Craig Martin. Renaissance Meteorology: Pomponazzi to Descartes. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011. 224 pp. $50.00, cloth, ISBN 978-1-4214-0187-4.
Reviewed by Arianna Borrelli
Published on H-PhysicalSciences (September, 2014)
Commissioned by Marta Jordi Taltavull (Max Planck Institute for the History of Science)
Renaissance meteorology is a highly complex reassessment of the role of Aristotelianism in the cultural constellation comprising a broad range of scientifc revolution, Martin aims at demonstrat‐ interconnected practices of observation, descrip‐ ing how Aristotelian philosophy of the sixteenth tion, explanation, prediction, and interpretation and seventeenth centuries was not a rigid tradi‐ of phenomena of (mostly) meteorological, clima‐ tion whose demise opened up the feld for innova‐ tological, or geophysical nature. Because of the tive forms of natural philosophy associated with economic, social, and political relevance of weath‐ names like Galileo Galilei or René Descartes, but er and climate in the early modern period, the im‐ was rather a heterogeneous, lively constellation of portance of Renaissance meteorology for histori‐ evolving methods and ideas, which both Aris‐ cal research can hardly be overestimated. None‐ totelian and non-Aristotelian authors could ap‐ theless, as Craig Martin notes, this fascinating sub‐ propriate and transform in diferent directions. ject has hitherto received little attention and Mar‐ Using chosen meteorological writings as exam‐ tin's book makes a valuable contribution to flling ples, Martin argues that in the Renaissance no this gap. clear-cut line could be drawn between Aris‐ The volume focuses on one important aspect totelianism and the "new" natural philosophies, of the little-explored landscape: the way in which and that Aristotelian ideas and methods provided during the Renaissance notions and methods a creative, necessary contribution to the scientifc from Aristotelian epistemology and Aristotelian revolution. At the same time, he also convincingly meteorological theory were adapted to meet the makes the case that the growing interest in ex‐ philosophical and cultural challenges posed by plaining meteorological phenomena was a power‐ the historical developments usually referred to as ful inspiration and motivation for reforming the "the scientifc revolution." Following Charles Aristotelian tradition. Schmitt and other authors who have pleaded for a H-Net Reviews
Working from diferent perspectives, the au‐ more general treatment of the basic features of thor on the one side explores similarities between Aristotelian natural philosophy. Aristotelian meteorological theories and those by As a study of how Renaissance Aristotelian‐ non-Aristotelian authors, such as Giovan Battista ism transformed and was transformed by new ap‐ Della Porta and Descartes; on the other side, he proaches to the explanation of meteorological shows how self-described Aristotelian authors phenomena, Martin's book deserves much praise. heavily reshaped Aristotle's theory of weather However, the book is not a comprehensive treat‐ and climate in a process of active and creative re‐ ment of Renaissance meteorology, and the fact ception of theoretical and empirical results origi‐ that its author chose to present it as such regret‐ nating in rival, upcoming directions of natural tably detracts from its value. The claim of ad‐ philosophy. Although the case studies discussed in dressing Renaissance meteorology in all its the volume concern meteorology, Martin's inter‐ breadth is made not only in the title but also est is primarily focused on epistemological issues, throughout the introduction, where Martin and the explanations given by the historical ac‐ presents Aristotelian treatises of meteorology and tors for certain phenomena are analyzed not so commentaries to Aristotle's meteorology as consti‐ much as part of theories of weather and climate, tuting the bulk of Renaissance meteorology. This but rather as examples of more general views on disputable statement allows him to justify the fact the foundations, origins, and limits of knowledge that his study mainly discusses Italian authors by about nature. A particularly signifcant example claiming that "Renaissance Aristotelianism often in this sense is the meteorological treatise by Nic‐ leads discussions to Italy" (p. 20). colò Cabeo, which, although presented as a modi‐ To rectify this misleading presentation of a lit‐ fcation of Aristotelian meteorology, was actually tle-known subject, I feel compelled to mention a highly innovative construct embedding very dif‐ here those elements of the multiform landscape of ferent epistemological and natural philosophical Renaissance meteorology that Martin either fails views, and a construct that, as Martin aptly to discuss or dismisses in a few words. First and demonstrates, was conceived by Cabeo as ofering foremost, history of science is today a history of a new epistemic template for the development of both theoretical and empirical practices, and so a new "Aristotelian" philosophy of nature. any discussion of Renaissance meteorology The book is organized around six case studies should necessarily include the rich tradition of reproducing and expanding Martin's previous systematic weather observation and recording by publications and forming the core of the six chap‐ authors of most diferent social and cultural ex‐ ters of the book, so that, while partly building tractions, as well as the various meteorological in‐ upon each other, the chapters can also be read in‐ struments developed from the early seventeenth dependently. However, the exposition is, on the century onward, which came to be embedded in whole, somehow nonsystematic. For example, the observational tradition. Martin mentions nei‐ most chapters start with detailed discussions of ther these issues nor the relevant research litera‐ Aristotle's views on specifc subjects (the status of ture, such as, to name only the most basic refer‐ meteorological knowledge, fnal causes, the caus‐ ences, Gustav Hellmann's collection of sources on es of earthquakes, the origin of inner fre of the medieval and early modern weather observations earth. For a reader not familiar with the details of reprinted as part of his Neudrucke von Schriften Aristotelianism, it would probably have been bet‐ und Karten über Meteorologie und Erdmag‐ ter if these discussions had been grouped together netismus (1892-1904) or William Edgar Knowles into an introductory chapter and embedded in a Middleton's monographs on the early modern ori‐
2 H-Net Reviews gins of meteorological instruments like the ther‐ did not view all knowledge about nature as a "sci‐ mometer and barometer (1964, 1966, 1969). Sec‐ entia" based on syllogism, but saw it also as a cor‐ ond, when discussing the theoretical practices pus based on probable arguments which could be linked to meteorology, Martin devotes much at‐ integrated by experience. Chapter 2 discusses the tention to detailing the multiform character of Re‐ issue of fnal causes in Renaissance Aristotelian‐ naissance Aristotelian epistemology and meteo‐ ism using as a case study debates on the possible rology, but makes little or no efort to expound the aims of meteorological phenomena, especially de‐ equally complex views of other traditions of structive ones, and on their eventual nature as philosophical and meteorological thought with signs of God's will. Martin here details how Italian which, as Martin himself correctly points out, Re‐ (Pomponazzi, Agostino Nifo) and German Luther‐ naissance Aristotelianism interacted. Two of these an (Melanchton and his circle) authors variously traditions played a particularly central role in Re‐ tried to ft notions of divine providence with natu‐ naissance meteorology: the frst one is the "chemi‐ ral causations and ethics. In this context, taking cal philosophy" (in the sense of Allen G. Debus), in into account how astrology provided many of whose context extremely infuential meteorologi‐ these scholars with a template for conceiving nat‐ cal writings were composed outside of Italy by the ural order would have been a valuable addition German-Swiss Paracelsus, the Dutchman Cor‐ in reconstructing the cultural context of the dis‐ nelius Drebbel, and the Englishman Robert Fludd, cussions.[1] and to which also Della Porta's treatise may be The subject of the third chapter is of particu‐ counted. These texts have, for example, been dis‐ lar cultural historical interest: the political use of cussed by Gustav Hellmann in his Beiträge zur (actual or predicted) natural catastrophes, like Geschichte der Meteorologie (1914-22) and in vari‐ foods, storms, or earthquakes. Martin's case ous works by Debus. The second tradition is as‐ study concerns the earthquakes that hit the city of trology, whose role in Renaissance culture and Ferrara in the years 1570-74 and that Pope Pius V natural philosophy was central, especially as far claimed were sent as a punishment to the city's as weather forecasts were concerned, and which ruler Alfonso II d'Este for having granted resi‐ was a main component of the worldview of some dence to Jews against the pope's orders. To argue authors whom Martin discusses at length: Philipp against the pope and also to counter claims that Melanchton and his Wittenberg circle, Pietro the earthquake had been predicted by astrologers, Pomponazzi, and Della Porta. Although Martin in a number of scholars at the Ferrara court com‐ his introductory remarks acknowledges that the posed dialogues on the earthquake and its natural alchemical and astrological traditions played a causes, employing arguments from both the Aris‐ role in Renaissance meteorology and quotes De‐ totelian and other traditions of meteorology and bus's The Chemical Philosophy (1977) and Steven natural philosophy. Martin's very informative dis‐ Vanden Broecke's The Limits of Infuence: Pico, cussion is careful in detailing the variety of argu‐ Louvain, and the Crisis of Renaissance astrology ments brought forward by scholars and courtiers, (2003), he never seriously includes alchemy and but one might have wished that he had also dis‐ astrology in his discussions, although this per‐ cussed some texts from the opposing faction (such spective would have added much to his analyses, as papal writings and astrological forecasts), so as as I shall discuss below. to have a complete picture of the dispute. Let us now turn to the contents of the chap‐ The theme of chapter 4 is "the chymistry of ters. The frst one focuses on Renaissance Aris‐ weather," in other words, the use of notions from totelian epistemology and uses meteorology to early modern (al)chemical practices in the expla‐ support the claim that Renaissance Aristotelians
3 H-Net Reviews nation of meteorological phenomena. This is in‐ plicitly employed Aristotelian notions and meth‐ deed a fascinating issue deserving much atten‐ ods, and to the critiques that scholars from the tion, but Martin's treatment of it is not completely Aristotelian and the alchemical traditions direct‐ satisfactory. Starting from Aristotle and Seneca, ed to his meteorological refections. Martin shows how a number of (mostly Aris‐ In conclusion, in this volume Martin fully totelian) authors of antiquity, the Middle Ages, achieves his stated aim of using meteorology to and the Renaissance employed notions of "sulfur" positively reassess the creativity and historical and "bitumen" in the explanation of specifc mete‐ signifcance of Renaissance Aristotelianism, and orological phenomena, like thunder and lighting, the book is certainly of great interest for histori‐ earthquakes, and hot springs. With these exam‐ ans of philosophy. Historians of science will also ples, Martin convincingly shows that Renaissance proft from reading it, but, if they are not already Aristotelian authors were creatively embedding familiar with Renaissance meteorology, they new chymical notions and results in their meteo‐ should be aware of the specifc perspective from rology. However, his exposition does not address which Martin looks at it. the fact that in the Renaissance the use of chym‐ Notes istry as a template for the explanation of aerial phenomena (and much more) did not simply go [1]. Claudia Brosseder, "The Writing in the back to ancient and medieval writings, like the Wittenberg Sky: Astrology in Sixteenth-Century work of Pseudo-Geber, but was also frmly rooted Germany," Journal for the History of Ideas 66 in the new Paracelsian tradition. For example, the (2005): 557-576; Rienk Vermij, "A Science of Signs: idea of explaining thunder with gunpowder was Aristotelian Meteorology in Reformation Ger‐ not frst put forward by Della Porta, as Martin many," Early Science and Medicine 15 (2010): claims, but was at the time common in the al‐ 648-674; and Kocku von Stuckrad, Geschichte der chemical literature and probably also outside of Astrologie: Von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart it. The theory of "aerial niter," a fery substance (Munich: Beck, 2003), 219-222. similar to salniter/gunpowder to which (among [2]. Allen G. Debus, "The Paracelsian Aerial other things) thunder and lightning were due, Niter," Isis 55 (1964): 43-61. goes back to the work of Paracelsus and formed the basis for both philosophical and meteorologi‐ cal refections of many Paracelsians, among them Daniel Sennert, whom Martin surprisingly dis‐ cusses under the heading "late Aristotelian chym‐ istry" (pp. 99-100).[2] The last two chapters deal with authors writ‐ ing in the frst half of the seventeenth century, and they are the best ones in the volume. Chapter 5 focuses on the meteorological treatise of the Je‐ suit Cabeo and ofers a detailed, fascinating ac‐ count of how the scholar attempted a reform of Aristotelian philosophy by combining it with no‐ tions usually regarded as incompatible with it, such as atomism or spirits. Chapter 6 is devoted to the meteorology of Descartes, with particular at‐ tention to how the philosopher explicitly or im‐
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Citation: Arianna Borrelli. Review of Craig Martin. Renaissance Meteorology: Pomponazzi to Descartes. H-PhysicalSciences, H-Net Reviews. September, 2014.
URL: https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=40295
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