Australia Since 1890

So we must fly a rebel flag, As others did before us; And we must sing a rebel song, And join in rebel chorus. 1 We’ll make the tyrants feel the sting O’ those that they Australia, would throttle, They needn’t say the fault is ours, If blood should stain the wattle. 1890–1914 Worker, 16 May 1891 pages Australia up to 1890

The people The six Australian colonies had begun as British settlements and in 1890 the population was still predominantly of British origin. SampleSydney, in New South Wales, was originally founded as a penal colony in 1788 and convictism figured prominently in the early history of the other colonies, with the exception of Victoria and South Australia. However, with the phasing out of convictism, the achievement of self-government and the development of their economies, the colonies were by 1890 free, dynamic societies in which transplanted British institutions were being changed by the effects of the Australian Australia since 1890

environment. There was a strong belief in social strenuous, with much heavy manual labour. In and political democracy. Australia was seen as a rural areas long-established squatters lived in land where hard work and equal opportunity comparative comfort, but small ‘cocky’ farmers could overcome class distinctions and enable struggled to make their farms viable. Bush the individual to gain a rightful place in society. workers often camped out in huts and tents The trade union movement emphasised collec- while engaged in contract or seasonal jobs like tive action to bring about social and economic fencing and shearing. equality. In the cities most people lived in terrace or semi-detached houses and sanitation was still Urbanisation fairly primitive, with refuse often draining into open street channels. Women had few labour- By the 1890s the colonies were becoming saving devices in the home and the 1901 census increasingly urbanised, despite the importance showed that 12 per cent of the work force of primary industries. The 1901 census found, (mainly female) was engaged in domestic that in a population of 3.7 million people, 35 per service. Although working conditions in the cent lived in the capital cities and 21 per cent cities were not as bad as those in Britain, lived in country towns. The cities and their exploitation, particularly of female workers, was ports were very much the focal point of each not uncommon. colony. They had developed as the administra- However, overall, the standard of living for tive and commercial centres, and the growth of workingpages people in Australia was among the road and rail transport strengthened this trend. highest in the world. Factory Acts regulated They were also the main ports of call for inter- conditions of work, while trade unions gained colonial and overseas trade. Manufacturing was benefits for their members in some industries. becoming increasingly concentrated in the Family life was strong and church was well capitals as well. Beyond the cities, population attended. Picnics, sporting events, shows and was sparse and widely dispersed because the circuses provided a diversion from the weekly geography favoured extensive pastoral and agri- routine. Entertainment included opera, theatre cultural land use. Country people were strongly and musical comedy, while the gradual achieve- self-reliant. However, they looked to the colonial ment of the 8-hour working day made Saturday governments in the capitalSample cities to help provide a half-holiday for many when people could take the resources needed to offset the costs of dis- part in organised sport. Cricket and Australian tance, adverse seasons and land development.1 rules football (begun in Melbourne in 1866) were national sports by 1890. Indeed, the Social life first overseas cricket tour to England—by an In 1890 life was rigorous for the average Aboriginal team—had taken place in 1868, and Australian. Population centres were often iso- the first Australia–England Test match was held lated by long distances and poor roads. Working in Melbourne in 1877. Horse racing too was conditions in both the country and city were popular, attracting people from all walks of life.

2 Australia, 1890–1914

pages

Sydney in the 1890s governments. Gradually, government schools Source: NSW Government Printer were set up, but the church schools continued to be subsidised. In 1851 South Australia abol- What is the main form of Sampletransport shown ished state aid to denominational schools, and in this photograph? How would this have between 1872 and 1895 the other colonies did likewise. changed by 1914? ? There was a strong belief that all children had the right to the same level of education. As Education a result, the colonial governments passed Acts By 1890 most children in Australia were receiv- providing free, compulsory and secular educa- ing an education. The Christian churches had tion. However, the government did not have a established the first schools in the colonies, and monopoly of education as the churches contin- they were financially assisted by the colonial ued to run their own schools. The Catholic

3 Australia since 1890

Church in particular protested against the sheep industry after 1820 the Aborigines were abolition of state aid and developed its own dispossessed of their land and therefore their system of primary and secondary education. means of survival. They tried to resist the Also, state school education was not entirely European invasion by mounting a skilful form secular as local clergy were allowed to take of ‘guerilla’ warfare against the settlers. How- religious instruction in government schools. ever, they were no match for men on horseback Each colony developed its own centralised carrying firearms. Units of ‘black troopers’ were education system. Centralisation of control facil- sent out to crush Aboriginal resistance. itated the equitable provision of educational The plight of the Aborigines did not go resources throughout both urban and rural entirely unheeded. Governors attempted to areas. When the colonies federated in 1901, they protect the Aborigines and punish those who retained responsibility for education. massacred Aboriginal people.2 Reserves were Schools were modelled on English schools established to try to protect the Aborigines, in both curriculum and organisation. There and Christian missions provided sanctuaries was strong emphasis on loyalty to the British for some Aboriginal tribes. However, these Empire. The major focus was on primary edu- efforts were largely to no avail. As the pastoral cation. Gradually state secondary schools were industry expanded, the Aborigines were dis- set up. Technical schools and universities were posessed of their traditional lands by the white also established. In WA, technical education settlers. began in 1900, while the University of Western pagesEuropean settlement had a disastrous Australia was opened in 1913. impact on Aboriginal numbers. In 1788 there were about 700 000 Aborigines in Australia according to recent estimates, but by 1890 this The Aborigines number had been reduced to only about 60 000. Early in its history Australia was seen as a place In Tasmania the Aboriginal population was where Australians could build a way of life that completely exterminated. This enormous de- was free from the class privilege, poverty and cline in Aboriginal numbers was due mainly to social degradation found in other parts of the the effect of European-introduced diseases such world. However, the indigenous people, the as influenza, measles and smallpox, as well as Australian Aborigines, wereSample excluded from this poor diet and malnutrition. concept. Moreover, the overall impact of Up to 1890 the position of the Aboriginal white settlement on the original inhabitants was people continued to worsen. Despite official catastrophic. attempts to ‘protect’ Aborigines, the idea gained For several thousand years the Aborigines ground, reinforced by Social Darwinism, that had practised a semi-nomadic hunting and gath- the Aboriginal race would eventually die out. ering lifestyle that was in tune with the natural While white Australians generally regarded environment. The advent of white civilisation Aborigines as inferior, they often used them for destroyed this equilibrium. At first there was their own purposes. White men exploited native fairly limited contact between Europeans and women for sex and many ‘half-caste’ children Aborigines, but with the rapid expansion of the were born from these unions. As tribal groups

4 Australia, 1890–1914

broke up, many Aborigines were employed as horsebreakers and stockmen on sheep and cattle stations. But they were rarely paid wages equivalent to the whites. Aborigines were also employed in the pearling industry, centred on Broome. But although they made excellent skindivers, they received only a small food and clothing ration instead of a wage. Some Aborigines picked up casual work in rural areas where they came into contact with bush workers whose habits of drinking and gambling they readily acquired. However, while bush workers believed fiercely in mateship and unionism, they made little effort to involve Aboriginals in labour unions. The Chinese

This was another racial group that was badly ‘Outside, Sir! Outside!’ treated in Australian society. Chinese were attrac- Mrs Australiapages (to John Chinaman): ted to the goldfields in the eastern colonies during ‘I’ve had quite enough of you! the 1850s and tension often arose between the “No admittance,”—Not even “on business”!’ Source: National Library of Australia Australian and Chinese diggers, resulting at times in riots and the expulsion of the Chinese from the diggings. Colonial governments imposed an entry tax and a poll tax on Chinese What does this cartoon reveal about to discourage further Chinese immigration. Australian attitudes to Chinese immigration? With the decline of alluvial mining, racial tensions eased and the restrictive laws were ? repealed. However, a furtherSample influx of Chinese in the 1870s to the Queensland goldfields led to Economic development renewed calls for their exclusion. Workers In 1890 the wool industry was still the principal feared that they would cause lower wages, source of wealth in Australia. Attempts had while politicians claimed that the Chinese were been made in the 1860s in NSW and Victoria to a danger to white civilisation. There were an ‘unlock’ pastoral land for closer agricultural set- estimated 50 000 Chinese in Australia in 1888 tlement but these had largely been (the peak year) but they were still only a unsuccessful. In 1890 wool comprised one half tiny fraction of the population. The colonies of Australia’s exports. The number of sheep had imposed new restrictive legislation and, as a increased from 21 million in 1860 to 107 million. result, Chinese immigration rapidly declined.

5 Australia since 1890

However, the weight of the fleece had also However, economic development by 1890 increased, carrying capacity on the sheep runs was already having an adverse impact on the was higher, while the introduction of machine Australian environment. Introduced plants, shearing and improved marketing methods led such as the blackberry, capeweed and prickly to greater efficiency in the industry. pear, spread out of control over vast areas. Although wool reigned supreme, the Overstocking resulted in land degradation, Australian economy was becoming increasingly while huge sections of forest were cleared or diversified by 1890: destroyed by ringbarking. To add to these disas- • Railway construction facilitated the expan- ters, the rabbit, introduced originally for sport, sion of the wheat industry. Wheat was soon spread rapidly and had become a major produced for both domestic use and export, pest in farming areas by 1890. Thousands of though output varied greatly according to kilometres of rabbit-proof fences were built to the season. try to halt the spread of rabbits. But rabbits were • The sugar industry, which began in the not to be brought under control until after the 1860s, was well established by 1890 on introduction of myxomatosis in the 1950s. the coastal alluvial plains of Queensland. Indentured ‘kanaka’ labour from the Pacific Islands was used on the sugar plantations Political democracy and, despite opposition to the system, the In 1890 Australia consisted of six separate traffic persisted to the end of the 1890s. self-governingpages colonies. All had achieved • Beef cattle raising expanded in the grass- responsible self-government during the 1850s lands of northern Australia, and in 1880 the with the exception of Western Australia which first cargo of frozen meat was shipped to was not granted self-government by Britain until London. 1890. The governor had exercised considerable • Dairy farming was a growing industry, espe- power in the early years of the colonies, but cially in NSW and Victoria, though lack of with the advent of responsible government, his refrigeration prevented large-scale exports role greatly changed so that he became little until after 1890. more than a ceremonial figurehead. He was still • Mining was a significant sector of the col- the representative of the British Crown and he onial economy. Gold Samplehad been important gave royal assent to all legislation. However, his since the 1850s but other minerals were also influence in government declined and in prac- being exploited; for example, silver-lead at tice very few of the governor’s powers were Broken Hill and Mt Zeehan, and copper at exercised. In 1892 the governors were instructed Kapunda and Mt Lyell. New South Wales by Britain to accept the advice of colonial was the main centre for coal production. ministers in all but a few cases. • Britain supplied Australia with most of its The system of government was based on the manufactured goods, but manufacturing British parliamentary model. There were two and processing industries underwent con- houses of parliament, a lower house elected on siderable expansion. a broad suffrage, and an upper house that was

6 Australia, 1890–1914

either nominated for life (as in NSW and intercolonial custom barriers emphasised the Queensland) or elected on a narrow property divisions between the colonies. franchise. Australian parliaments were among But gradually a sense of belonging to the most democratic in the world, with the same nation began to develop. As the dis- manhood suffrage being granted for the lower advantages of colonial separatism became house in all the colonies by 1890. Women were increasingly evident, there was a move to form first given the vote in South Australia in 1894 some kind of central government for the whole and the other colonies had granted it by 1909. of Australia. By 1890, 75 per cent of the popu- Other reforms, such as triennial parliaments, lation was Australian-born. The blending of secret ballot, one-man-one-vote and payment of English, Scottish, Irish and Welsh people pro- members, were progressively introduced. duced a distinctively Australian society that was Political democracy had its limitations. The becoming more conscious of its unique national upper houses, representing mainly people of identity. Australian nationalism was given its property, had almost equal powers with the strongest expression in literature and art: lower houses and could block progressive legis- • The Bulletin (founded in 1880) encouraged lation. Electorates were weighted in favour of Australian literature which gave expression rural areas so that a country vote was ‘worth’ to the values of mateship and egalitarian- more than a city vote. Moreover, until the devel- ism. Bush ballads and short stories were opment of a party system, the absence of particularly popular. Writers such as clear-cut political groups led to instability and Bernardpages O’Dowd, Joseph Furphy, Victor frequent changes of government. Liberals and Daley and Henry Lawson wrote about many conservatives often formed coalition ministries different aspects of Australian rural and to defend their own interests against working- urban life. They added to the rich store of class radicalism. Australian folklore. However, ‘laissez-faire’ attitudes were never • Australians began to paint the Australian very strong in colonial politics. The idea devel- landscape in a new way. The impressionist oped that the state had a duty to look after the (Heidelberg) school of artists, including welfare of its citizens.3 The role of the state was Frederick McCubbin, Tom Roberts, Charles not only to promote economic development, but Conder and Arthur Streeton, began to also to regulate factory employment,Sample provide express the uniqueness of Australia in their free education and protect the less fortunate work. members of society. Australian nationalist sentiment also found expression in the republican movement. The Republican League was set up in 1888. It advo- The growth of nationalism cated the federation of the Australian colonies Overall, the Australian colonies were extremely under republican rule. It was strongly opposed parochial. The colonists were intensely preoccu- to imperial titles and British aristocracy. But pied with their own affairs. The construction of republicanism was essentially a minority move- different railway gauges and the setting up of ment. The vast majority of the Australian people

7 Australia since 1890 remained loyal to Britain while still retaining a Impact fervent attachment to Australia. Other factors stimulated nationalism. The • With the cessation of loan capital, public formation of employer and trade union organi- works programs came to a halt, and banks sations contributed to the growth of national and land companies collapsed.5 feeling. By 1888 all the eastern capitals were • Thousands were thrown out of work. connected by railroads. Frontier communities • Vast numbers of investors lost their savings. adopted a national viewpoint, and this strength- • Many people flocked to the newly- ened the integrationist forces operating in discovered goldfields in Western Australia. Australia.4 Above all, since Australians were • Assisted immigration schemes were discon- sprung from the same racial stock, spoke the tinued. same language and shared a common culture, there was clearly far more to draw them together than keep them apart. By 1900 the Recovery and results Australian colonies had decided to set up a Recovery was under way by the second half of national system of government. the 1890s. By 1900 the net national product had regained the peak level of 1889–91.6 A major factor in this recovery was the increase in the export of primary products. This The depression of the helpedpages to pay the interest on money borrowed before the depression. Between 1891 and 1901 early 1890s the area under crop doubled in Australia, and rural industry became increasingly diversified. Several developments made this possible. Causes The eastern colonies experienced a severe eco- Wheat nomic depression in the early 1890s. This was Improved technology facilitated the expansion due to a combination of factors: of the wheat industry. • NSW experienced a disastrousSample drought. • Increased use of chemical fertiliser boosted • The prices of wool, wheat and metals fell. yield per hectare. • British investors reduced their investment in • The introduction of the practice of ‘rolling’ Australia. Much of this capital had been (flattening the scrub with horse-drawn tree used to finance public works, railroad con- trunks or old steam boilers), and the greater struction and building development. use of the stump-jump plough, made it pos- • Loan funds were channelled into unproduc- sible to extend farming into the lightly tive sectors of the economy. timbered mallee lands.

8 Australia, 1890–1914

• Disc cultivators, drilling and seeding The depression showed the need for greater machines, and harvesters were in wide- commercial unity between the colonies, thus spread use by the turn of the century, stimulating the federation movement. though tractors did not begin to replace The bank failures of the 1890s influenced horses until after the First World War. Labor ideology. The early Labor parties con- • Railroad construction made it possible to ceived the idea of bringing banking under transport a bulky commodity like wheat government control to prevent further ‘exploita- from the farming areas to the cities and their tion’ of the wage-earner. During the Great ports. Depression of the 1930s the Labor movement was still deeply distrustful of the banks, partly Closer settlement because of the experience of the 1890s. One writer contends that ‘the great wave of antago- • Blocks were released for closer settlement. nism towards the banking system during the • Based on the WA model of 1894, credit was 1930s had its origin in the nineties’.7 made available to farmers at low rates of interest. • Governments ensured that the land was developed by enforcing residence and he Great Strikes and the improvement conditions. T • More intensive land use was fostered by the formationpages of the Labor Party development of refrigeration which made it possible to export frozen meat and dairy products overseas. The growth of trade unionism By 1890 trade unionism was a powerful force in Wool Australia.8 Unions were at first mainly organisa- • Output declined in the 1890s and the sheep tions of skilled workers. They won many population was almost halved by a series of benefits, such as the 8-hour day in several droughts. However, improvements in breed- trades. Gradually they gained social and legal ing, and better farm management,Sample brought recognition. about a substantial increase in wool yields. During the prosperous 1870s and 1880s the • More liberal land laws were passed to trade union movement broadened considerably: extend the period of leasehold and give the • The first Intercolonial Trade Union Congress pastoralist greater security of tenure. The was held in 1879. general effect of these reforms was to reduce • Amalgamations took place among workers the likelihood of overstocking and to employed in the same industry. encourage long-term improvements on pas- • From 1886 there was widespread organisa- toral runs. tion of semi-skilled and unskilled workers,

9 Australia since 1890

especially among miners and bush workers. of the depression employers were in no William Guthrie Spence was the driving position to grant wage increases. In fact, force behind the unionisation of workers in wages had to be reduced because of a fall in rural areas. prices. Unions were not prepared to accept • Trades and Labour Councils were formed in this without a fight. the colonial capitals. • Second, the employers wanted to declare • Plans were drawn up at the fifth Inter- ‘open shop’, which was the right to employ colonial Trade Union Congress in Brisbane non-union labour and revert to the principle in 1888 for the nationwide federation of all of freedom of contract. This the unions were unions. This task was delegated to the Bris- not prepared to accept. Against the principle bane Trades and Labour Council which set of open shop they asserted the principle of up the Australian Labour Federation (ALF). the ‘closed shop’, meaning that employers In 1890 the ALF adopted a political program. should employ only union labour. The Great • By 1890 there was a growing belief that the Strikes arose from confrontation on these trade union movement would obtain legisla- two industrial issues. tion favourable to workers only through political action. Socialist ideas had a strong influence on the The Maritime Strike, 1890 Labor movement. The American socialist The first great clash between unions and writers Henry George and Edward Bellamy were employerspages was the so-called Maritime Strike of widely read in Australia. William Lane, a August–October 1890. In August 1890 the Brisbane journalist, made an important impact shipowners demanded that the Maritime on socialist thought through the columns of the Officers’ Association disaffiliate from the Boomerang and the Worker. The Sydney Bulletin Melbourne Trades Hall Council. The officers contributed greatly to the dissemination of considered this a challenge to their right to radical, republican and socialist ideas through- organise and went on strike. They were sup- out the colonies. Socialist ideas strengthened ported by seamen and waterside workers. This the belief in collective action to achieve the strike became linked to the shearers’ dispute in goals of the Labor movement, and justified the NSW. W.G. Spence, the President of the claim of the working classSample for a larger share of Amalgamated Shearers’ Union, tried to enforce the national wealth. However, on the whole, the the principle of the closed shop. The Labor movement was more concerned with Pastoralists’ Association offered to negotiate. practical issues than with socialist theory. But Spence would not cooperate. The shearers were supported by the waterside workers who refused to handle ‘black’ wool shorn by non- The Great Strikes union labour. Miners and transport workers also The Great Strikes were due to two main factors: joined in the stoppage in support of the shear- • First, unions were becoming more aggres- ers. In September 16 000 shearers working sive in pressing wage demands. Because under union agreements stopped work.

10 Australia, 1890–1914

The strike became a trial of strength between unions and employers. The unions claimed that the employers were out to smash trade unionism and labour defence committees were set up to fight the employers. But the strike was quickly broken. Non-union (‘scab’) labour was employed, union funds were soon exhausted, the government took strong action to suppress the strikes, and union leaders were prosecuted under Masters and Servants Acts. The marine officers, seamen and shearers were eventually compelled to return to work on the employers’ terms.

The Queensland Shearers and Labourers’ Unions Strike, January–June 1891 In Queenslandpages the pastoralists decided to enforce freedom of contract. The shearers The labour crisis attempted to prevent non-unionists from shear- Capital: ‘See here, my man, one of us must either go back, or else lie down and let the other walk ing by organising large camps at Longreach, over him. Now, which of us shall it be?’ (And that Barcaldine and Clermont and picketing the is now the question.) shearing sheds. A strike fund was organised. Source: Bulletin, 16 August 1890 The Queensland government took strong action against the unions. Cavalry, artillery and armed police were used to protect non-union 1 To what major issue doesSample the cartoon shearers. Fortunately, the unionists did not refer? resort to violence, even though many were armed. Union prisoners were treated harshly. 2 What conflict is implied in the cartoon, Twelve strike leaders who were found guilty of and what was the outcome of that ? conspiracy were sentenced to three years conflict? imprisonment. In August 1891 Spence was 3 Does the cartoon indicate bias on the obliged to accept the principle of freedom of part of the Bulletin? contract.

11 Australia since 1890

The following are two different views about the Great Strikes:

he tactics adopted [by land, must not be carried or those who withhold compliance the trade unions] deserve shipped if at any period of its with the demands of trades- Tsevere condemnation. production or transit labour is unions. Intimidation is practised Foremost is the unjust combina- employed outside the trade by trades unionists. Free labour- tion of various unions to boycott organisations. And as to the ers are prevented by threats and trade so as to enforce the internal trade efforts are made to acts of personal violence from demands of the particular union prevent supplies of the raw mate- following their lawful occupation concerned. The means adopted rial to manufactories employing … Employers … have also to in combination are various and free labour, and in the disposal contend with the fact that labour far-reaching in their character. of the manufactured article every unions ignore agreements made Edicts are issued that the opposition is given to legitimate by them in their corporate capac- produce of these colonies, coal, realisation. But, still more extra- ity with employers if it suit and other minerals, wool, wheat ordinary, the necessaries of life the purpose of the moment to and other products from the are in some instances refused to repudiate them.

Statement by representatives of Australasian employers’ associations, Daily Telegraph, Sydney, 13 September 1890 pages 1 What tactics do the employers claim are being carried out by the trade unions?

2 To what extent does the historical evidence support these allegations? ?3 Can a defence be made out for the unions in reply to the employers?

here is an organised attack made by the whole of and the federated employers’ attempt being made by the capitalistic force of the associations, is endorsed by the TAustralian capitalism to continent, with the evident Queensland Government, and is break down unionism, the intention to extend it if success- justified by those misrepresent- immediate point of attackSample being ful to every organised body of ations and misstatements which the Queensland bush unions wage-earners throughout the always accompany the attacks of affiliated with the Australian colonies. It is backed by the capitalism on labour. Labour Federation. This is an unlimited funds of the banks

Statement by the General Council of the Australian Labour Federation, Sydney Morning Herald, 5 March 1891

1 What assertion is made in the first sentence?

2 Who, according to the Australian Labour Federation, supported the employers? ?3 Formulate a reply to this statement from the employers’ point of view.

12 Australia, 1890–1914

The Great Shearers’ Strike, 1891 Source: Cooee pages Picture Library This picture shows disaffected shearers on the Barcaldine Downs trying to hinder the passage of non-union labourers under military escort. ?1 Why would the shearers have taken this action? 2 Why would the government have provided military escort for non-union workers?

Other strikes enforce freedom of contract. The pastoralists Samplerecruited strike-breakers and this time unionists From June to November 1892 there was a strike resorted to violence. A party of unionists cap- at Broken Hill in NSW. The mining company tured and burnt a river steamer that was cancelled an agreement made with the carrying strike breakers. But once again the Amalgamated Miners Association in 1892 and strike failed. Some union leaders were jailed for a prolonged and bitter strike was the result. up to 15 years. Despite the fierce opposition of the miners, non- There were two main outcomes of the union labour was used in the mines. When Great Strikes. The first was a new willingness seven men were found guilty of conspiracy and to experiment with industrial arbitration, imprisoned, the strike finally collapsed. the second a much greater determination Another strike was precipitated in Queens- by the unions to form their own political land in May 1894 when the pastoralists tried to party.

13 Australia, 1890–1914

1910–14 Defence In 1909 the previous Fisher government had The Fisher Labor government, outlined a scheme which included military conscription for youths aged 10 to 20. The scheme 1910–13 was actually set up by the Deakin government At the 1910 elections the Labor Party gained a later in the year. Deakin also invited the British decisive victory, winning 42 seats in the House Field-Marshal, Lord Kitchener, to report on the of Representatives. The Fusion Party won only state of the military forces in Australia. As the 31 seats, and there were 2 Independents. result of his report, the Fisher government made Labor’s sweeping success may be attributed to changes to the Defence Act which came into two main factors: loss of confidence in the effect in 1911. Liberals over the fusion episode, and a general • From 1 July 1911 compulsory military train- belief that Labor was best equipped to continue ing was instituted for boys aged 12 to 18 and the ‘social experiment’. young men aged 18 to 25. Labor believed The Labor government set out with great that a strong citizens’ militia, which was enthusiasm to implement its political program. drawn from the ranks of all classes, should However, the Constitution prevented Labor from be prepared to defend a white and democra- carrying out its more radical policies. Vigorous tic Australia. But the scheme proved to be attempts to amend the Constitution in 1911 and extremelypages unpopular. Large numbers of 1913 to give increased powers to the Common- youths were prosecuted for failing to attend wealth met with a negative response from the drills and camps, and some militant trade electorate and were not always endorsed by unions circulated anti-conscription leaflets. State Labor governments. • In 1911 also Labor set up the Duntroon The main achievements of the Fisher Labor Military College in the ACT under the government relate to social welfare, defence, command of Brigadier-General W.T. Bridges. arbitration and the Commonwealth Bank. The main purpose was to train officers. Entrance was by means of competitive Social welfare examination. • In 1912 the governmentSample introduced a mater- • In 1913 a naval college was commenced at nity allowance of £5. It was paid to all Geelong, and transferred in 1915 to Jervis mothers (married and unmarried) without a Bay. As noted earlier, the Royal Australian means test, but not to Asian or Aboriginal Navy was established at this time. The women. British government gave the Sydney naval • Labor liberalised the means test for pen- base to the Commonwealth. Fisher declined sions. The old-age pensioner could now the offer of £1.25 million per annum for the own a house and receive allowances from upkeep of the Australian squadron. children and grandchildren. In addition, Defence was thus placed on fairly sound women at the age of 60 and naturalised foundations before 1914. The army was essen- citizens became eligible for the pension. tially a force for home defence. Australia lacked

27 Australia since 1890 a large regular army for expeditionary purposes. Land tax However, Australian men responded enthusias- Another important measure was the 1910 Land tically to the call to arms when war broke out in Tax. This imposed a tax of a penny in the pound 1914, and several Australian military leaders on the unimproved value of estates valued at proved to be quite outstanding. more than £5000. For absentee landowners the Arbitration whole unimproved value was subject to the tax The Fisher government amended the Concili- at double the rate. The rate of tax was to rise ation and Arbitration Act. slightly with each additional £1 unimproved • Labor extended the scope of arbitration to value. include domestic servants and agricultural A tax of this kind was not new. Some of the workers. colonies had levied a land tax in the 1880s and • It introduced the procedure of a compulsory 1890s in an attempt to promote closer settlement. conference of parties called by the President It was of particular significance to the Labor of the Court for the purposes of conciliation. Party which was anxious to break up big estates. • Labor established preference to unionists, This objective was not achieved. In the 1920s ‘other things being equal’, and authorised and early 1930s the tax was reduced by non- the Court to fix a minimum wage. Labor governments and was finally abolished in 1952 by a Liberal–Country Party government. The Commonwealth Bank pages In 1911 the Fisher government established the Navigation Act Commonwealth Bank. It opened as a savings Under the 1913 Navigation Act only vessels reg- bank in 1912 and as a trading bank in 1913. It istered in Australia could engage in coastal was intended to cater for wage-earners, small trade, and were required to provide conditions farmers and small investors who were allegedly of employment better than those in most of the ignored by the private banking sector. It was world’s merchant services. The Act was delayed backed by the credit of the Commonwealth trea- by the 1914–18 war and its provisions were not sury and was placed under the control of a implemented until 1920. governor. Other measures The Fusion Party claimedSample that the new bank was a threat to the private banks. But the Com- The Fisher ministry chalked up several other monwealth Bank quickly became popular as a achievements during its term of office. For savings bank, it played a big role in First World example: War finance, and ultimately evolved into a • Penny postage was introduced throughout central bank. Denison Miller, the first Governor, Australia. made sure that the Commonwealth Bank did • The Commonwealth assumed control of the not harm the private banks or trespass on State Northern Territory from South Australia in interests. 1911.

28 Australia, 1890–1914

• Steps were taken to prepare the site for the governments. But Labor found the Constitution national capital. (The design of American a hindrance to the greater realisation of the architect Walter Burley Griffin won the Party’s objectives. Labor wanted to amend the award in an open competition, but was not Constitution so that it could begin to implement adopted until after the Cook government its 1905 objective to extend the ‘industrial came into office.) and economic functions of the state and • The Commonwealth took over the printing municipality’. of a convertible paper currency with a gold Labor’s proposals failed. The government reserve fixed at 25 per cent of the issue. unsuccessfully sought control over a large num- • An Act of 1911 authorised the construction ber of matters, including trade and commerce, of the transcontinental railway from corporations, employment and unemployment, Kalgoorlie to Port Augusta. Built to standard strikes and lockouts, and the settlement of gauge, the line, 1690 km long, was com- industrial disputes. However, the proposals were pleted on 16 November 1917. The capital not overwhelmingly rejected by the people. cost of the ‘iron link’ between east and west Over 49 per cent of the voters gave an affirma- was £6 million.18 tive response to six of the eight alterations asked So the Fisher government achieved a good for in 1911 and 1913. It is interesting to note that deal during its term of office. Very few of its Western Australia supported all eight proposals reforms were repudiated by future non-Labor submittedpages by the Fisher government.

Andrew Fisher (1862–1928)

Andrew Fisher was born in Ayrshire, Scotland, on 29 August 1862. He worked in the coal mines and in 1885 migrated to Queensland. A keen student of the social sciences and economics, he was also active as a trade union leader on the coalfields. In 1893 he entered the Legislative Assembly as Labor member for Gympie and served in the short-lived Dawson ministry in 1899. In 1901 he entered theSample House of Representatives as Labor member for Wide Bay. He became Minister for Trade and Customs in Watson’s 1904 ministry, and Leader of the Labor Party in 1907 on Watson’s resignation. He was Prime Minister on three occasions, November 1908 to June 1909, April 1910 to June 1913, and September 1914 to October 1915. Under Fisher, Labor was established as a national force, the 1910–13 ministry being noted for its achievements in the field of banking, social services and defence. In October 1915 Fisher was appointed to the position of High Commissioner in London which he held until 1921. He died on 22 October 1928, and was survived by his wife, five sons and a daughter.

29 Australia since 1890

A brief Liberal innings, 1913–14 Mineral output also showed a significant increase up to 1914. In particular the output of At the May 1913 election the Liberal (or Fusion) gold, copper, tin and zinc rose during this Party gained a majority of only one seat in the period. In 1909 the federal government offered a House of Representatives. This disappeared bounty to encourage the production of pig-iron after the appointment of a speaker. The govern- or steel made from Australian ore. Soon after, ment was also in a minority in the Senate. BHP began to mine the iron ore deposits near Joseph Cook, who had succeeded to the leader- Whyalla. The ore was used in smelting Broken ship of the Liberal Party in January 1913 on Hill silver-zinc ores at Port Pirie, and also to Deakin’s retirement, took the unprecedented produce iron and steel at Newcastle where BHP step of asking the Governor-General, Sir Ronald opened its first steel works in 1915. Munro-Ferguson, to grant him a double dissolu- tion. But the move operated to the Liberal Party’s disadvantage. Labor was returned to Social life power at the September 1914 election with 42 seats in the Lower House and 31 seats in the Population growth Senate. The population of Australia increased by about a million from 1903 to 1914. This was due to Economic development, 1901–14 both a decline in the death rate as public health improved,pages and a very large immigration intake. Manufacturing continued to grow up to 1914. Between 1906 and 1914 over 390 000 British The main industries were food, drink, clothing, immigrants arrived in Australia, nearly half building materials and the processing of receiving some form of government assistance. primary products. However, although factory However, there were problems in absorbing output was worth £166 million in 1914, pastoral migrants into the work force and unemploy- and agricultural output was worth more than ment was high, especially in the cities. This led 19 £200 million. In 1914 the number of sheep was to a good deal of industrial unrest. still less than the total number before the drought of the 1890s, but improved breeding techniques resulted in woolSample clips that exceeded Communications and transport the highest output before the drought. There Important changes took place in communica- was also a big expansion in wheat farming from tions and transport which began to affect the 1901 to 1914. Yields improved greatly due to everyday life of Australians. new rust-resistant strains developed by William • An expansion in world telegraph and tele- Farrer, and the more widespread use of super- phone systems improved Australia’s phosphate and other chemical fertilisers. Closer commerce and overseas trade. Sydney and land settlement was given a boost by the Melbourne were first connected by tele- replacement of windjammers with coal-burning phone in 1907, and in 1912 the first steam ships, which transported refrigerated automatic telephone exchange was installed cargoes of meat, butter and fruit. at Geelong in Victoria.

30 Australia, 1890–1914

• In the cities transport was mainly by steam Entertainment train and trams. There were steam, cable and horse-drawn trams. With the advent of Entertainment underwent a revolution during electric power, electric trams became this period. At the turn of the century popular common, though the other forms of trans- forms of entertainment included dancing, con- port persisted for some time. certs, magic lantern shows and musical recitals. • Another change was that electric light began The advent of the gramophone and phonograph to replace coal gas lighting in the cities and began to revolutionise family entertainment. For towns and was gradually extended to the first time opera and orchestral music were houses. Cheap electric power did not fully brought into the living room. arrive until 1914, by which time electrical Moreover, silent motion pictures also appliances and refrigerators were beginning arrived on the scene. Most films were made to be used in more affluent homes. overseas, but several were also produced in • The motor car arrived in Australia in the Australia. In 1900 Major Joseph Perry of the early 1900s. Most vehicles were imported Salvation Army produced the world’s first and caused consternation by competing Christian epic, Soldiers of the Cross, on a tennis with horse-drawn carriages and bicycles on court in Melbourne. It had a cast of 600 and cost the streets. Neither cars nor drivers were £600 to make. In 1906 The Story of The Kelly licensed before 1909 when NSW passed the Gang was produced by J. & N. Tait and was shot first Motor Traffic Act. In 1909, too, the mainlypages outdoors. Like Soldiers of the Cross, the model-T Ford (‘Tin Lizzie’) arrived in film was acclaimed for its realism. More than Australia. It soon became popular and, 250 silent feature films were made in Australia with the touring model priced at £275, before the ‘talkies’ of the 1930s. The ‘pictures’ could be afforded by at least middle-class were popular with Australian audiences. They Australians. were shown at first in halls, shops and former • Australians also took a keen interest in the live theatres. By 1920 there were 750 picture invention of the aeroplane. Several enthusi- theatres in the nation. asts experimented with flying machines. Traditional forms of entertainment also The first Australian-built aeroplane to fly remained popular. Opera in particular attracted was made by John Duigan.Sample The first flight large audiences. Dame Nellie Melba (born was made on his farm in Victoria in 1910. Helen Porter Mitchell) gained a worldwide rep- Duigan later served as a captain in the utation as a soprano. Like many talented Australian Flying Corps during the First Australians at this time, she spent many years World War and won the Military Cross for abroad, but returned periodically to perform for his exploits in France. On 29 June 1912 rapt Australian audiences. During the 1914–18 William Hart won Australia’s first air race war she organised charity concerts. In 1927, from Botany Bay to Parramatta Park. during a farewell concert tour, she sang the Victorian-born Harry Hawker was the first national anthem at the opening of Parliament Australian pilot to gain a world reputation House in Canberra. as an aviation pioneer.

31 Australia since 1890

Lawson recognised the talent of youthful Miles Franklin. He tried to have her satirical novel, My Brilliant Career, published in Australia, and when it was rejected he had it published instead in Edinburgh in 1901 with a preface by himself. However, the novel caused embarrassment to some of Miles’s friends and relatives who thought they were caricatured in it. So Miles went to live abroad. Much later, from 1928 to 1931, she had three more novels published about Australia under the name of ‘Brent of Bin Bin’. In A scene from Soldiers of the Cross 1933 she returned to Australia and had ten more Source: Fairfax Photo Library novels published. Andrew Barton (Banjo) Paterson achieved Why was the production of this movie a famepages as a writer of Australian ballads. The Man significant achievement for the Australian from Snowy River and Other Verses, published in film industry? 1895, won enormous popularity. Paterson’s poems ? had immense appeal. They were recited in sub- urban drawing rooms as well as in classrooms, Literature bush homesteads, shearing sheds and drover’s Australia produced some very fine novelists and camps. Banjo also wrote the words of Australia’s poets during this period. They wrote with great ‘unofficial’ national anthem, ‘Waltzing Matilda’. sensitivity and often humour, especially about life Steele Rudd (Arthur Hoey Davis) had great in the bush. But all too oftenSample they received little success with his humorous novels about life on encouragement at home. Henry Lawson, short a small Queensland farm. His first book, On Our story writer and poet, wrote bitterly in 1899: Selection, published in 1899, was immediately successful. He produced further books on the y advice to any young Australian ‘selection’ theme. They later became the subject writer whose talents have been of plays, films and the popular ‘Dad and Dave’ Mrecognised would be to go steerage, radio serial. stow away, swim, and seek London, Yankee- A writer of an entirely different nature was land, or Timbuctoo—rather than stay in Henry Handel (Ethel Florence) Richardson. She Australia till his genius turned to gall, or wrote from a more detached and sophisticated beer. viewpoint than the bush ballad type writers, and became one of Australia’s leading novelists.

32 Australia, 1890–1914

Her main works were Maurice Guest (1908), The Review Getting of Wisdom (1910), and The Fortunes of Richard Mahony, a trilogy comprising Australia 1901–14 was an important period in the history Felix (1917), The Way Home (1925), and Ultima of the Commonwealth. Federation had been Thule (1929). made to work. Basic national aspirations were given legislative expression by the federal parliament. ‘The Commonwealth, from its Sport inception, acted as a further stimulus to nation- Sport continued to gain in popularity through- alist sentiment, and, with the assistance of the out Australia, the climate favouring outdoor States, as a positive agent of national develop- activity. Football was the main winter game in ment.’20 The federal political parties, often all States except NSW and Queensland where acting in concert, began to lay some of the foun- rugby was more popular. Cricket was still the dations of 20th century Australia, including main summer sport, but tennis was also becom- industrial arbitration, tariff protection, the basic ing popular. In 1907 Norman Brookes (from wage, and social welfare. Australian politicians Victoria) and Anthony Wilding (from New were obliged to accept Britain’s control over Zealand) took part in the Davis Cup in England. foreign affairs, but were beginning to take more They had to pay their own fare but they won responsibility for Australia’s own defence. Some the Cup. Brookes also won the Wimbledon of the policies of this period are open to criti- matches. cism.pages For example, the Immigration Restriction Other popular summer sports were sailing Act was blatantly racist, and pension benefits and sculling. So also was swimming. The Cavill were not given to Aborigines and Asians. family promoted the sport and Richard Cavill However, overall, the record in social reform for invented the crawl stroke which was adopted both the Liberals and the Labor Party was an all over the world. Up to the early 1900s bathing impressive one. on public beaches during daylight hours was In 1914 Australia was still far from being a prohibited by law. In 1902 William Gocher chal- nation in the full sense of the word. Despite the lenged the law by swimming at noon at Manly. achievements of the Commonwealth parlia- He was not prosecuted and the restrictive laws ment, parochialism was still strong. People were repealed. Wave-surfingSample was introduced tended to identify more with their State than the and despite disapproval from some people, nation as a whole. The advent of the 1914–18 mixed bathing and ‘sunbathing’ became war was to change this. Indeed, the First World popular on the beaches. For a time neck-to-knee War was to be the first major test of an emerg- bathers had to be worn, but eventually shorter, ing nationhood. more comfortable bathing costumes were allowed after numerous public protests. As beach swimming became more popular, surf life-saving clubs were formed.

33 Australia since 1890

?Review questions

ustralian nationalism tions, partly apprehension of equalitarian social doctrine, a was more than a senti- present reality, partly aspiration belief in equality of opportunity, Ament about a country. It towards an ideal future in and a conviction that in Australia was a complex of ideas and emo- Australia. At its heart was an men had a right to a good life.

G. Greenwood, Australia. A Social and Political History, p. 146

1 What is meant by ‘an equalitarian social 5 See A.G.L. Shaw, The Economic Development of doctrine’? Why was belief in social Australia, Melbourne, 1966, p. 107. 6 N.T. Drohan & J.H. Day (ed.), Readings in equality so strong in Australia? Australian Economics. Studies in Economic ? Growth, Melbourne, 1965, p. 146. 2 In what way was the Labor movement linked to Australian nationalism? Why 7 C.B. Schedvin, Australia and the Great Depres- sion. A Study of Economic Development and Policy did it place so much emphasis on in the 1920s and 1930s, Sydney, 1970, p. 81. collective action and solidarity? Why did 8 For the history of trade unionism, see J.T. it turn to political action? Sutcliffe, A History of Trade Unionism in Australia, Melbourne, 1967. 3 Why was there strong opposition to pages 9 C.M.H. Clark, Select Documents in Australian coloured immigration? In what way was History 1851–1900, Melbourne, 1966, p. 744. this a product of Australian nationalism? 10 J.T. Sutcliffe, A History of Trade Unionism in Australia, p. 126. 4 To what extent did the Commonwealth 11 For a full account of the process of writing the parliament give expression to Australian Constitution see J.A. La Nauze, The Making of nationalism by 1914? the Australian Constitution, Melbourne, 1972. 12 G. Greenwood, Australia. A Social and Political History, Sydney, 1955, p. 197. 13 Sydney Morning Herald, 1 January 1901. Sample14 F. Alexander, Australia Since Federation, Mel- References bourne, 1967, p. 41. 15 H.G. Palmer & J. MacLeod, After the First 1 J.D.B. Miller & B. Jinks, Australian Government Hundred Years, Longman, 1961, p. 44. and Politics. An Introductory Survey, London, 1971, p. 32. 16 See R.J.L. Hawke, Australian Labour Economics Readings, Melbourne, 1967, pp. 62–9. 2 C.M.H. Clark, A Short History of Australia, Sydney, 1986, p. 86. 17 G. Greenwood, op. cit., p. 224. 3 C.M.H. Clark, Select Documents in Australian 18 F.K. Crowley, Australia’s Western Third, London, History, 1851–1900, Melbourne, 1966, p. 603. 1960, p. 182. 4 F. Alexander, Moving Frontiers. An American 19 A.G.L. Shaw, The Economic Development of Theme and its Application to Australian History, Australia, Melbourne 1966, p. 132. Melbourne, 1947, p. 30 et seq. 20 G. Greenwood, op. cit., p. 252.