hand, during the wet periods of April-May and October- November, conditions are also not that ideal for vegetable production. One characteristic of vegetable cultivation in the Cameron Highlands is the widespread use of insecticides and fungicides (LIM, K. P., 1972). For example, in the cultivation of Chinese cab bage, which lasts about 90days from cultivation in the nursery to harvesting, insecticides and fun gicides are applied roughly once every three days. It is also the same for English cabbage. Figure 4. Monthly Sales of Chinese Cabbage from the Another major characteristic of vegetable Cameron Highlands production in the Cameron Highlands is the ex *Source: FAMA Office in Brinchang. tensive use of chicken dung as a fertilizer (Table 202 S . SHIRASAKA

Table 5 Growing Term and Production Cost of Main Vegetables (1985)

Source: Based on the author's interviews, Sept. and Nov. H: higher price A: average price L: lower price

Table 6 Type of Fertilizers Used by Farmers in the Cameron Highlands

Source: After DING, T. H. et al. (1981).

6). The chicken occupies a special place in the if not all, of the chicken dung is sent to the diet of Malaysians, for eating its meat does not vegetable farms in the country by trucks which contravene any religious rule, and thus the chick bring the vegetables produced to the markets on en is reared almost everywhere throughout the their return trips. country. Thus it is quite possible to obtain chick A 50kg. bag of chicken dung costs M$5.00, en dung from most parts of the country. Most, and an acre of vegetable farm land needs on Agricultural Development of Hill Stations 203

average three to five tons (60-100 bags) per an pepper, celery (including Chinese celery), and num. According to the farmers, land which has cauliflower. been fertilized annually with between three and In the construction of such protective cover, five tons of chicken dung becomes very good small rectangular or square timber poles are used land after ten years.8) Though prawn dust is to build the framework, which is then covered generally utilized for the cultivation of leaf with clear vinyl sheets. The cost of constructing vegetables, the present-day difficulties in obtain such cover per acre of vegetable land is in the ing regular supplies of it in sufficient quantities region of M$10,000.00. Out of this sum, have rendered its use insignificant. M$2,000.00 is for the vinyl sheets, which must Another characteristic of vegetable farming in be changed once every two to three years. Whilst the Cameron Highlands is the influence of rain during the early part of the 1960's water had to fall, since it lies in the tropics. The influence of be distributed by farmers to plants during the dry such rainfall is especially felt during the months season, today, a sprinkler system is widely used of November and December during the period in the vegetable farms. The cost to set up such of the Northeast Monsoon, when the heavy rains a system, including the piping, is around to a large extent damage the vegetables on the M$20,000.00 per acre. ground, thus necessitating the use of vinyl covers Fig. 5. shows the distribution of the various to protect the plants (Plate 2). While such pro vegetable types grown in the Cameron Highlands tection is not generally used for the three main according to height above sea level. The best ele crops of Chinese cabbage, English cabbage and vation for the cultivation of Chinese cabbage and tomatoes, it is generally used for such crops as English cabbage is around 1,500 meters (•}300 spinach, tong-hoe (garland chrysanthemum), bell meters). This is also ideal for tomatoes. Thus,

Plate 2 Fields with vinyl covers on a steep slope near Tanah Rata (Taken by the author, Nov., 1985) 204 S. SHIRASAKA

Figure 5. Vegetable Producting Areas by Altitude in the Cameron Highlands *Source: The Author's interviews and observations. in the Cameron Highlands, the cultivation of amounts of labor to care for the plants. It has Chinese cabbage and English cabbage is expand been found that while the more able farmers (in ing except in Ringlet and Bertam Valley. In Kea cluding those with greater amounts of capital Farm, Kuala Terla and Blue Valley, some 60 per available) are devoting more and more of their cent of the land cultivated is devoted to the cul efforts to flower production, there are, on the tivation of Chinese cabbage and English cab other hand, also farmers who will only grow bage. From the author's interviews with the fl owers when the prices are favorable (or estimat farmers in the Cameron Highlands it is claimed ed to become favorable) and revert to the culti that tomatoes are ideal in areas situated over vation of vegetables when the reverse is true. 1,300 meters above sea level. The areas of straw Recently, i.e. from 1979 onwards, the price of berry cultivation here are found at heights of flowers has not been all that attractive, and it over 1,400 meters. Therefore, in Ringlet and Ber has been estimated that in 1984, some 50 per cent tam Valley, they cannot cultivate strawberries. of flower growing land was utilized for the cul On the other hand, should water be readily avail tivation of vegetables.9) able, the cultivation of water cress is also possi However, in these highlands, mixed farming ble. Therefore, within these highlands, it is of flowers and vegetables is not seen. It may be possible to utilize the land productively possibly due to the fact that flowers need to be throughout. sprayed with insecticides daily and require more Besides the cultivation of vegetables in the human labor to tend them. Cameron Highlands there are also 30 flower In flower cultivation it is a basic necessity to farms with 270 acres producing chrysanthemum build shelters, not only to protect them from the (including pon-pon, a type of chrysanthemum often heavy rains but also to shield them from producing very much smaller flowers), roses and direct sunlight. Also, for flower growing to be carnations (TAN, T. M., 1970). From the economically viable, it is necessary to have large author's interviews and observations, it was areas of relatively level land available. Thus, in found that flower production is done on a fairly the Cameron Highlands, most of the flower large scale. The biggest single farm occupies an farms are to be found in Ringlet, Bertam Val area of 30 acres, and another five farms occupy ley, Kampong Raja, and Blue Valley. In terms around 20 acres each. The average farm size for of height above sea level, chrysanthemums are these flower farms is between 3 and 4 acres each. to be found mostly in Ringlet and Bertam Val In general, large amounts of capital are re ley, while in Kampong Raja and Blue Valley the quired to start a flower farm, which includes the cultivation of carnations is more popular. necessity to build rain covers to protect the plants However, in general, most cultivators grow from the heavy rains, and also the use of large chrysanthemums, pon-pons and roses together Agricultural Development of Hill Stations 205

so as to be able to supply the markets all year round. As said earlier, it is absolutely necessary to have protective covers in order to grow flowers in the Cameron Highlands, and in quite a num ber of instances it is not uncommon to find flower growers switching over to the cultivation of vegetables on flower land when prices for vegetables are good. The converse is also true. T. H. DING, P. VIMALA and S. YUSOH (1981) remarked on the difficulties and problems faced by vegetable farmers in the Cameron Highlands, the biggest of which are problems associated with marketing, pests and plant diseases. Generally, the majority of the vegetable grow ers in the Cameron Highlands have no clear idea as to the price of the vegetables they grow when sold in the market. Mostly they just depend on * the wholesalers, and mutual trust is hence im Federal Agricultural Marketing Authority portant as these wholesalers are the ones who are Figure 6. Routes of the Vegetables Shipped from the concerned with the real marketing of the vegeta Cameron Highlands bles produced. This marketing problem was *Source: The author's interviews, Sept., 1985. brought to the attention of the Cameron High lands Vegetable Growers' Association in 1980 results from his piece of leased land, he is not and discussions have followed as to how to over too concerned with land conservation and the come this problem so as to ensure the farmers consequent soil erosion that takes place. a fair price for their produce. Fig. 6 shows the route whereby the vegetables Though soil erosion is an important problem, produced in the Cameron Highlands are dis the farmers do not seem to be too concerned. In tributed. From what has been gathered through these highlands, the rule is that no cultivation is interviews, some 75 per cent passes through the allowed on slopes of more than 20•‹, but culti central route. The Federal Agricultural Market vation is so intensive here it has become a charac ing Authority (FAMA) initially tried to monitor teristic of the Cameron Highlands that the market for vegetables, and to buy when the cultivation is carried out on slopes very much prices for such products were low so as to steeper than 20•‹. In the tea estates, soil erosion guarantee the farmers a steady market, but for is carefully controlled, so much so that it has one reason or another, principally because of the

been said that it is not a problem at all. insufficiency of storage space and cold room, this Even though the government has agencies in practice has practically ceased. Today, FAMA

these highlands to instruct the farmers on soil markets only about 5 per cent of the produce conservation methods, most farmers just seem from the Cameron Highlands. to be ignorant of them. As discussed earlier, the The marketing of the vegetables produced in land here does not belong to the farmers them the Cameron Highlands is shown in Table 7. Ku

selves, but is leased from the state govermnent. ala Lumpur is the largest market for the produce, Since this lease has to be renewed annually, it followed by Ipoh and Singapore.10) The author has become a matter of great concern to the estimates that the vegetables shipped from the farmers, for if the land is deemed to be required Cameron Highlands supply some 50 per cent of by the govermnent, then the TOL may not be all the vegetable consumption in Kuala Lumpur. renewed at all. The land leased to each individual The vegetables are marketed in round bamboo farmer is usually not more than two acres. Since baskets of 70cm diameter and 70cm depth.

each farmer then tries to obtain the maximum These baskets are generally made in the foothills 206 S. SHIRASAKA

Table 7 Average Supply of Vegetables per Day Prior to the late 1960's, when the use of pip from the Cameron Highlands Absorbed by ing and sprinkler systems to bring water to the Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore (1982) beds became common, water had to be carried to the fields with human labor. Most of the water available here is from springs and rivers, or else rainwater collected in tanks. The principal fertilizer used here is chicken dung, and though artificial fertilizers are used, it is not that common, for it is believed that use of such fertilizers makes the soil hard. In fact, many of the farmers do not use artificial fertiliz

Source: Data from the Office of FAMA, Negeri Perak. ers at all. The main crops are Chinese cabbage and Eng lish cabbage in the Cameron Highlands. Which crop is grown at any given time is largely deter of the Cameron Highlands near Tapah11) and mined by market forces. Whilst some three or adjacent to the road to the highlands. These four crops are grown on any one farm at any one baskets are transported to the farmers by the time, there is no fixed rotation of crops as is trucks that have taken the vegetables to the mar kets and are returning with loads of fertilizers practiced in Japan. Each individual farmer plants what he feels like planting, though he will most and other goods required up in the hills. often not plant the same crop on the same plot of land twice running. IV. Farm Management in the Figs. 7 and 8 show the actual conditions as Cameron Highlands practiced by farmers in these highlands. Fig. 7 is of a farm run by a Chinese family in the southern Farm sizes in the Cameron Highlands are nor part of Kampong Raja (1,290 meters above sea mally between one and two acres each and there level). This farm family consists of a 70-year-old fore, the agricultural activities carried on here farmer, his 36-year-old son and 33-year-old can be considered to be on a small scale. On the daughter-in-law. The young couple have four whole, each vegetable farm utilizes a minimum children of their own, all aged under 8. The old of labor, and on most farms the labor is provid farmer was formerly a tin mine laborer from the ed by the head of the household and his wife. state of Kedah in northern Peninsular Malaysia. Such labor is generally sufficient to run a farm The son and wife moved first to the Cameron of around 1.5 acres. Highlands in 1980, and the old farmer followed The vegetable beds are normally raised beds of in 1983 to live with them when he left his old job. about 90cm in width. Some of these beds act This 1.5 acre piece of land was taken over from as nurseries for seedlings which are transplant another farmer in 1983 for M$25,000.00. Of ed when they have reached the appropriate size. course, the land is under the TOL status, and the In most instances, spinach, spring onions and license fee is M$45.00 per annum. Therefore, garland chrysanthemum are planted straight into M$25,000.00 is the price for the transfer of the the beds without going through a nursery stage. right of using the land under cultivation. The On the other hand, Chinese cabbage, English piping system to bring water to the field costs cabbage, tomatoes, lettuces, bell peppers, M$15,000.00. The labor to work this farm is mustard green, parsley and celery are normally provided by the three principal occupants, transplanted crops. In some instances, two though during harvesting period, some casual different vegetables are grown on the same bed labor may be called in. through the practice of intercropping, i.e. two For 1985, Field A of the farm was planted with different crops are planted simultaneously on the Chinese cabbage, followed by lettuce, tomatoes, same bed at the same time, but harvested at celery and Chinese cabbage again, in that or different times. der; Field B was planted with tomatoes, Chinese Agricultural Development of Hill Stations 207

Figure 7. Land Use of a Farm in Kampong Raja * Source:The author's observations.

cabbage, celery, spring onions and tomatoes tractor" made in Italy is used to till the land. The again, in that order; while Field C was planted main crop on this farm is English cabbage. Since with snow peas, celry, tomatoes, Chinese cab 1980, one-quarter of the total farm is under bage and snow peas again, in that order. An im cover, and here the young couple cultivate the portant aspect of this farm's crop calendar is to more delicate vegetables such as spinach, pak be able to harvest a crop of Chinese cabbage choy (a kind of Chinese cabbage), and garland around the Chinese New Year, which falls be chrysanthemums. This is one of the bigger farms tween mid January and mid February each year, found in the Cameron Highlands. as this vegetable is very popular with the people then, and thus fetches better prices. This farm V. Concluding Remarks er's management can be said to be typical of farms found in the Cameron Highlands. In this paper, the author considers the develop Fig. 8 is of a farm run by a Chinese family in ment of hill stations through the analysis of the Bertam Valley lying about 1,005 meters above land use and the temperate vegetable growing in sea level. The farm labor is provided by a young the Cameron Highlands, Malaysia. As a result, man aged 28 and his wife aged 26. Occasionally the author shows several facts as follows: they call in casual labor, usually Indian, to help 1. The development of the Cameron Highlands them for a day or two. The total area of this farm took off only after 1926, though it was discov is around 3.0 acres, and a Benassi 3 hp. "hand ered by, and named after, William CAMERONin 208 S. SHIRASAKA

1885. By the early 1930's the road linking Ring vegetable farming settlement was Bertam Valley, let to Tanah Rata was already completed, and which was already settled by 1934. once the lines of communication were improved, The other major settlements of Ringlet, Tanah it led to the beginning of hotel and private bun Rata, Brinchang, Kea Farm, and Tringkap are galow building here. Today, the Cameron High also pre-World War II settlements. However, lands is the best known hill resort in Malaysia Kampong Raja, 49 Miles and Kuala Terla are all and Singapore. relatively new vegetable farming settlements de 2. Almost simultaneous with the opening of the veloped after World War II. Cameron Highlands as a hill resort was the Whilst some 47 per cent of the population in growth and development of vegetable farming the Cameron Highlands is Chinese, the workers by farmers of Chinese origin. The earliest such in the tea estates here are nearly all of Indians

Figure 8. Land Use of a Farm in Bertam Valley *Source: The author's observations. Agricultural Development of Hill Stations 209

origin. The Malay population here has been same vegetable are grown on the same plot of steadily increasing over the last decade or so. land consecutively, there is no predetermined cy 3. Throughout the year, the Cameron High cle of crops. lands possesses a climate which is not dissimilar 6. Whilst generally cultivation of vegetables in to Japan's Karuizawa's summer, and therefore the Cameron Highlands is done on slopes of it is possible to grow about the same types of around 20•‹, it is not uncommon to find cultiva vegetables as are found in Japan, Taiwan and tion being carried out on slopes of more than Mainland China. However, the temperate 40•‹. Such land use has resulted in the very seri vegetables in the Cameron Highlands are most ous problem of soil erosion. Since the farm land ly to be found above 1,000 meters above sea lev is only leased from the state govermnent on a el. The highest point where cultivation is year to year basis, the farmers are only keen to practiced is around the middle portion of Mt. obtain as much as they can on their plot of land (Gunung) Brinchang at 1,770 meters above sea and are not too worried about the soil erosion. level. 7. Most of the vegetables produced in the The three main vegetables grown in the Came Cameron Highlands are consumed within Malay ron Highlands are Chinese cabbage, English cab sia, but some 25-30 per cent of the crops is ex bage and tomatoes. These three crops are mainly ported to Singapore. Transportation of the to be found in the higher areas of the Cameron vegetables is by large trucks. Highlands such as Kea Farm, Kuala Terla and Blue Valley. Today, the vegetable seeds are Acknowledgement almost all imported from Japan. 4. In 1981, there were 1,490 vegetable farm The author expresses his gratitude to his academic ad viser, Prof. Dr. VOON Phin Keong of the Department of ing households in the Cameron Highlands, most Geography, University of Malaya, as well as Mr. LAI ly to be found at Tringkap, Kampong Raja and Poh Heong of Lember Pantai Teachers' Training Col Bertam Valley. In general, these are the areas lege, for their kind advice and help in this research and with more relatively level land than to be found writing this paper. In addition, the assistance of the in other areas of the Cameron Highlands. Some Managing Director of the Cameron Highlands Vegeta 25 types of vegetables are cultivated here, though ble Growers' Association, Mr. CHAY Ee Mong, in providing invaluable information, is also deeply ap as stated, the main crops are Chinese cabbage, preciated. English cabbage and tomatoes, which are popu The author takes this opportunity to thank the Japan lar with most of the people in Malaysia. The Society for the Promotion of Science, as well as Vice majority of the vegetable farmers are Chinese, - Chancellors' Council of the University of Malaya and followed by Indians; and Malays are very few. Socio-Economic Research Unit, Prime Minister's Depart ment, who has helped him in one way or the other. Fi 5. Farm labor, on the farms which average be nally, the assistance of Prof. Emeritus, Dr. and Mrs. Karl tween one and two acres in area, is normally fa A. SINNHUBER, Wirtschaftuniversitat Wien, in providing mily labor. One of the main characteristics of invaluable critical comments during the preparation of farming in the Cameron Highlands is the very the manuscript is also deeply appreciated. intensive nature of it. Large amounts of chick (Received July 12, 1988) (Accepted Sep. 25, 1988) en dung are used as fertilizers here while the use of artificial fertilizers is minimal. Crops such as Notes spinach, bell peppers, and celery are grown un der cover to protect them from the rather heavy 1) This road was built principally, with the benefits to rains that fall around here. Water for the crops the British in mind, by Tamil labor. That the Chinese is normally piped to the fields. Each farmer were also involved in the road construction was in grows between five and six different crops per cidental. After J. D. CLARKSON (1968): The Cultural annum, and what farmers grow at any one time Ecology of A Chinese Village: Cameron Highlands, depends on how they react to the market condi Malaysia. The University of Chicago, pp. 63-64. 2) The author found records in the National Archives, tions. Each farmer follows his own judgement Malaysia, that permits for the building of private in the choice of crop to grow, and while crop ro bungalows and other hotels were issued from after tation is practiced, in that no two crops of the 1938. 210 S. SHIRASAKA

3) The majority of the Chinese in the Cameron High Department of Geography Research Paper (Universi lands today are Cantonese. ty of Chicago), No. 114, Illinois, U. S. A., 174p. 4) Through interviews with local Chinese Malaysian DING, T. H., P. VIMALAand S. YUSOH (1981): A Spe residents. cial Report on An Agro-Economic Study of Vegeta 5) Same as Note 4. ble Farming in Peninsular Malaysia. MARDI 6) The land system as practiced in Pahang was in (Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development In troduced into the state by William MAXWELL in stitute), Kuala Lumpur, pp. 123-139. 1891 from Selangor. This was the Torrens System, HUSSAIN, F., R. IBRAHIM,G. Ch., TEOH, Sw. K. ONG as named after the Governor of South Australia. Two and Z. IBARAHIM (1982): The development of the main features of this Torrens System are that land vegetable gardening activities in the Cameron High can only be granted to an individual in the name of lands. Graduation thesis, Department of Geography, the state's ruler, i.e. the Sultan, and all such grants University of Malaya, 20p. (in Malay and unpublished) must be registered with the state's Land Office, the ICHIKAWA,T. (1966): Koreichi no Chirigaku (Geography copy of the register being kept by farmer. However, of Highlands in Japan). Reibun-sha, Nagano, Japan, in the Cameron Highlands, land is generally leased pp. 209-232. to the farmers under temporary occupation lease. LIM, K. P. (1972): Vegetable production in Cameron 7) As obtained from the Cameron Highlands Vegeta Highlands - An economic study. Malayan Agricul ble Growers' Association, there are 950 members of turist, Vol. 10, pp. 14-23. this association, of which 150 are relatively new REED, R. (1976): Remarks on the colonial genesis of the migrants to the Cameron Highlands and these are hill station in Southeast Asia with special reference to mainly to be found in Kuala Terla and Kampong the cities of Buitenzorg and Baguio. Asian Profile, 4, Raja. pp. 545-591. 8) Since the use of artificial fertilizers renders the soil REED, R. (1979): The colonial genesis of hill stations: hard after some time, the principal fertilizer among The Genting exception. Geographical Review, 79-4, the most farmers is chicken dung. pp. 463-468. 9) From conversations with flower cultivators, in SAITOH, I. and H. M. CHEN (1984): Development of the November, 1985. cultivation of temperate deciduous fruits and mid 10) From conversations with the Cameron Highlands latitude vegetables in the Central Mountains, subtrop Vegetable Growers' Association, it is gathered that ical Taiwan. Tsukuba Studies in Human Geography, out of the annual production exported from the Institute of Geoscience, University of Tsukuba, 8, pp. Cameron Highlands, 25-30 per cent goes to Singa 141-180. pore, 40 per cent to Kuala Lumpur, 25 per cent to SAITOH, I. (1987): Hill resorts and mid-latitude vegeta Ipoh and 5 per cent to other towns, for example, ble cultivation. Chiri (Geography), 32-8, pp. 70-74. towns on the east coast of the Peninsular Malaysia. (J) 11) Five baskets can be made within an hour. This in SPENCER, J. and W. THOMAS (1948): The hill stations dustry began in 1955. Today, each basket costs and summer resorts of the Orient. Geographical M$2.00 and is paid for by the farmers themselves. Review, 38, pp. 637-651. TAN, T. M. (1970): Floriculture in the Cameron High lands. Geographical Journal (Geographical Society, References Nanyang University, Singapore), No. 3, pp. 51-64. VOON, P. K. and S. H. KHOO (1980): Upland develop BUTCHER,J. (1979): The British in Malaya, 1880-1941: ment and settlement in Malaysia. Malaysian Journal The social history of a European community in colonial of Tropical Geography, Vol. 1, pp. 43-56. South-East Asia. Oxford University Press, Kuala Lum WITHINGTON,W. (1961): Upland resorts and tourism in pur, pp. 68-166. Indonesia: Some recent trends. Geographical Review, CLARKSON,J. D. (1968): The Cultural Ecology of a 51, pp. 418-423. Chinese Village: Cameron Highlands, Malaysia. Agricultural Development of Hill Stations 211

熱帯アジアのHill Stationにおける農業的発展

-マレーシア,カメロンハイランドの事例-

白坂蕃*

東南アジアの熱帯や亜熱帯に属する地域には,一般にが始まった。また第二次大戦後の蔬菜栽培発展に伴い, hill stationと呼ばれる山地集落がある。これらは, 19 新しい集落が形成されている。世紀に植民地活動をしたイギリス人やオランダ人が熱帯カメロンハイランドにおける人口(24,068人, 1894年)

の暑い気候環境から逃れるために開発した集落であり, の約50パーセントは華人(中国系マレーシア人)で,彼元来,地元の人々が開発したものではない。日本でもらが蔬菜栽培の中心となっている。カメロンハイランド 6-9月は暑さの厳しい気候であるが,かつてのイギリスにおける温帯蔬菜の栽培は,標高1,000m以上の地域に領マラヤやオランダ領東インドなどでは, 1年を通してみられる。この地域では,こんにち,約25種にのぼる温そのような気候の下にある。帯蔬菜が栽培されているが,白菜,キャベツ,そしてトマレーシアでは,このような植民地起源のhill station マトが三大蔬菜となっている。これら蔬菜の種子は ,そとしてカメロンハイランド(the Cameron Highlands) の殆どが日本から供給されている。が最も良く知られている。カメロンハイランドは,マレ蔬菜栽培農家における労働力は,殆どが家族のみであーシア半島中部の中央山地にあり,標高は1,000～1,500 る。また蔬菜栽培には大量の鶏糞が使用されており,耕 mに広がる高原である。今日では, summer resortで作はきわめて労働集約的である。また,ほうれんそう, あると同時に,その冷涼な気候を利用して,一大温帯蔬ピーマン,セルリなどの蔬菜には,雨除け栽培がおこな菜生産地域となっている。筆者はカメロンハイランドにわれている。どのような蔬菜を栽培するかは,市場価格おける農業的土地利用や温帯蔬菜栽培の特色を分析し, を念頭において,個々の農家が選択するために,明確な熱帯アジアにおけるhill stationのもつ今日的意義を考輪作体系は存在しない。える。こんにち,カメロンハイランドで生産される蔬菜は, カメロンハイランドは, 1885年William CAMERON マレーシア半島の主要都市に大型のトラックで輸送され

によって発見されたが, hill resortとしての開発は1926 ているが,総生産量の25～30パーセントは,シンガポー年以降のことである。カメロンハイランドではhill re ルに輸出されている。 sortとしての開発と同時に,華人による温帯蔬菜の栽培

* 〒184東京都小金井市東京学芸大学教育学部