Volume19

Journalof the NumismaticAs soc ratron of Austraha

2007Conference Papers Coinage of the Libyan Revolt, 241–238 BC

Stephen P Mulligan

Historical background Mediterranean with control over , The Libyan Revolt was a conflict western and the North African between and her former coast12. Carthage had her own military and army that lasted from 241 political classes such as the famous Barcid to 238 BC1-7. It is also known as the family (e.g. and his son ‘’ or the ‘Truceless War’, )13–14. The continuous use of the the latter reflecting the barbarity on both horse as an image on her coinage suggests a sides1,7. It occurred immediately after the strong equestrian and cavalry tradition prolonged First Punic-Roman War that within Punic society15–20. However, probably spanned 23 years from 264 to 241 BC, and due to her limited population and for simple that had taken place on land and sea commercial reasons, during much of her 8-11 around Sicily . history Carthage appears to have relied There are two sources of evidence for heavily on mercenary armies when the need the Libyan Revolt; the historical account arose21–22. This was particularly in the era in of Polybius1 and the numismatic evidence which she produced coinage, and there is an of the coins that were issued by the rebels. obvious link, because the most convenient Coins have a special symbolism in this method of payment for a mercenary army war, which began as a financial dispute was coinage. The were drawn between a city of merchants, her from around the Carthaginian home- mercenary army and the heavily taxed land populated by native Libyans, who populace. They show us the imagery with accounted for the largest numbers, which the rebels chose to portray , as well as Greeks, Celts, , themselves. Ligurians, Campanians, Balearic Islanders Carthage was built on the North and Iberians1. It was the mercenary forces African coast on a promontory just north of employed during the twenty-three year long Cap Bon. The city was founded in First Punic-Roman War that were 814 BC by Elissa (Dido) and other refugees subsequently involved in the Libyan escaping from political turmoil in their Revolt. former home city of Tyre in Phoenicia2-6. At the end of the with Carthage was in a very central and highly , the mercenary army was repatriated strategic location for access, trade and from the last Carthaginian bases of Erice naval control within the Mediterranean and Lilybaeum in western Sicily back to (Fig. 1). Carthage1,7. The Carthaginian surrender Carthage was primarily a mercantile had been signed from his stronghold in city and became the dominant power in the Erice by Hamilcar Barca, who had

JNAA 19 2008 17 Stephen P Mulligan

Figure 1. Map of the Mediterranean illustrating the Figure 2. Map of Libya (modern Northern ) strategic location of Carthage. showing principal locations in the Libyan Revolt. remained undefeated, but in stalemate. military and political figure, to resolve this Hamilcar returned immediately to Carthage payment dispute, the soldiers escalated and left his deputy, General Gisco, to their demands and the negotiations failed. organise the repatriation of the troops Finally, Carthage dispatched Gisco (Table 1). Gisco did this deliberately in with full payment for the mercenaries. Two small units so that the soldiers would be mercenary soldiers, and Spendius, paid their dues, and then dispersed back to emerged as leaders, as arguments developed their respective homelands to prevent the among the different ethnic and language build-up of large numbers of troops in the groups of the mercenaries. The two mother city and the unruly behaviour that ringleaders quashed any dissent in the might be expected. Regrettably for atmosphere of mob rule that had developed. Carthage, this is precisely what was to The mercenaries took Gisco hostage and transpire, when the authorities in Carthage seized all the Carthaginian money from were either unable or unwilling to pay the him. Then 20,000 mercenaries marched to dues to the soldiers. Hence, large numbers Carthage and made camp at , 15 of soldiers congregated in the city, with kilometres from the Punic capital. resulting problems in law and order. The rebels are reported to have had The Carthaginian authorities then ample supplies and finances to enable them expelled the troops from Carthage to Sicca to conduct a prolonged campaign. Among about 160 kilometres to the west (Fig. 2), their initial forays they besieged Utica and allowing them to take their baggage and Hippocritae in the north. Hanno was placed families with them. records that in command of the Carthaginian forces, the soldiers were each given a gold stater and while he evidently had organisational (Fig. 3) to cover their immediate expenses. ability in procuring new soldiers for Following their arrival in Sicca, and Carthage, he was incompetent in the field. during the course of the subsequent He lost significant battles while trying to deliberations with Hanno, a leading lift the sieges of Utica and Hippocritae.

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found himself in difficulties. Navaras, a Numidian prince who had traditional ties with the Carthaginians, boldly offered himself and his cavalry force to Hamilcar. In both this and subsequent battles against the rebel forces, Navaras was to contribute significantly to the Carthaginian success. Figure 3. Carthage electrum stater, c.300 BC (7.3 g). After his victory over Spendius, Hamilcar Obv: Head of Tanit (the consort of Baal) left, made an important decision to offer crowned with corn wreath, wearing earring with immunity to any captured rebels who pendant and necklace, dotted border. Rev: Free horse agreed to either join his army, or go their standing right, double exergue line, one dot before own way, as long as they did not take part horse’s front leg, dotted border. cf Sear 6462, Jenkins group V cf No.245, SNG Copenhagen 976. in any further action against Carthage. Hamilcar’s leniency and offer of immunity clearly had a major impact on the Hamilcar Barca was then given rebel leaders, who feared mass defection. command of the Carthaginian forces. At Mathos, Spendius and Autaritus determined this stage of the revolt the rebel forces on a course of committing atrocities that under Mathos were controlling the siege of would increase the hatred on each side to Hippocritae, while Spendius and Autaritus such an extent, that compromise was no were at Tunis from where they were able longer possible. This was begun by cutting to prevent the Carthaginians from leaving off the hands of Gisco, followed by his Carthage. Hamilcar and his troops further mutilation and murder, and then managed to escape from this entrapment the same torture and murder of 700 by crossing the Macaras River at night, Carthaginian hostages that they held. making use of a wind-assisted tidal At this time, there was mutiny in change. On the plain beside the Macaras Sardinia. Polybius reports that all River, where he used his cavalry and Carthaginian soldiers stationed there were elephants to full effect, Hamilcar then taken prisoner, tortured and murdered1. defeated the rebel army led by Spendius. As a result, the Carthaginians suffered So complete was this victory, that where complete loss of control over the island. possible, the mercenaries subsequently Shortly after, Utica and Hippocritae avoided engaging in battle on the plains, defected to the rebels. Mathos and preferring to fight on hilly terrain where Spendius then laid siege to Carthage Hamilcar and his troops, cavalry and herself. Rome refused to occupy either elephants no longer had such an Sardinia or Utica despite invitations by the advantage. rebels to do so, but loyally observed her The next major battle, according to treaty engagements, returned remaining Polybius, was located in an unidentified prisoners from the Sicilian (First Punic- place described as ‘a plain surrounded by Roman) War, and gave permission to her mountains’1 (7–8). The rebel forces under merchants to export all requirements with Spendius had been joined by Numidian ‘prompt and friendly attention’ to requests and Libyan reinforcements, and Hamilcar from Carthage.

JNAA 19 2008 19 Stephen P Mulligan

Figure 4. Siculo-Punic AR tetradrachm; Carthage Figure 5. Siculo-Punic AR tetradrachm; Tanit/Horse series, c.410–395 BC (17.60 g). Obv: Forepart of series c.320-310 BC (18.84 g). Obv: Wreathed head bridled horse right; above, Nike flying right holding of Tanit/Persephone left wearing triple pendant wreath and caduceus over horse's head; barley grain earring and necklace, four dolphins swimming right. Punic legend QRTHDST. Rev: Palm tree with two around Rev: Horse's head left, palm tree behind, date clusters. Punic legend MHNT. Punic legend MMHNT below. Jenkins, Punic 13 (O3'/R13; this coin listed as ‘private collection S.6434, SNG Lloyd 1633, Jenkins SNR 56 [Series 3a], 183 Y’, pl.3, 13Y); SNG Copenhagen (Carthage) 72 (same obv. die) [O53/R161]. http://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=69838.

Hamilcar, Navaras and Hannibal (not series of tetradrachms known as the Barca) scoured the country intercepting ‘Carthage series’ were produced17. Jenkins supplies of the rebels and harassing them identified an Akragine tetradrachm that in many skirmishes. Any captured enemy was overstruck on this type, indicating that soldiers were thrown to the elephants and it was struck before 406 BC when Akragas trampled to death. By these tactics, the was destroyed18. These coins were produced rebels were reduced to famine and, as a with twelve obverse dies, some of which consequence, cannibalism. They were have the name of the city QRTHDST (Qart finally surrounded and forced to engage Hadast meaning New City, i.e. Carthage) Hamilcar in the famous ‘Battle of The inscribed on one side. Because of the Saw’ that decimated the rebel army. The inscription of the city’s name on this final victory for the Carthaginians came series, it has been speculated that these with the siege of Tunis, the battle of Leptis coins were actually minted in Carthage Minor with the capture of Mathos, and although most have been found in Sicily. the siege and retaking of Utica and Other coins in this series have MHNT Hippocritae by the finally united forces of (Machanat meaning army24), and some Hamilcar and Hanno in 238 BC. have both inscriptions (Fig. 4). During the following century up to Coinage of the Libyan Revolt the early part of the First Punic War Carthage probably began to issue (261–241 BC), there were large issues coins15–20 in the latter part of the fifth of gold, electrum and silver coins15–20, 25. century following their intervention in the The tetradrachms termed `Siculo-Punic’ conflict between Segesta (which they were produced in two basic designs on an supported) and Selinus in 410 BC23. The Attic-weight standard18. It is generally

20 JNAA 19 2008 Coinage of the Libyan Revolt, 241–238 BC

Figure 6. Siculo-Punic AR tetradrachm; Herakles/ Figure 7(a). Siculo-Punic AR tetradrachm; `Dido' Horse series c..300–290 BC (16.62g). Obv: Head of series. This and the 2 following coins are from three young Melqart or Herakles wearing lion skin right. different dies of different styles. The prowling lion Rev: Horse's head left, palm tree behind, caduceus bears striking similarity to the Libyan Revolt shekel. before, Punic legend MHSBM below, dotted border. Obv: Head of Tanit (Dido). Rev: Prowling lion, palm S.6436, SNG Lloyd 1651, Jenkins SNR 57, [Series 5b] tree with date clusters in background, Punic legend 329–331/362 [O107/R295]. SMMHNT in exergue.

Figure 7(b). Siculo-Punic tetradrachm; `Dido' series. Figure 7(c). Siculo-Punic tetradrachm; `Dido' Obv: Head of Tanit (Dido) right. Rev: Prowling lion series. Obv: Head of Tanit (Dido) left. Rev: Prowling right, palm tree behind, Punic legend SMMHNT in lion left, palm tree behind, Punic legend SMMHNT exergue. in exergue. considered that these coins were minted at reverse prowling lion image was used by various locations in Sicily at times of war the rebels for their shekel (Figs 7a–c). for the payment of mercenary forces. The first basic design was the head of Tanit, the Carthaginian shekel and dishekel, host consort of Baal, on the obverse and a horse coins for the Libyan Revolt silver issues or horse head with a palm tree and a range Sometime during the course of the First of other symbols on the reverse (Fig 5). Punic-Roman War, the Carthaginian State The second, had the head of Herakles on and its monetary authority began issuing the obverse and a horse head on the coins on the shekel standard of 7.6 grams. reverse, below which there is typically an These were originally of relatively pure silver inscription usually translated as ‘from the but progressively the silver was degraded, camp’ (Fig. 6). Apart from these two basic and much of the issue is classed as billon. groups, another small series of tetra- The progressive degradation of the silver drachms known as the ‘Dido’ series is of content is consistent with the increasing interest for its rarity and artistic merit, and financial burden caused by the war and is relevant to the Libyan Revolt as the attrition on the Carthaginian treasury.

JNAA 19 2008 21 Stephen P Mulligan

Figure 8. Carthage AR shekel c.300 BC (19mm, 7.56 Figure 9. Carthage, First Punic War billon double g, 7h). Obv: Wreathed head of Tanit left. Rev: Horse shekel (dishekel) c.264–241 BC (12.61 gm, 12h). standing right, head left; palm tree behind, star to right. Obv: Wreathed head of Tanit left. Rev: Horse standing MAA 36; SNG Copenhagen 141; Jenkins, pt. 4, pl. 16, 3. right; large star above. Jenkins & Lewis pl. 27, 7; MAA 39 (reduced triple shekel); SNG Copenhagen 185.

There were two main coin types in this Robinson had the opportunity to study series, a shekel (Fig. 8) and a dishekel and record two coin hoards in particular. (Fig. 9). The shekel shows the head of Tanit One was believed to have been found in on the obverse, and on the reverse a horse Tunis in 1928 and formed the basis of the standing looking back with a palm tree in 1943 article26 in which the association with the background and a star in front. The the Libyan Revolt was proposed. A second dishekel of approximately 15 grams shows hoard, containing some precious metal the head of Tanit on the obverse and a coins, was discovered near Tunis in 1952 standing horse with a star above on the and allowed further interpretation for the reverse. These two coin types were the host 195327 and 195628 papers. He divided the coins for many of the shekels and dishekels coins into two main groups based on these minted by the rebels. It is likely that the hoards, together with coins in the British large consignment taken by Gisco to Sicca Museum collection, and coins held at that for payment to his troops, and subsequently time by the English collector RB Lewis seized by the rebels, was largely reminted. (Table 2). The 1952 hoard is reported to have been found by a man ploughing his Attribution and classification of Libyan field 30 kilometres from Tunis, and Revolt coinage contained 117 coins of which there were 5 Numismatic evidence of the Libyan electrum, 41 base silver Carthaginian types Revolt was substantially re-evaluated in a (Fig. 10) and 71 base silver Libyan types in series of important articles written by ESG a pot of Phoenician/Punic fabric. A high Robinson in the Numismatic Chronicle proportion of these coins were over-struck between 1943 and 195626–28. He analysed on host coins, mostly of Carthaginian origin. and then attributed the series of coins from hoard evidence. Prior to this, coins bearing Libyan Revolt silver shekel and dishekel the inscription ΛIBYΩN had been attrib- The Libyan Revolt shekel (Figs 11 and uted to tribal groups in North Africa15, 29, 12) and dishekel (Figs 13 and 14) are in a and the association with the Libyan Revolt sense the most characteristic of the issues had not been conclusively drawn. of the Libyan mercenaries, as many have

22 JNAA 19 2008 Coinage of the Libyan Revolt, 241–238 BC

Figure 10. Carthage, Libyan Revolt billon shekel Figure 11. Carthage, Libyan Revolt billon shekel, c.241–238 BC (7.336g). Obv: Head of Tanit left native type c.241–238 BC (27mm, 7.6 gm). Obv: wreathed with corn, wearing necklace and triple Head of Herakles left wearing lion skin. Rev: Lion pendant earring, dotted border. Rev: Horse standing walking right; Punic M above, ΛIBYΩN in exergue. Robinson, Num Chron 1953, Pl.III ‘Libyan / Native’ type; right, Punic letter M beneath horse's body, three pellets Carradice & La Niece, ‘The Libyan War and Coinage’, Num Chron of triangular arrangement between horse's hind legs. 1988, 1; MAA 53; SNG Copenhagen 239; Müller 349. cf S.6539, Robinson NC (1953) No. 11-14 [p28 Pl.II,9] SNG Cop. 237.

ΛIBYΩN written on the coinage15–16, 29. These will be the focus for most of this overview.

Iconography of Libyan Revolt silver coinage Obverse: Herakles and Zeus. A male head replaces the female head of Tanit on Figure 12. Carthage, Libyan Revolt billon didrachm or rebel coinage. Tanit is the dominant shekel, native type c.241–238 BC (7.2 g). Obv: Head of obverse image on a very high proportion Herakles to left wearing lion skin. Rev: ΛIBYΩN, lion of Carthaginian gold, electrum, silver and prowling right; Punic M above. Coarsely overstruck on bronze coinage, and clearly held a Carthaginian single shekel, typical of many coins of this issue. religious and sacred significance for Robinson, Num Chron 1953, No.22 Pl.III ‘Libyan/Native’Type; Carthage as her principal deity30. The only SNG Copenhagen 241–242. important Carthaginian coin production that does not have the head of Tanit is the icon representing power and military second basic type of Siculo-Punic prowess. There are close similarities tetradrachm which has the head of between the prowling lion used on the Herakles/Melquart in the style of reverse of the Libyan Revolt shekel and the Alexander. This head of Herakles is the Siculo-Punic tetradrachms referred to as image used on the obverse of the Libyan the ‘Dido’ series (Figs. 7a–c). The ‘Dido’ Revolt shekel. The head of Zeus is the series is a rare and stylistically different image on the dishekel. Both have a group of coins that have the head of Tanit in military connotation rather than a female a very different form, with a Phrygian cap deity, which was probably important for on the observe and the prowling lion, with the mercenaries. palm tree in the background and below the Reverse: prowling lion and charging bull. exergue line the inscription SMMHNT in The prowling lion image is very likely an Punic (soldiery24). This type of coin was

JNAA 19 2008 23 Stephen P Mulligan

Figure 13 (a). Carthage, Libyan Revolt billon double Figure 13 (b). Carthage, Libyan Revolt billon double shekel (dishekel), native type, c.241–238 BC (12.2 shekel (dishekel), native type, c.241–238 BC (12.2 gm). gm). Obv: Head of Zeus left, ΛIBYΩN left, Punic M Obv: Head of Zeus left, ΛIBYΩN left, Punic M right. right. Rev: Bull butting right; Punic M above; Rev: bull butting to right; Punic M above; ΛIBYΩN in ΛIBYΩN in exergue. exergue. The star on the host coin typically above the Robinson, Num Chron 1953, Pl.III ‘Libyan/Native’ type. horse as seen in figure 9 is very clear on this piece. Robinson, Num Chron 1953, Pl.III ‘Libyan/Native’ type

of the minotaur in Crete, the abduction of Europa by Zeus, sacred bull worship in Egypt, through to cave paintings in Lascaux, bull-fighting and even in the modern era as the image for the New York Stock Exchange. Indeed the sculptor of Figure 14. The Barcids in Spain, Carthago Nova this New York icon described his Circa AR dishekel 221–206BC. Obv: Male head with ‘charging bull’ as a symbol of the ‘strength wreath right (?Hamilcar Barca), club behind; dotted and power of the American people’31, very border. Rev: Elephant walking right, exergue line; likely similar to the imagery invoked in dotted border. the ancient world but without the additional sacred element to the produced from only three obverse dies, and symbolism. This is perhaps exemplified was presumably given to a particular elite by the myth of Zeus taking the form of a group within the Carthaginian mercenary bull for the abduction of Europa, which is force for whom this imagery was especially pertinent for the Libyan Revolt dishekel, relevant. The appearances of the prowling as both sides of the coin draw possible lion on the Libyan Revolt shekel are clearly reference to this. The charging bull was borrowed from this group of coins. also used on bronze coinage from Sardinia The charging bull is the image used issued by the rebel forces32. on the reverse of the Libyan Revolt dishekel. The bull is a very common image Inscriptions: Mem and ΛIBYΩ N of power from the ancient through to the The most typical feature of Libyan modern world. Innumerable stories Revolt coinage is the almost invariable use through the ages illustrate this symbolism, of the Punic M (‘mem’). A variety of with examples such as the epic of proposals have been put forward regarding Gilgamesh in ancient Sumeria, the myths the meaning of mem. One theory contends

24 JNAA 19 2008 Coinage of the Libyan Revolt, 241–238 BC that it stands for Mathos, one of the leaders linguistically diverse group. Polybius of the rebellion. While this theory has emphasises this point on several occasions, some romantic appeal, it does appear to and highlights the impossibility of emphasise the role of Mathos dispropor- communicating with the entire group of tionately compared to that of the other mercenaries due to the many languages rebel leaders, at least as far as they are spoken. He also talks about the opportunity referred to by Polybius. However, use of for trouble makers to exploit this to their mem was common on Siculo-Punic advantage by mistranslation in order to tetradrachms18. MHNT (‘Machanat’24) undermine the Carthaginian position, appears on the first series of coins issued especially during the deliberations with by Carthage when they came to the Hanno in Sicca. assistance of Segesta in her conflict with Selinus in 410 BC, and issued in the period Libyan Revolt bronze 410–390 BC (‘The Carthage Series’— Most bronze coinage associated with Jenkins dies 1–12)18. MHNT continued to the Libyan Revolt is believed to have been be used on Siculo-Punic tetradrachms minted in Sardinia. In fact, there appears to over the following 100 years, and on have been an increase in minting activity occasions contracted to M, the form used at the time of the Revolt32. The reasons for by the Libyans. Hence, it almost certainly the regional variation in metal use, i.e. refers to the Libyan mercenary forces as bronze in Sardinia and silver in Libya, are ‘Machanat’. intriguing but unclear. The Libyan Revolt dishekel and In contrast to the military motifs used shekel also commonly have ‘ΛIBYΩN’ on the Libyan Revolt silver pieces, the shown on the coinage 15–16, 29. Polybius, bronze coins have mainly iconography writing almost 100 years later, uses this with agricultural themes. They retain the terminology to refer to both the rebels and head of Tanit as the obverse design. The also the region. It is probable that the same Sardinian bull image was probably linked meanings existed in 241 BC, and gave the to its use in North Africa32. Three other rebels the opportunity to publicise their reverse types are a single ear of corn, three position to the world at large with Greek as ears of corn with mem above, and the the lingua franca at the time. Furthermore, plough. Some three-eared corn types also this would have given the rebels and their have an inverted crescent over a large dot. supporters a distinctly non-Carthaginian A high proportion of plough-type bronze identity for their separatist movement, and coins contain arsenical copper, a material provide a sense of unification for the uncommon in ancient bronze coins. This Libyans and the population under their group of coins was discussed by Carradice control. and La Niece when they had the The use of both Punic and Greek opportunity to study a new hoard which epigraphy most likely reflects the dominant established the association between these languages used by the rebels, and the most three types and the silver issues of the widely spoken and understood among this Libyan Revolt.33

JNAA 19 2008 25 Stephen P Mulligan

Over-striking and source of metal and Aftermath and epilogue coins The Libyan Revolt was a major ordeal A highly characteristic feature of the for Carthage, that brought the city-state to coins of the Libyan revolt is the poor the limit of her military and financial striking of the coins, which are often (if capacity. This struggle for her survival not invariably) over-struck on host occurred when she was already burdened Carthaginian coins26. It is possible this from the prolonged First Punic-Roman simply reflects minting by individuals who War and the loss of Sicily. There were a lacked experience in the context of an number of major outcomes from the army camp striking coins with the rebel Libyan Revolt that amplified these effects dies, as the host coins became available. and had long-term consequences. However, these coins are so frequently Almost immediately after the end of found to be poorly struck that it is possible the Libyan Revolt, when Carthage that this may have been done deliberately, regained control of Libya, Sardinia was with the intention of defacing the host seized by Rome on a minor pretext. The Carthaginian coins as a statement of reason for this about-face is unclear, as defiance by the rebels. earlier in the conflict Rome had declined Regarding the sources of money and invitations by the rebels to occupy either metal, we know from Polybius that at the Sardinia or Utica when they came under time when Gisco was taken hostage in complete rebel control. Indeed, Rome had Sicca, he had with him all the funds owed given Carthage assistance during the to the mercenary force for their campaigns course of the war in the form of prisoner in Sicily. This was likely a considerable returns and directions to her merchants to sum and would have consisted of coins in supply Carthage’s needs. In any event, production in Carthage at the time, i.e. the Carthage lost both Sicily and Sardinia in a dishekel and shekel discussed above, short period of time and, as a consequence, which would account for the high rate of suffered an enormous loss of land, metal coins overstruck on these host coins. In and agricultural resources, which adversely addition, Polybius tells us that at the affected her trade. outbreak of the conflict, many of the At the same time and also as a result of population contributed items of value, the Revolt, there appears to have been a such as gold and jewellery, which shift in political power and influence provided enough resources for a prolonged within the Carthaginian city-state4. engagement. This may account for much Hamilcar and the Barcid family decided of the remaining source of metal for the that their territorial losses necessitated a rebel coin issues. The rebels may have also more expansionist philosophy. Hamilcar, had access to metal production from his son-in-law Hasdrubal, and his then certain mines in Sardinia, and possibly nine-year old son Hannibal sailed to Iberia also southern Spain, in addition to what where they established Barcid Spain. They they could acquire from other allies with established control over much of southern whom they shared language and ethnicity. Spain and its rich resources such as the

26 JNAA 19 2008 Coinage of the Libyan Revolt, 241–238 BC mines of the Rio Tinto and trading routes mercenary soldiers, but also a high level of within the Iberian Peninsula and the Straits political, diplomatic, oratorical and of Gibraltar. This base in Spain, of course, organisational ability. became the base from which Hannibal launched his invasion of Italy. Acknowledgements Coins were issued in Barcid Spain34 The author would like to thank Colin and Carthago Nova, usually with a male Pitchfork, Bob Climpson and Jim Noble of head obverse with several thought to be Noble Numismatics, Sydney (Bob the image of Hamilcar, Hasdrubal and Climpson photographed most of the coins. Hannibal respectively. Some have an Figures 5, 6, 7a, 7b, 8, 9, 10 and 14 are elephant on the reverse, sometimes with, from Noble Numismatics Auction but more commonly without, a mahout. catalogue #64, July 2000, The Stephen P. This imagery has typically been attributed Mulligan Collection), and acknowledges to the Carthaginian use of the elephant in Classical Numismatic Group for coin warfare35. However, the description by images from www.cngcoins.com for Polybius of captured Libyan rebels being Figures 4 and 7c. trampled to death by elephants provides us with another interpretation, the use of References elephants as an instrument of terrorism 1. Polybius. The histories, Volume 1. Loeb and intimidation. The elephant image may Classical Library. have represented a means of instilling 2. Gsell, Stephane (1918–1924) Histoire ancienne compliance in the conquered population as de l’Afrique du Nord. Tomes I–VIII. Hachette, Paris. well as serving as an ongoing reminder of 3. Warmington, BH (1960) Carthage. Barnes and the power and authority of the occupying Noble, New York. Barcid army. 4. Picard, GC and Picard C (1968). Carthage. On a final note regarding the rebels Sidgwick and Jackson, London. themselves, and as noted by Robinson28, 5. Lancel, Serge (1995). Carthage: A history. the production of a coinage suggests a Blackwell. 6. Fantar, M.H. (1998) Carthage: The Punic city. higher level of organisational and political Alif, Tunis. stability and sophistication than is often 7. Hoyos D. (2007) Truceless war. Carthage’s fight suggested by Polybius. His history on for survival, 241 to 237BC. Brill, Leiden. occasions diverges into philosophical 8. Lazenby, J. F. (1996). The first Punic war. discussion regarding ‘the great difference Stanford. in character between a confused herd of 9. Bagnall, Nigel (1999). The . Pimlico. 10.Goldsworthy, Adrian (2001). The Punic wars. barbarians and men who have been Cassell, London. brought up in an educated, law-abiding 11.Caven, Brian (1992). The Punic wars. Barnes & and civilised community’1. While this may Noble, New York. hold true for a substantial number of the 12.Tsirkin YB. The economy of Carthage. pp mercenaries who had only known the life 125–135, in Lipinski, E. (Ed.) (1988) Carthago. of a soldier in the ranks, it clearly did not Studia VI. Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 26, Uitgeverij Peeters, Leuven. apply to all of them. There was obviously 13.Hoyos, Dexter (2003). Hannibal’s dynasty: a group, including the named individual power and politics in the Western Mediterranean, rebel leaders, with not only capabilities as 247–183 BC. Routledge, London.

JNAA 19 2008 27 Stephen P Mulligan

14.Lancel, Serge (1998). Hannibal. Blackwell, 28.Robinson ESG. The Libyan hoard (1952). Oxford. Numismatic Chronicle. 1956, Vol XVI: pp 9–14. 15.Muller LF. Numismatique de l’Afrique du Nord. Plates I. Copenhagen, 1860–1874. 29.Manganaro G. (1992) Per la cronologia delle 16.Alexandropoulos J. (2000) Les monnaies de emissioni a leggenda Λιβυωυ, in Numismatique l’Afrique du Nord. Presses Universitaires du et historie economique phéniciennes et puniques. Mirail, Toulouse. Hackens T and Moucharte G (Ed), Studia 17.Jenkins GK and Lewis RB. (1963) Carthaginian Phoenicia IX, Universitaire Catholique de gold and electrum coinage. Royal Numismatic Louvain, Louvain-La-Neuve, pp 93–106. Society, London. 30.Moscati, S (1968). The world of the Phoenicians. 18.Jenkins GK. Coins of Punic Sicily. Swiss Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London. Numismatic Review reprint 1997, from original 31.McFadden RD. Soho gift to Wall St: A 3 1/2-ton articles Part 2 SNR 53, 1974 and Part 3 SNR bronze bull. The New York Times. December 16, 56, 1977. 1989 (Accessed on-line 24 February, 2008). 19.Manfredi LI (1995) Monete puniche. Repertorio 32.Visona P. (1992) Carthaginian bronze coinage in Epigrafico e Numismatico delle Leggende Sardinia. in Numismatique et historie Puniche. Bollettino di numismatica. Monografia economique phéniciennes et puniques. Hackens 6. Ministero per i beni culturali e ambientali, T and Moucharte G (Ed), Studia Phoenicia IX, Roma. Universitaire Catholique de Louvain, Louvain- 20.Noble Numismatics. Carthaginian and Siculo- La-Neuve,, pp 121–132. Punic coinage. The Stephen P. Mulligan 33.Carradice IA and La Niece S. (1988 ) The Libyan collection. Auction catalogue #64A. 2000 pp war and coinage: a new hoard and the evidence 147–176. of metal analysis. Numismatic Chronicle, 148: 21.Brizzi G. Chapitre 9. L’armée et la guerre. pp pp 33–52, Plates 7–12. 303–315, in Krings, Veronique (Ed) (1995) La 34.Robinson ESG (1956) Punic coins of ancient Civilisation Phénicienne et Punique. E.J. Brill, Spain, and their bearing on the Roman Leiden. Republican series. Oxford. 22.Yalichev, Serge (1997) Mercenaries of the 35.Scullard, H. H. (1974). The elephant in the Greek Ancient World. Constable, London. and Roman world. Cornell University Press, 23.Diodorus Siculus (Walton) (1999). Library of Ithaca, New York. history: Books XXI-XXXII. (Loeb Classical Library). Harvard Univerity Press, Cambridge, Stephen Mulligan is Senior Staff Specialist Massachusetts. Haematologist at Royal North Shore Hospital, 24.Krahmalkov CR. 2000 Studia Phoenicia XV Phoenician—Punic dictionary. Orientalia Director of Haematology at Symbion Pathology Lovaniensia Analecta 90. Peeters, Leuven. and Adjunct Associate Professor at University of 25.Mildenberg L. (1989) Punic coinage on the eve Sydney. He has had a long-standing interest in of the first Punic war against Rome—a Carthaginian history and numismatics. reconsideration, in Lipinski, E., and Devijver, H. (Eds) The Punic Wars. Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta, Peeters, Leuven, pp 5–14. 26.Robinson ESG. The coinage of the Libyans and kindred Sardinian issues. Numismatic Chronicle. 1943, Sixth Series, Vol III: pp 1–13, Plates I and II. 27.Robinson ESG. A hoard of coins of the Libyans. Numismatic Chronicle. 1953, Sixth Series, Vol XIII: pp 27–32 Plates II–III. (see Tables next page)

28 JNAA 19 2008 Coinage of the Libyan Revolt, 241–238 BC

Principal named Figures in the Libyan Revolt (from Polybius)

Libyan Mathos – Libyan freeman and member of the mercenary force Spendius – Campanian runaway Roman slave Autaritus – Leader of the Gauls Zarzas – Libyan Carthaginian Hanno – Carthaginian statesman, head of family and political faction Hamilcar Barca – Leading Carthaginian general and defender Undefeated in 1st Punic-Roman War Founder of Barcid Spain, Father of Hannibal Barca Navaras – Numidian Prince and ally of Carthage Came to aid of Hamilcar with his cavalry during the campaign. Hannibal (not Barca) – Carthaginian general Appointed by troops to replace Hanno and assist Hamilcar Gisco – Carthaginian general, deputy to Hamilcar in Sicily Repatriated troops from Sicily Envoy to negotiate with troops prior to Revolt, taken hostage Later tortured and murdered as atrocities escalated

Table 1.

Classification and denominations of Libyan Revolt coins I. Carthaginian Types Electrum – Three-half-shekel pieces – Half-shekels Base Silver – Three-shekel pieces – Double shekels (dishekels) – Shekels Bronze II. Libyan / Native Types Base Silver – Double shekels (dishekels) – Shekels Bronze The ESG Robinson Classification of Libyan Revolt Coins (from Numismatic Chronicle, 1953 and 1956).

Table 2.

JNAA 19 2008 29 30 JNAA 19 2008