READING IN THE INTERMEDIATE PHASE FOR ZULU L2
BY
ESTELLE RASSMANN
MINI-DISSERTATION
submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
in
APPLIED LINGUISTICS AND LITERARY THEORY
in the
Department of Applied Linguistics and Literary Theory
at the
RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY
JULY 2003
SUPERVISOR: DR M. PIENAAR ii
I declare that, with the exception of such assistance as has been acknowledged, the dissertation hereby submitted for the degree of Master of Arts, is my own composition and has not previously been submitted by me for a degree at another university.
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ESTELLE RASSMANN JULY 2003 R ! uU
AFRIKAANSE UNIVER SZI4e4 Not EM ORA N
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VAN: Mev Lawrence, FAKULTEIT LETTERE EN WYSBEGEERTE
DATUM: 04/04/30
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Mev. MJ Lawrence
EKSAMENAFDELING: FAKULTEIT LETTERE EN WYSBEGEERTE [RAUDOK. SK VR PR. FINAL GEBINDE KOPIEE. Finaal gebinde kopiee (Eng)] iii
ABSTRACT
It is the contention of this study that historical factors surrounding education and the teaching of African languages in South Africa have led to there being deficiencies in second-language Zulu courses for learners of diverse language and cultural groups in primary schools. The focus of this investigation is on the authentic cultural content of courses and the application of reading research from Applied Linguistics to such courses.
The research concerned with second-language learning, reading, reading comprehension, cultural schemata and intercultural competence is examined in this study. An application of this research to Zulu second-language teaching materials, in order to demonstrate ways in which different kinds of reading and cultural schemata can be taught to ten to fourteen year-old L2 learners with limited vocabulary and linguistic competence in Zulu, is made within a single teaching theme.
The study illustrates ways in which reading is a particularly effective teaching device in the second-language Zulu classroom and that multi-level tasks can be devised which promote the development of reading skills and strategies, the textual as well as the intercultural competence of diverse groups of learners. iv
PREFACE
The use of pronouns
Within the context of this dissertation the pronoun she has been used and should be assumed to have generic reference. In direct quotations the pronoun he has been retained.
Spelling
The British spelling system has been used in this study. In direct quotations the spelling of the author or publisher has been retained.
The use of abbreviations
The following abbreviations have been put to use in this study:
C1 The culture of the mother tongue C2 The culture of the second or foreign language C3 The 'third' perspective of the C1 and C2 that enables learners to take both an insider's and outsider's view on those cultures CHE Christian Higher Education FL Foreign language or L2 taught through the medium of the L1 LEA Language Experience Approach L1 First language (i.e. mother tongue) L2 Second, third, fourth, additional or foreign language V
CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview of the teaching of reading in schools 1 1.2 Background and history of the teaching of Zulu as a second language in primary schools 3 1.2.1 Prior to 1994 3 1.2.2 Post 1994 6 1.2.3 Choice of second language 7 1.2.4 Change in teachers of African languages 7 1.2.5 Cultural content of teaching materials 7 1.2.6 The influence of structural linguistics 11 1.2.7 Second language learners in the ten to fourteen year-old age group 11 1.3 Problem statement 13 1.4 Purpose of this study 13 1.5 Overview of the study and outline of chapters 15
CHAPTER TWO CULTURE AND CULTURAL SCHEMATA
2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Culture and language learning and teaching 17 2.3 Culture — definitions and characteristics 20 2.3.1 Characteristics of Culture 22 2.3.2 Intercultural Communication 23 2.3.3 Acculturation 23 2.3.4 Cultural Diffusion 24 2.3.5 Cultural Beliefs and Values 24 2.3.6 World View 25 2.4 Cultural Schemata 26 2.4.1 Cultural Schemata and L2 Learning Materials 27 2.5 Teaching Cultural Schemata 29 2.6 Conclusion 32 vi
CHAPTER THREE READING
3.1 Approaches and Models of Reading 33 3.1.1 Transmission Model 34 3.1.2 Translation Model 34 3.1.3 Interactive Model 36 3.1.3.1 Bottom-up and Top-down 37 3.1.3.2 Schema theory 38 3.1.3.3 Macro and Micro structures 39 3.1.4 Transactionist Approach 40 3.1.4.1 Efferent and Aesthetic reading 41 3.2 Types of reading 42 3.2.1 Browsing 43 3.2.2 Skimming 43 3.2.3 Searching 44 3.2.4 Scanning 44 3.2.5 Careful reading 44 3.3 Reading Skills and Strategies 45 3.3.1 Skills 45 3.3.2 Strategies 47 3.3.2.1 Metacognitive strategies 48 3.3.2.2 Cognitive strategies 49 Word recognition or decoding 50 Automaticity 50 Vocabulary acquisition 50 Grammatical skills 51 Cohesion 52 3.4 Texts 53 3.4.1 Appropriate texts 53 3.4.2 Authentic texts 54 3.4.3 Textual Schemas 55 3.5 Motivation and Engaged reading 56 3.6 Reading Comprehension Instruction 57 3.6.1 Factors and skills 57 vii
3.6.1.1 Decoding or fluency in word recognition 58 3.6.1.2 Linguistic knowledge 58 Vocabulary instruction 58 Syntax, rhetorical patterns, grammatical features 60 Textual competence instruction 60 3.6.2 Metacognitive strategies 61 3.6.2.1 Pre-reading strategies 61 3.6.2.2 While reading strategies 63 3.6.2.3 Post-reading strategies 63 3.6.3 Tasks to promote engaged reading 64 3.7 Conclusion 65
CHAPTER FOUR DATA ANALYSIS AND READING MATERIALS
4.1 Introduction 66 4.2 Supporting and background reading materials 66 4.3 Types of reading exercises 67 4.3.1 Exercises for comprehension instruction 67 4.3.2 Intercultural competence instruction 67 4.4 Taxi texts 68 4.4.1 Area in which data collection took place 68 4.4.2 Method of data collection 69 4.4.3 Data in chronological order 69 4.4.4 Characteristics of the texts 76 4.5 Analysis of Cultural Schemata 77 4.5.1 Taxis as conveyors of culture 77 4.5.2 lzibongo, Izithopho and Zulu naming customs — Parallels with taxis 78 4.5.2.1 lzibongo 78 4.5.2.2 Izithopho — Personal praises 81 4.5.2.3 Name giving categories 83 4.6 Analysis of Formal Schemata 88 4.6.1 Linguistic Schemata 88 4.6.1.1 Imperative 88 viii
4.6.1.2 Vocative 89 4.6.1.3 Imperative with Object Concord or Reflexive Prefix 89 4.6.1.4 Remote Past for emphatic use 89 4.6.1.5 Sequences of Commands 90 4.6.1.6 Present Subjunctive 90 4.6.1.7 Concordial Agreement (cohesion) 90 4.6.1.8 Tenses 91 4.6.2 Syntax 91 4.7 Examples of different types of reading exercises 91 4.7.1 Searching reading 93 4.7.2 Scrambled sentences 93 4.7.3 Coherence 94 4.7.4 Use of background knowledge 94 4.7.5 Transactionist reading 94 4.7.6 Jigsaw reading 97 4.7.7 lzimpicabadala — Riddles 99 4.8 Conclusion 99
CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusions 100 5.2 Recommen dations 101
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A Key to and lesson materials from Thuthukani 2 and 3 Teacher's books 104 APPENDIX B Scanning reading for background/cultural information 119 APPENDIX C Learners' reading (and writing) exercises from Thuthukani 2: 53 f.; Thuthukani 3: 1-4 Workbooks 124 APPENDIX D Situational reading for use by learners across the curriculum 133 ix
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND LITERATURE LIST 139
FIGURES Figure 1 Example of inappropriate visuals 10 Figure 2 Example of inappropriate visuals 10
TABLES Table 1.1 Language teaching situation prior to 1994 6 Table 4.1 Zulu data 69 Table 4.2 Data in other languages 73 Table 4.3 Learner classification of English texts 95 Table 4.4 Learner classification of Zulu texts 96 Table 4.5 Learners' engagement in transactional literary reading 97 1
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview of the teaching of reading in schools
The body of research that has been carried out into second language teaching and learning is substantial. It comprises numerous approaches, models and theories for each of the different language skills, which constitute second language acquisition. In the last twenty-five years, reading, which forms part of this discipline, has received a great deal of attention from researchers (see Urquhart & Weir 1998). Grabe indicates that: A description of reading has to account for the notions that fluent reading is rapid, purposeful, interactive, comprehending, flexible and gradually developing (cited in Cowley 1998: 44). Definitions of reading appropriate to this research are discussed in depth in chapter three, as a single definition of the process is not considered to be adequate for the purposes of this study.
The lack of, or failure to develop, reading skills and strategies in all subjects across the school curriculum, and the teaching of reading, with regard to both process as well as comprehension instruction, is an area of concern for educators worldwide (Maria 1990; Evans 1992; Wray & Lewis 1997). Wray and Lewis have stated that: Recent work has suggested that much more attention needed to be given to the issue of genre in children's reading and writing and that there was a body of linguistic knowledge with which teachers needed to familiarize themselves if they were to successfully help children cope with the reading and writing demands of schooling and the world beyond school (1997: 1).
Maria (1990) has outlined several misconceptions that exist about the teaching of reading in schools. Of particular note among these ' are, the mistaken belief that reading means only the teaching of phonics (decoding or 'barking at text'); that the processes involved in comprehending all types of 2 texts are the same as those involved in comprehending narrative texts, which form the basis of teaching the process of reading in the lower grades; that most learners have learned to read in the lower grades and that the teaching of reading should be left to the Ll language teacher and is not the 'job' of other teachers. Two of the current problems with reading outlined by Wray and Lewis lend weight to Maria's views. They cite these as: The limited range and quality of junior school children's interactions with reading materials of all kinds; The patchy teaching which children receive in using reading as a means of learning across a wide variety of curriculum contexts (1997: 2).
The problems and misconceptions discussed above were seen to exist in Zulu L2 classes by the writer of this study. During six years of disciplined quantitative observation while teaching L2 Zulu to 10 to 14 year old learners, their inability to engage in strategic and skilled reading was frequently noted. According to Maria (1990) reading instruction must be the domain of all teachers in all areas of the school curriculum and therefore the Zulu L2 teacher must be involved in the teaching of reading on two different levels. Firstly the teaching of reading and comprehension of L2 Zulu, and secondly the teaching of general reading skills and strategies for all kinds of text genres. As will be shown in this study, genres other than narrative texts are particularly well suited for reading instruction in L2 Zulu because of the limited vocabulary and restricted linguistic competence in Zulu of the target group.
Research has shown that good L1 readers often fail to transfer their skills and strategies to their L2s because of a lack of vocabulary, linguistic and background knowledge in the L2 (Urquhart & Weir 1998). Grabe points out that there can be first language interference when attempting to read in the L2 and lists negative transfer effects caused by '...false or near cognates, L1 syntactic knowledge, word order variation, relative clause formation and other complex structural differences between languages as factors which mislead the L2 reader' (cited in Cowley 1998: 44). In the case of L2 Zulu, a survey of 3 existing courses given in the literature list at the end of this study, shows that current research on reading and reading comprehension instruction (see chapter three) have not been given sufficient attention.
This study has been undertaken in order to show how aspects of reading theory and instruction can be used, applied and developed for second language learners of Zulu between the ages of 10 and 14 so that they move towards becoming engaged, culturally competent readers of the language. Reading is seen by the writer as being of particular importance in the Zulu L2 classroom because of the historical factors surrounding South African education and the heterogeneous composition of L2 Zulu classes which will be discussed in 1.2 below. Reading materials at different readability levels and of differing genres can be provided in Zulu L2 for learners with different levels of linguistic and cultural knowledge while simultaneously developing their reading skills and strategies.
1.2 Background and history of the teaching and learning of Zulu as a second language in primary schools
Several factors which have contributed to the lack of appropriate reading materials for Zulu L2 will be discussed in this section. These must be taken into consideration because they have had a direct impact on the quality and standard of Zulu L2 language teaching.
1.2.1 Prior to 1994 South Africa has eleven main languages, namely Afrikaans, English, Ndebele, Northern Sotho, Southern Sotho, Swati, Tsonga, Tswana, Venda, Xhosa and Zulu. Prior to 1994 only English and Afrikaans were recognized by the government of the day as the official languages. The nine indigenous languages were studied either as first language, L1, or as an additional language, between grades five and seven (previously standards three to five). For the purpose of this study, additional languages are effectively foreign languages (FLs) but will be referred to by the term L2. Wray, Trott and Bloomer indicate that: 4
Foreign-language learning occurs when the language is taught in the L1 environment, often through the medium of L1...... L2 [is used] more generally for second and foreign language [learning]; it may also be used for a third or fourth language (1998: 63). This study is concerned with the teaching of Zulu L2 through the medium of English. In the Revised National Curriculum Learning Area Statement for Languages this is referred to as a Second Additional language.
Within the context of bilingual education for children whose mother tongues were English or Afrikaans prior to 1994, such learners were required to attend schools at which their mother tongue was the L1 or language of instruction. English was taught as the L2 of Afrikaans speaking learners while Afrikaans was the L2 of English speakers. In the case of mother-tongue speakers of the other nine languages, who fell under a different department of education, learners were educated in one of those languages for the first four years of their schooling. In his autobiographical account of his Sowetan childhood, Chimeloane, writing about his friend Levi, says: ... I was envious of the fact that he could go to the school just opposite my house while I had to walk a long distance to my school. Primary schools were organized according to language groups, and since Levi was Mosotho and I was Motswana we could not go to the same school (2001: 51). When these learners reached standard three (fifth grade), the language of instruction in all content subjects became English or Afrikaans (see Macdonald 1990). Evans, writing about education at this time, states that '...the medium of instruction in Black schools has been the mother tongue for the first four years of school. Thereafter the medium of instruction for all subjects has been English' (1995: 44). The learners' mother tongue or one of the vernaculars, and the remaining official language, were studied as L2s or school subjects up to matriculation level.
In an interview conducted on 23 April 2003 in Johannesburg with Mary Bill, former senior lecturer in the Department of African Languages at the 5
University of the Witwatersrand, it was confirmed that during the 1970's, African languages were introduced as a compulsory subject in English and Afrikaans medium primary schools from standards three to five. This meant, at least in theory, that all English or Afrikaans speaking learners would have some knowledge of an African language when they moved to high school and beyond. The African language taught in any given school was the one historically spoken in that area. For example, if the school was in the Eastern part of the Cape Province, Xhosa was taught. Zulu was taught in Natal and Pedi in the Northern Transvaal. The rest of the Transvaal Province was slightly more complicated, particularly in Johannesburg. Johannesburg has a multilingual population due to the presence of the gold mines, which attracted speakers of all the vernacular languages in the search for work. Zulu became the lingua franca of the Witwatersrand due to the herrenvolk stance of its speakers (Gerard 1971), who refused to learn other languages. Although the region is historically the home of the Sotho language group (Hammond-Tooke 1993: 13), in English and Afrikaans primary schools (Southern) Sotho, Tswana, Northern Sotho or Zulu could be taught. This depended upon which of these languages the teacher employed for the task had studied as an L2. Most commonly, the languages taught in schools on the Witwatersrand were Northern Sotho or Zulu.
Bill confirms that before 1994 teachers who taught African languages as L2s in government schools did not speak those languages as their mother tongues. Provision was made to equip these teachers to teach the designated languages. The University of Potchefstroom for CHE instituted an intensive course of six weeks during which teachers were trained and provided with course materials to take back to their schools. Teacher training colleges throughout South Africa, which were responsible for training white primary school teachers, introduced local languages as teaching subjects at L2 level and trained their students in those languages and in second language teaching methods. The language teaching situation as it existed in the Transvaal is summarized in Table 1 below. 6
Table 1.1
Department of Education Transvaal Education Department and Training
Education in one of the English grades 1 L1 Afrikaans grades 1 L1 nine vernacular languages to 12 to 12 - for first four years of schooling
L2 Afrikaans up to L2 English up to grade English or Afrikaans as grade 12 12 medium of instruction grades 5 to 12 African language of the area from grades 5 Mother tongue or vernacular, and remaining to 7 official language as school subjects grades 5 to 12
During the early 1990's, education policy changed and any South African learner was permitted to attend a school which had become a Model C school, provided she passed a language competency test in the language of instruction of the institution to which she was applying. Classrooms which for the most part had hitherto been populated by learners with the same mother tongue began to manifest multilingual and multicultural groups of learners. The relevance for this study is that as a result of this change, Zulu L2 classes now had Zulu L1 speakers in them. Bill once again agrees with this information. This caused difficulties for teachers and frustration for learners, because of the lack of teaching materials for learners at different levels of competence in Zulu.
1.2.2 Post 1994 The changes in demarcation of the country's provinces and education departments in 1994, brought about further changes in the schools of South Africa, particularly in the area of L2 teaching and learning. Learners can now attend the school of their choice, regardless of what their home language or mother tongue is. Classes are made up of heterogeneous groups of learners, 7 both linguistically and culturally. Language competence of learners varies greatly both in L1 and L2, and this has given rise to new challenges in language teaching and learning across the education spectrum.
1.2.3 Choice of second language Since 1994 the eleven languages identified in 1.2.1 above have been recognized as official languages with equal status. This means that the L2 offered by schools, rather than being either English or Afrikaans only, can be any one of the remaining ten. Some schools (for example Saheti in Bedfordview and Sacred Heart College in Observatory, both in Gauteng) have made an African language their second language or offer it alongside Afrikaans with the choice of which to study left to learners' parents. At the time of writing, development of teaching materials for Zulu L2 starting in the lower grades is in its infancy.
1.2.4 Change of teachers of African languages In the case of teachers, a change has also occurred With a single department of education in the (new) province of Gauteng, it is now possible for mother-tongue speakers of African languages to teach at English or Afrikaans schools. However, native speakers of African languages lack training in L2 and FL teaching methodology. Cowley mentions the '...poor academic grounding and qualifications, caused by the black education system...' of mother-tongue African language teachers, who have different expectations and teaching approaches (Cowley 1998: 61). Bill (2003) once more concurs that this situation needs to be addressed.
1.2.5 Cultural content of teaching materials As a result of the historic situation described in 1.2.1, teaching materials for L2 learners of African languages have frequently been compiled by L2 speakers of those languages in South Africa. The fear of being seen to be political, or lack of training within the field of communicative competence and language teaching, led to course compilers (wittingly or unwittingly) reflecting their own cultures, or no cultural content at all, in their course materials (see Botha, Rabie & van Heerden 1990; Brokensha & Wood 1985; Dikeni 1988). In the 8
Potchefstroom course for example, surface structures, that is grammar and vocabulary, were taught by putting Sotho and Zulu words to English or Afrikaans songs, for example Bobbejaan klim die berg and She'll be coming round the mountain. If original Zulu or Sotho songs had been utilized, then the correct features of tone, intonation and cultural content of the languages could have been taught as well, as African and Western languages and music differ in this regard. As Silberstein notes: Songs are a window on a culture and on cultural history. ... Through music, students encounter the rhythm of a language and infer meaning of vocabulary and concepts from context (1994: 99).
Rather than presenting the culture of the language being taught, teaching themes and situations frequently reflected the culture of the target group of learners or course compilers, for example Booking a Flight (Brokensha & Wood 1985: 104).
A further phenomenon was the 'one size fits all' approach to writing courses which is still being practised by publishing houses today. A course. is written in one African language and then translated into others. Whilst these languages all belong to the Bantu language family, there are nevertheless differences which must be taken, into account when undertaking L2 teaching. On the linguistic level the languages vary in complexity. The immediate past tense in Nguni languages for example is relatively uncomplicated whilst the same tense in Sotho has many more rules for its formation and requires that special attention be given to different verb types when compiling a Sotho course.
The present writer was employed by a publishing house to translate language exercises from the Ntinga (Juta forthcoming) course written in Xhosa into Sotho for the 'same' L2 course. The kinds of verbs required to give sufficient practice with this structure in Sotho had not been covered in the Xhosa course as there was no need for this, and the translator was left knowing that the Sotho had not been adequately addressed. Publishing houses do not concern themselves with this problem, and mother-tongue speakers employed 9 to write for them are often not aware of the difficulties faced by L2 learners of African languages which have to be addressed if language learning is to be effective.
A common error made when transferring course materials from Nguni languages to Sotho languages, and vice versa, is the choice of nouns for use in practising concordial agreement with, for example, verbs, adjectives, pronouns and relatives. In one instance in a theme on domestic animals, (which was written first in Afrikaans, then translated to Northern Sotho, then translated to Zulu), the nouns for 'dog, cat, horse' and 'cow' are in the same Class 9 group and require one set of rules for their use in sentences in Northern Sotho. When translated into Zulu however 'cat' and 'horse' are in Class 5 whilst 'dog' and 'cow' are in Class 9 and require a different approach for teaching them than do the Northern Sotho ones since different noun classes require different concords when used in sentences. In another case, the Suggestopedic Accelerated Language Technique IsiZulu course (Lead the Field, n.d.: 6, 17, 20) was written first in Tswana and then translated into Zulu. The course begins in Russia with the main character, turned into a Zulu, born in Nongoma, South Africa, buying a ticket back to South Africa. Whilst in Moscow he fills up his car with petrol and pays in Rands (the currency of South Africa). Later whilst in Johannesburg, South Africa, the narrator wakes up from a dream and is surprised he is in Soweto and not Botswana (as depicted in the original course)! As will be discussed in chapters two and three, such discrepancies do nothing to promote the learning of authentic language.
Visual materials used to support language learning frequently have, and still do, depict white, eurocentric concepts and situations. Figures 1.1 and 1.2 illustrate this: 10
Figure 1.1 IZIKHATHI ZOMNYAKA
(Botha, Rabie & van Heerden, 1994: preface)
Figure 1.2
U mama usegalaji — ulungisa imoto. Ubaba usekhishini — upheka isapha. Ubhuti usekameiweni lakhe — uwasha phansl. Usisi usengadini — uyashanyela. a. b. c. d.
(Brokensha & Wood 1985: 213) Whilst not impossible, Zulu women do not usually fix cars whilst their husbands cook.
As will be shown in chapter two (see 2.4), cultural competence is presently held to be equal in importance to linguistic, formal and genre schemata if reading comprehension is to occur (see Carrell, Devine & Eskey 1988; Cowley 1998: 49; Maria 1990). The development of cultural schemata through authentic, suitable, reading instruction materials, which cater to the age, interests and level of the target group, is an area which requires specific attention and will be addressed in this study. 11
1.2.6 The influence of structural linguistics Bill confirms that the study and teaching of African languages at universities in South Africa has been closely linked to structural linguistics on the one hand and literary study on the other. Departments of African languages have employed linguists whose main focus has been linguistic analysis of those languages. As lecturers, they have taught the languages by means of linguistic analysis. Those lecturers who were not linguists, were experts in the field of literary study at L1 level. Whilst linguistic analysis and formal grammar do have a place, this focus has resulted in an almost exclusively grammar- based approach to the African languages taught to L2 undergraduates, and thus to prospective teachers. Grammar and vocabulary alone are not sufficient for the teaching of second language competence. Richards and Platt emphasize the importance of Applied Linguistics in this regard: Applied Linguistics uses information from sociology, psychology, anthropology and information theory as well as from linguistics in order to develop its own theoretical models of language and language use, and then uses this information and theory in practical areas such as syllabus design, [and] ... language planning (1992: 19).
In the teaching of Zulu L2, the premise has been that if you can move from the language to analysis of it, then the reverse, that is, linguistic information plus vocabulary equals language competence, will work as well (see Taljaard & Bosch 1988). As research in second language acquisition has shown, (see for example Krashen 1987; Ellis 1990; Tyala 1999), this is not the case. Kramsch (1993: 8) notes that the 'dichotomy of language and culture' in language teaching is a worldwide phenomenon, and thus Zulu is not alone in this regard. The results of this approach can be seen in language courses at all levels throughout South Africa (for examples of this see Cope 1982; Townshend 1993; Kirsch & Skorge 1994; Wood, Brokensha & Mtambo 1996).
1.2.7 Second language learners in the ten to fourteen year-old age group This is the group of learners who are the focus of this study. As has been stated in 1.2.2 above, learners in the L2 Zulu classroom are no longer a 12 homogenous group. Bernhardt, in Urquhart and Weir (1998: 33), in discussing readers, refers to a similar situation. Adapting his classification for an English or Afrikaans school in Gauteng, when viewing learners as readers of Zulu, the following might be taken into account: Literacy in the L1. Some readers may be literate in their L1 and others may not. The experience of previously acquired languages. For some learners, an African language may become an additional language. An example of this would be a Sotho speaker attending an English school and taking Zulu as L2. The linguistic relationship between the Li and L2. Learners who already speak an African language as L1 and choose another as L2, are different from speakers of English or Afrikaans who choose an African language as L2. For example, they already have many grammatical concepts and word cognates in common with the chosen L2. Cultural relationships. Readers of African languages who speak related languages are likely to bring far more shared knowledge to texts than are speakers from other cultures.
This study focuses on the target group which consists of learners who are ten to fourteen year old learners attending English schools in Gauteng; are in the Intermediate and Senior Phases in the new education system of South Africa; have had approximately seventy-five hours of tuition in Zulu; have a working vocabulary of approximately 500 Zulu words; are restricted as to their linguistic knowledge of the language; can be classified as emergent readers; are exposed to the language approximately twice a week in a classroom situation; are culturally 'incompetent' (Cowley 1998). 13
At the same time however, it will be shown that reading materials, and the teaching of reading skills and strategies, can be provided for L1 Zulu speakers and speakers of other indigenous South African Bantu languages if they are in the same classes as the English speaking L2 Zulu learners.
1.3 Problem statement
The following factors have influenced the present state of affairs in the teaching of African languages at L2 level in the Intermediate and Senior Phases: under-prepared and under-trained teachers; grammar-based teaching at tertiary institutions carried over by teachers into their classrooms; a lack of culturally authentic L2 teaching and reading materials; a lack of non-narrative and expository reading texts; a lack of attention to language teaching beyond the basic skills and therefore no reading instruction for its own sake; readers who are under-prepared in reading skills and strategies; different levels of competence of L2 learners which exist within a given class; a limited time allocation for L2 Zulu teaching.
1.4 Purpose of this study
This study has been undertaken in order to make a contribution to solving the problems caused by the factors mentioned in 1.3 above. The development of criteria for appropriate reading materials against the background of research on reading in a multicultural context will be put forward.
The study will examine the approaches, models, theories and processes of reading and the teaching of L2 reading comprehension. The literature concerning the teaching of L2 culture will be discussed and related to the 14 development of learners' background knowledge and schemata with regard to Zulu.
A solution to the lack of appropriate reading material will be suggested in the form of a 'transport' theme. Authentic data gathered from minibus taxis will be documented and used to illustrate the teaching of literary reading. The data will be listed chronologically but divided into two sections, namely Zulu data and English/other language data. In the case of Zulu, a translation or interpretation will accompany the text. All of the above will be used to exemplify the ways in which cultural background knowledge and schemata, and different kinds of reading, can be taught to the target group. This will include transmission, interactive, constructionist and transactional reading. The Zulu L2 Thuthukani course will be used to demonstrate how reading materials can be designed so that reading theories and the findings of research and theories of cross-cultural competence are put into practice. This will include the taxi data from chapter four. The study will conclude with recommendations and criteria for developing further reading material for L2 Zulu.
The study will endeavour to show that: even though the target group does not have extensive linguistic and cultural schemata, or a large vocabulary with respect to Zulu, they can be taught reading comprehension right up to the level of literary reading; reading comprehension instruction in L2 Zulu can contribute to solving the lack of reading skills and strategies of the target group across the school curriculum; reading is an effective teaching device in the L2 classroom where linguistic skills and competence in Zulu differ from learner to learner; provision can be made for variety in both level and content of texts for learners at different levels of language competence; acquisition of language and vocabulary in the L2 can be extended through exposure to large quantities of reading material at the correct level. Nagy (1988 cited in Maria 1990: 112) has noted that if a child reads for 25 15
minutes a day, she will be exposed to approximately 20 000 words a year of which she is likely to retain 1 000; reading authentic texts can contribute to cross-cultural understanding in South Africa. The use of authentic texts can increase the background knowledge and cultural schemata of learners.
1.5 Overview of the study and outline of chapters
Against the background set out in 1.1 and 1.2 above, this study is presented as follows:
Chapter two examines the literature on the role of culture in language learning. Definitions and characteristics of culture are considered. The significance of cultural understanding in language learning and the role of cultural schemata, or background knowledge, in reading comprehension are outlined. The teaching of cultural schemata is given attention.
Chapter three comprises a survey of the history of approaches to, and models of, reading. Types of reading, reading skills and strategies, and reading texts are discussed. The teaching of reading comprehension instruction is outlined.
In chapter four, authentic data found on minibus taxis will be used in conjunction with two teaching units from the Thuthukani series to apply the theories, models and processes discussed in chapters two and three to L2 Zulu teaching. The reading tasks, activities and exercises included in this chapter have been executed within the framework of the specific vocabulary and grammatical knowledge of learners doing the Thuthukani course. This is to avoid suggesting reading tasks that are unrealistic or not based on actual L2 Zulu competence. The English texts are included as they can be used to develop cultural schemata and general reading skills and strategies. 16
The data set out in chapter four has been collected and documented with the specific objective of obtaining L2 reading material for Zulu. The material is approached from the stance of the reading teacher as the bridge between the reader and the text. Both formal and content schemata are included in the analysis of the information base. The data has been analysed by the author using her own competence in Zulu, through thirty years of studying and experiencing the language, and relevant studies of Zulu culture (see Gunner & Gwala 1994; Hammond-Tooke 1993; Koopman 1986). In order to apply Rosenblatt's transactionist approach to literary reading (Church 1997), interviewing the authors of the texts, that is the taxi drivers, has not been carried out. This would be the topic for a study of a different kind, as in the present study, construction of the reader's own meaning and building of schemata is paramount.
Chapter five presents the conclusions and recommendations of the study.
In order to place the reading material within the context of the holistic field of language learning, additional material is included in four appendices. Appendix A contains lesson materials in the transport theme for teaching other language skills required by the L2 learner; Appendix B shows the support materials for reading in order to complete a project on taxis; Appendix C comprises the reading exercises from the existing Thuthukani workbooks and; Appendix D includes additional related reading in English and Zulu. The English is included to encourage the building of content schemata or for use in other language teaching across the curriculum. The Zulu texts provide reading material for more competent learners.
The study is concluded with a bibliography. A literature list of language courses which have been consulted and are appropriate for the target group, is included. 17
CHAPTER TWO CULTURE AND CULTURAL SCHEMATA
2.1 Introduction
In chapter one, attention was drawn to two aspects of the situation concerning the background to the teaching of Zulu as a second language. These are: The historical factors which influenced text design and selection which were outlined in 1.2 of chapter one. This resulted in the elimination from, or avoidance of, authentic cultural schemata in language teaching materials for Zulu. The tradition of focusing on linguistic knowledge or formal schemata in L2 Zulu language teaching in South Africa (see 1.2.6) which had a direct effect on the lacunae in other areas of language learning, reading being one of these.
In this chapter, the indispensable role of culture in reading texts for L2 language teaching is addressed. The word 'culture' will be defined and characterized. Cultural schemata and their significance in reading comprehension will be discussed. Ways in which both language and culture can be linked and taught together in Zulu through reading texts will be dealt with. The role of culture in learner motivation and language acquisition will be considered.
2.2 Culture and language learning and teaching
As indicated in chapter one, for the most part in the teaching of L2 Zulu, culture has been taught as an add-on at best (see Groenewald 1997; Wood 1993a; Wood, Brokensha & Mtambo 1996). At its worst, Zulu L2 courses have contained the symbols of the language or language code, but the culture has been absent, has been replaced by a different culture, or has focused only on areas where there is cultural diffusion (for definition *see 2.3 below) in South Africa (see Botha, Rabie & van Heerden circa 1990). The literature 18 discussed here emphasizes the pivotal role of integrating cultural schemata in L2 teaching. Byram and Morgan (1994: 63) call this a 'hamsterlike' collection of information and indicate that it is not sufficient for comprehension and cross-cultural understanding. Buttjes and Byram (1990: 24) concur, indicating that this kind of practice resembles that of an ethnographer seeking to describe the culture from the outside. This does not promote the viewing of a culture from a viewpoint within the culture.
A further case for the use of culturally authentic texts in the teaching of reading is that many learners lose their hard-earned linguistic fluency, but they do not lose the need for continuing their life-long education, that is, learning how to learn and to survive in the global village that the world has become. Moeketsi in discussing South African courts and problems which .occur in court interpreting challenges the Department of Education to: ... implement the acquisition aspect of the new language policy by ensuring that the school system ... emphasizes the development of second language proficiency in African languages. This fundamental requirement will ... produce non-African[s] ... who are conversant with at least one African language, and know something of that culture as well (1999: 176). This applies equally to South Africans in all walks of life and reading is one way that learning throughout life can continue.
Seelye maintains that: Objectives to achieve cross-cultural understanding identify basic skills, rather than information the student needs for developing an intellectual and emotional appreciation of cultures other than his own. Facts are cheap. They are also meaningless until interpreted within a problem solving context (1981: 2).
Buttjes and Byram (1990) point out that making use of 'culturally thick and socially realistic presentation' raises the motivation of learners and facilitates language acquisition. 19
That language and culture should not be separated is a widely held view. Samovar and Porter consider it to be impossible (1991: 91). Buttjes and Byram observe that: ... to separate language and culture teaching is to imply that a foreign language can be treated in the early stages as if it were self-contained and independent of other social phenomena. The consequence is that learners ... assume that the foreign language is an epiphenomenon of their own language, and that it refers to and embodies their existing understandings and interpretations of their own and foreign cultures. Where this arises, ... the pupils cannot be said to be learning a foreign language in the proper sense, they are learning a codified version of their own (1990: 18). They stress that in acquiring language, culture should be acquired as well, and thus to teach culture without language or language without culture is 'fundamentally flawed'. In the context of second language learning, culture must not be seen as the fifth language skill. It must take place as an integral part of language learning. 'Language awareness' and 'cultural awareness' go hand in hand (Byram & Morgan 1994). As indicated in chapter one (see 1.2.6), Kramsch agrees and says: This dichotomy of language and culture is an entrenched feature of language teaching around the world. It is part of the linguistic heritage of the profession. If ... language is seen as social practice, culture becomes the very core of language teaching. Cultural awareness must be viewed both as enabling language proficiency and as being the outcome of reflection on language proficiency (1993: 8). She goes on to say that: Given that language teachers have to teach both a normative linguistic system and its variable instances of use, attention to context calls for a type of pedagogy that fosters both direct and indirect ways of transmitting knowledge, that values not only facts but relations between facts, that encourages diversity of experience and reflection on that diversity. ... Foreign language instruction's ... main goal can no longer be the one-sided response to notional and economic interests, and the 20
pursuit of communicative happiness; it must include the search for an understanding of cultural boundaries (1993: 11-12).
Kramsch's suggestion of the development of a 'third perspective' or C3 (1993: 210) is significant. This would produce learners who have both an insider's and outsider's view of their own culture (C1), and Zulu culture (C2), and cross- cultural education would have this as an objective (see the definition of Acculturation in 2.3.3 below). Buttjes and Byram are of the opinion that the aim in teaching is not to develop native-speakers of the target language, but to 'develop pupils' cultural competence ... changing it into intercultural competence' (1990: 19).
The theory put forward by Kramsch that cultural barriers can be formed into cultural bridges could be easily applied in L2 classrooms. In the same vein, Seelye concurs by saying that: The enlightened teaching of selected cultural elements can help prepare a student both to understand and enjoy a native speaker. There is no enjoyment in listening to [here read 'reading'] what one cannot understand and one cannot understand a native speaker if his cultural referents, his view of the world, and his linguistic forms are novel. The language teacher can build bridges from one cognitive system to another (1981: 22).
Buttjes and Byram (1990) are of the opinion that culture has been eliminated from reading texts because 'intercultural objectives' are difficult to define and have thus become footnotes or add-ons in language teaching. With respect to 'add-ons', and this has been observed to be the case in L2 Zulu, they say: ... if you add background knowledge at the end of a unit it makes teachers treat them as supplementary and optional (1990: 17).
2.3 Culture — definitions and characteristics
South Africa, by virtue of its history of the convergence of several different peoples and languages, is a multicultural society. 'Mere' clashes of culture 21 are often wrongly attributed to differences in race (see the example of monchronic and polychronic time orientation below). Because of the history of lack of attention to authentic cultural content in L2 Zulu teaching, the concept of what constitutes culture must be discussed so that pertinent reading materials can be designed for Zulu L2 learners.
Numerous definitions of the word 'culture' exist. Two are considered sufficient for this study and are cited here.
Neuliep defines culture as: An accumulated pattern of values, beliefs and behaviours shared by an identifiable group of people with a common history and a verbal and nonverbal symbol system (2000: 26).
Samovar and Porter (1991: 151) maintain that if one is to use a language well, one must know the culture that uses the language. They say: We define culture as the deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving (1991: 51).
No-one who has grown up in South Africa can deny that there are cultural differences related to the definition above on almost every level between the different South African cultures and co-cultures (see Gowlett 1977). An example of this is time orientation. Neuliep (2000) points out that the cultures of the world are either monochronic or polychronic. Monochronic time orientation is a 'Cultural orientation that stresses the compartmentalization and segmenting of measurable units of time'. Polychronic time orientation is a 'Cultural temporal orientation that stresses the involvement of people and the completion of tasks, as opposed to strict adherence to schedules. Time is not seen as measurable' (2000: 128). Samovar in this regard says: Punctuality is a primary value in Western cultures ... and negligible in African cultures (1991: 108). 22
Clashes with regard to time occur frequently between different cultures in South Africa. During two years spent by the writier lecturing at Technikon Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, for example, there was a constant culture clash between the English speaking lecturer and African students because the students didn't find it important to arrive on time for classes. Classroom management had to be adjusted to solve the resulting problems, with announcements or important information about the course being made in the middle of a lecture, when it could be anticipated that most students were present, rather than at the beginning. Class tests were not scheduled by their starting time, but by when they would end, that is the time beyond which the lecturer was no longer prepared to wait for students to arrive.
2.3.1 Characteristics of Culture The characteristics described below are considered important for this study because when it is understood that culture is learned, the implication is that it can in turn be taught to people who have been raised in other cultures. This can help in eliminating the 'if they are different from us then we are better than them' (Saunders 1982) syndrome. Clashes of culture, for example differences in conveying gratitude, have been noted to be incorrectly attributed to race or skin colour in South Africa. Samovar and Porter state that: Culture is not innate, it is learned Culture is transmissible from person to person, group to group and generation to generation Culture is a dynamic system that changes continuously over time Culture is selective (choice of behaviour is limited) Culture is ethnocentric [ethnocentric meaning the regarding of one's own culture as superior] (1991: 54). How we react to social and physical objects in our environment depends upon the beliefs, values and attitudes that we have internalised as we grew up and became conditioned by our culture (1991: 107). 23
Learning to appreciate Zulu culture whilst learning the language can facilitate intercultural communication as discussed in 2.3.2 below. For this reason, in the notes under 2.3.3, 2.3.4, 2.3.5 and 2.3.6, the relevance and significance of producing culturally authentic L2 reading materials is reiterated. This will serve to define what aspects of culture should be given attention, and assist course compilers in syllabus and course design for L2 Zulu.
2.3.2 Intercultural Communication ... intercultural communication is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event (Samovar & Porter 1991: 70). In analyzing intercultural communication, Samovar and Porter state that it can be interracial (for example as between an English person and a Zulu); interethnic (as between a Sotho and a Zulu); or intracultural (communication between co-cultures, that is groups within a culture who show different patterns of behaviour). Byram and Morgan state that there is no L2 learner who does not need intercultural communicative competence and emphasize that it is the cultural content of language teaching that will lead to this competence (1994: 62). Starkey calls attention to: ... knowledge, attitudes and skills that are relevant to living responsibly in a multicultural and interdependent world (in Buttjes & Byram 1994: 210). Authentic reading materials can help build intercultural awareness, so that learners realize that cultural phenomena can be seen from a perspective different from their own without jeopardizing or endangering their own beliefs and values.
2.3.3 Acculturation Acculturation refers to learning to function within a new culture, while maintaining your own identity (Schumann in Byram & Morgan 1994: 5). Kramsch states the aim of teaching L2 to be: 24
... to create a culture of the third kind in which [learners] can express their own meanings, without being hostage to the meanings of either their own or the target speech communities (1993: 225). Acculturation is essential in South Africa and in the global village in which learners will live. Appropriate reading materials can assist in this process.
2.3.4 Cultural Diffusion Cultural diffusion means borrowing (a belief, value or behaviour pattern) from another culture. The term 'adopting' is preferred here as borrowing implies returning. There are numerous instances of cultural diffusion within South African society. We share for example religious beliefs, a flag, our wildlife heritage and a love of sport. Urquhart and Weir (1998) indicate that success in comprehension where cultural knowledge is already present is easier than where it is not and therefore in designing reading materials common ground can be sought. However, reading materials that focus only on shared or diffused elements of our cultures would do a disservice to learners of Zulu because of the rich areas of culture exclusive to it which are not shared by other cultures. As an example, it might be considered acceptable to learn a Zulu song composed on western principles of harmony, but failure to let learners also experience and participate in the traditional polyphonous harmony of Zulu songs based on the call and response technique places them at a disadvantage when attending sporting events at which the song Shosholoza is habitually sung. Singing the song requires knowledge of non- simultaneous entry, and spectators without this cultural knowledge usually fall silent after the first line of the song. This song has been adopted by South Africans of many cultures and is included in the reading materials in chapter four.
2.3.5 Cultural Beliefs and Values Knowledge of beliefs and values of other cultures can help foster understanding and appreciation of the behaviour of people who belong to them. Samovar and Porter stress that these are deep-seated in our minds. 25
Values ... specify ... what is good, bad, right or wrong, what ought to be or ought not to be, what is useful, useless, appropriate or inappropriate (1991:108). They divide behaviour into: how to dress how to speak to our elders how to eat what to eat where to eat what constitutes furniture how we attain salvation or damnation how we should earn our living what is proper social structure (1991:108). All of the above would be worth considering when designing reading materials. Zulu cultural beliefs and values, and not those of other cultures, should be reflected in reading texts for L2 Zulu. Language courses in other countries reflect the beliefs, values, behaviour and customs of the mother- tongue speakers of those languages (for example see Brien, Brien & Dobson 1998). It is not expected when learning German for example to have lessons depicting Vietnamese clothes, food or furniture.
2.3.6 World View World view affects peoples' perceptions of the world and influences how they think. ... world view is a culture's orientation towards God, humanity, nature, the universe and cosmos, life, death, sickness and other philosophical issues that influence how we see our world ... . Culture determines our view of the world, and each culture. perceives different reality (Samovar & Porter 1991: 116). Samovar and Porter also maintain that 'if you can understand a culture's most significant values, you can better understand how and why members of that culture behave as they do' (1992: 116). World view, values, thinking; beliefs 26 and behaviour are all products of cultural learning (see 2.3.1). Analogously, Nostrand (in Seelye 1981) questions the value of the training of a learner who only becomes 'technically dexterous' in a foreign language without developing respect for the world view of its speakers.
Lack of understanding and knowledge about, and appreciation for each other's cultures is well known in South Africa and frequently leads to difficulties in intercultural interaction because when perceiving others' behaviour through our own world view spectacles, it can seem bizarre and result in alienation rather than understanding. However, Buttjes and Byram point out that it is this feeling of being: ... disconcerted, which is an indication of change of attitudes and concepts, of a modification of culture specific schemata (1990: 24). L2 Zulu materials can focus on such issues.
2.4 Cultural Schemata
The concept of cultural schemata will be discussed together with other schemata in chapter three (see 3.1.3.2). Several terms are associated with this concept in the literature, namely background knowledge, cultural content,
culture-specific knowledge and domain knowledge (Kintsch 1998; Levine . & Haus 1985; Urquhart & Weir 1998). Cultural schemata or knowledge refers to the 'general knowledge of all members of the population' (Urquhart & Weir 1998).
In the 1970's, the move to the Interactive Model of reading (see 3.1.3) brought the importance of background knowledge and sociocultural meaning in reading comprehension to the fore (Carrell, Devine & Eskey 1988). As has been stated above, cultural schemata came to be viewed to be of integral and equal importance, to linguistic knowledge and proficiency, background knowledge of content or subject, and background knowledge of rhetorical or formal schemata in the comprehension process; Clarke and Silberstein (in Carrell, Devine & Eskey 1988) noted that in order to comprehend words, sentences and texts, learners required more than only linguistic knowledge. 27
They hold that language processing deficiencies have often been blamed for failure of comprehension when lack of culturally specific knowledge suggests otherwise. Cultural schemata form part of top-down processing, which implies starting with predictions and hypotheses and attempting to verify them during reading (see 3.1.3.1). Samuels and Kamil refer to the problem the reader has with many texts where she has little knowledge of the topic and therefore cannot generate predictions (in Carrell, Devine & Eskey 1988). Ausubel (in Carrell, Devine & Eskey 1988) suggests pre-reading 'advance organizers' be introduced before reading to provide a conceptual bridge between what the reader knows and what is contained in the text. Activating and building culture specific schemata are essential at the beginning and intermediate proficiency levels. Maria (1990: 87) specifically mentions the problem with lack of background knowledge in the case of expository texts and stresses that not only must schemata be built, but that they must be correct. She sees the role of the teacher as being that of guiding and providing support for learners.
2.4.1 Culural Schemata and L2 Learning Materials Byram and Morgan state that: When learners acquire an understanding of the connotations of lexical items in the foreign language and contrast them with connotations of an apparently equivalent item in their own, they begin to gain insight into the schemata and perspective of the foreign culture. This can and should begin at the earliest stages of language and culture learning (1994: 44).
It is suggested that advance organizers and pre-reading build-ups are not enough to develop positive and realistic attitudes in Zulu L2 learners. The above must be done in conjunction with selection of themes, topics or outcomes which promote the acquisition of cultural schemata. At the same time, consideration must be given to the length of a language course and the age, interests and cognitive capacities of the learners. As indicated in 2.3.4 above, there are many instances of shared knowledge in the different cultures and co-cultures of South Africa and these can be considered, in some 28 instances when selecting materials, in order to facilitate comprehension. Reading materials should however reflect the world view, values and beliefs of the target culture. For example, a theme successfully taught to this age group (Rassmann 2000c) is the one of `sport', but soccer, which is the favourite sport of Africans (and not rugby or cricket which are favoured by English speakers) is the vehicle of presentation. Similarly the theme or unit labeled 'transport' (Rassmann 2000b) conveys the Zulu view (and not the learners' parents' views) of taxis.
To remain within the domain of shared knowledge would be to deprive learners of the richness of the cultural heritage of the Zulu people. Nor would there be a gradual building up of cultural schemata so essential in the long term for the development of reading comprehension in L2 learners. Initially, the approach should be to sensitize learners, and work towards Kramsch's `third perspective' (1993) by making use of content that reflects the target culture but does not alienate the target group. The course compiler needs to take into account that many cultural schemata are so different from the target group's culture as to cause alienation of learners, for example ritual slaughtering in Zulu culture. Others, for example izibongo 'praise poems,' have not appeared to interest the target group. Fourteen year-old English speakers have not been found to put poetry at the top of their list of interests. Utilizing esoteric themes and topics also adds the burden of learning vocabulary that is not frequently used in everyday life and is thus easily forgotten because it is not recycled. The course compiler therefore has many factors to weigh up and balance when deciding what schemata to present.
Buttjes and Byram note that it is the use of `authentic' language in teaching that provides learners with the experience of language produced by native- speakers (1990: 21). It will be demonstrated by using the data in chapter four that this goal is within reach for the target group in this study. The concept is discussed again under 3.4.2 in chapter three.
A final consideration in designing and selecting reading materials is the importance of founding them in the reality of contemporary life (Byram & 29
Morgan 1994). Materials reflecting the past, or out-of-date practices, or ones which will lead to overgeneralization, are not considered to be acceptable by these authors.
2.5 Teaching Cultural Schemata
Since the scope of this study is reading, the teaching of cultural schemata through texts is of central concern. Other ways of presenting schemata such as field work, outings or real experiences are possible but not relevant here. Cultural learning can be advanced both through Zulu and through English texts, but like vocabulary, (see chapter three), should be taught in context. Because the linguistic competence of the target group is limited, for those aspects of schemata that cannot be taught through the medium of Zulu, pre- reading activities in English such as brainstorming to find out what learners already know on a cultural topic can be used. In this way information can be shared by learners and the teacher can establish what still needs to be taught. Reading within a topic area is content-centred and helps develop metacognitive awareness (see materials in Appendix D). Silberstein (1994) suggests activating or building schemata through full class discussion or giving activities to small groups, pairs or individuals, to research or brainstorm.
Cultural background can be built up by making use of multi-media information which exists outside the classroom (see Appendix B). Examples of this are newspaper and magazine articles, advertisements (see Appendix D), films, videos on related topics, songs and realia. To be taught in context, such background knowledge must be linked to the reading material being dealt with in the language course. This will help avoid the ubiquitous 'add-on' syndrome.
In support of this, and as stated above, Byram and Morgan (1994) maintain that cultural learning must take place as an integral part of language learning. Samovar and Porter (1991: 114) see the cultural context as the core or starting point of the language lesson so that both linguistic forms and social meanings are learned interactively. 30
With respect to vocabulary, learners should be taught the connotations of lexical items and then contrast them with apparent equivalents in their L1. This learning should not be in the form of presentation of 'cheap' facts. The unit of teaching set out in chapter four demonstrates acquisition of the cultural connotation of the word ithekisi through experience on several different levels. Seelye (1981) supports this and indicates that knowing words and what they denote is not enough. Learners, he says, must learn to use them in a culturally appropriate way. He suggests the reading of interviews with mother- tongue speakers, dialogues, the use of visuals, mini dramas and scrapbooks of clippings. Examples of his suggestions are shown in Appendix C. A further illustration of Seelye's proposal can be demonstrated in the example of the taxi text in chapter four, Zibomvu izinhliziyo zamadoda 'Men's hearts are red', the reference being to bravery or willingness to fight. The English equivalent could be considered to be 'Men have guts'. The stem —bomvu therefore means more than the colour 'red'.
Byram advocates the teaching of 'recipe' knowledge (1994: 48) such as greeting, turn taking, politeness, and maxims of normal conversation. This can be linked to Samovar and Porter's list described in 2.3.5 above. Explicit teaching of such conventions must be carried out by the teacher. Byram suggests focusing on concepts that have: same form, different meaning. Eye contact with a socially superior person is an example of this. In English direct eye contact denotes openess and honesty. In Zulu eye contact in such a situation denotes insolence and lack of respect. same meaning, different form. English makes use of spoken language to express gratitude while in Zulu body language or non- verbal behaviour, e.g. accepting something with two hands whilst bending the knees slightly, achieves the same result. same form, same meaning, different distribution. For example handshaking. In English culture, hands are shaken in greeting, congratulation and commiseration. In Zulu the first two apply but not the third. To shake the hand of a bereaved person at a funeral 31
would be considered similar to congratulaing the person for murdering the deceased.
Constructing a syllabus on the basis of situations in which a learner might need to communicate in Zulu or understand the Zulu point of view, together with the kinds of language activity she might wish to engage in, will help learners understand and experience the target culture from within. Byram and Morgan, with regard to choosing situations, propose that the following guidelines be used: social identity and social groups social interaction — verbal and non-verbal behaviour belief and behaviour socio-political institutions socialization and the life cycle — families, schools, employment, religion, military service; ceremonies which mark passage through stages of life national history: periods and events, historical and contemporary national geography national cultural heritage; cultural artefacts perceived to be emblems and embodiments of national culture from past and present, in particular those which are 'known' to members of the nation (e.g. the Zulu king Shaka) and some created by television and the media (e.g.the singing group Ladysmith Black Mambazo) stereotypes and national identity, symbols of national identities and their meanings (1994: 51).
Buttjes and Byram (1990) suggest a specific mark allocation during assessment for cultural awareness in order to ensure that it is taught and valued. Kramsch (1993) maintains that post-reading questions and activites can be used to encourage learners to relate what they have read to their own culture. Post-reading questions are discussed further in chapter three. 32
2.6 Conclusion
The discussion in this chapter has drawn attention to the necessity of making use of reading materials that simultaneously convey the culture, as well as the linguistic forms, of the target language. The role of cultural background knowledge in the process of competence in reading comprehension has been presented. To ensure that cultural schemata are taught, culturally appropriate and authentic texts (as will be discussed in 3.4) are suggested as the foundation of an L2 Zulu course. Evidence from research has shown that it is not only intercultural competence that is important in L2 learning, but that cultural competence is also essential for competence in reading and reading comprehension. 33
CHAPTER THREE READING
In chapter one, the history and background of the teaching of L2 Zulu was outlined. The reasons for selecting the development of reading for this study for the target group were identified as the general lack of reading skills and strategies of the group, and the fact that reading tasks can be graded or set at different levels to cater for the different levels of language proficiency existing in a given class.
This chapter examines the history of Reading theory with regard to approaches and models of the subject and the relevance of them in L2 Zulu reading. In order to show what is required in the teaching of reading, an overview of Schema theory and different types of reading is given. Skills and strategies recommended for L2 readers are discussed, and considerations with regard to reading texts and motivation of readers are given attention. Ways in which to apply the theories, models and approaches in comprehension instruction, are set out at the end of the chapter. The relevance of the different models to L2 Zulu is considered to be significant because all of them can be used to fulfill different reading goals required of a language course.
3.1 Approaches and Models of Reading
In order to clearly define or understand what reading is, it is essential to discuss the historical background of how the subject has been viewed up to the present. By doing this, it will be shown that there are different models of reading to be considered by the reading teacher and that each has its own defining characteristics.
According to Devine, a reading model: ... might best be understood as a set of assumptions about what happens when a reader approaches a text, that is, the ways a reader 34
derives meaning from printed material (Carrel, Devine & Eskey 1988: 127).
Three movements, are identified with regard to the nature of the reading process (see Bogdan & Straw 1990: 23 f.). They are: Transmission (1800 — 1890); Translation (1890 — late 1970's); Interactive (1970's to the present). For the purposes of this study interactive embraces the transactional and constructionist notions of reading. All of these kinds of reading are still useful in L2 reading instruction since reading is carried out for different reasons at different times, from identifying words or tenses to constructing personal meaning.
3.1.1 Transmission Model In this approach, reading involves explicit knowledge or information being transmitted from an active author to a passive reader by means of a text. The teaching of reading focuses on mechanical skills. Learners are given information by teachers and are drilled in isolated skills. They are required to read and fill in worksheets to display their understanding of the 'facts' or information contained in the texts. The texts are considered to be 'lifeless' and learners are required neither to give their own interpretations nor to analyze or evaluate them (Guthrie & Alvermann 1999: 59). Procedures of reading and interpreting of texts is not important. Such reading is of relevance when learning to master linguistic or syntactic forms.
3.1.2 Translation Model The translation model is summarized in Bogdan & Straw (1990: 36) as follows: reading is a code-breaking or puzzle solving activity like translating meaning is determinate the act of getting meaning ('comprehension') is measurable 35
meaning can be extracted from text via the application of skills to the process the primary direction of the reading act is from the text (the code) to the reader (via comprehension) reading is a communicative act — the 'receptor' side of the author- text-reader contract. The text takes over the role the author had in the transmission approach in that it contains the information which must be accessed by an active reader. There is a shift from explicit information to implicit messages residing in texts. The reader is seen as a 'puzzle solver', a 'translator' of text into meaning. The text is seen as a code that the reader has to crack. The concept of 'skill' is important because the reader must make use of her skills in order to seek and translate the text into meaning.
Up to the middle 1960's, models of the reading process were linear, that is the operations engaged in by the reader were seen to follow one another in chronological order, and were bottom-up (see 3.1.3.1) or text based. There was no consideration given to any looping back on the part of the reader, nor any interaction between the text and the knowledge the reader held in her head. Reading was seen to be a left to right process in which words were matched to memory and when this was done, comprehension would result. Reading played a supportive role in language learning and was seen to be an adjunct of oral skills. Oral mastery of language, followed by decoding sound- symbol relationships (reading aloud); were seen as the primary steps to proficiency in reading.
Concurrently, whilst the translation theory prevailed, cognitive psychologists paid attention to analyzing the skills and sub-skills necessary for decoding words (see 3.3.1), and thus meaning, found in print. Skills lists dominated the last two decades of this approach, that is the 1950's and 1960's, in the instruction of developmental reading. This has proved to be a resilient model in materials used for teaching reading, and it is still evident in L2 Zulu courses especially those implementing the audio-lingual teaching method. However 36 this skills-based approach does still have a place at the beginning level of L2 reading since discrete, bottom-up skills must be given attention.
3.1.3 Interactive Model Towards the end of the 1970's, the audio-lingual L2 language teaching method which had been in practice for two decades, was viewed with dissatisfaction. More specifically, with regard to reading, it had become evident that aural-oral proficiency — as advocated in the audio-lingual method — in a language, did not automatically produce reading competency. In this regard, Bill, whilst investigating readability measures in Zulu, noted that: ... students who have been taught through an audio-lingual-cum- communicative approach to foreign language learning, have great difficulty in understanding Zulu texts (1985: 16). Research showed that reading and reading comprehension should be taught in their own right and not just as an adjuncts to the teaching of oral skills (Maria 1990: 13).
At the same time as evidence was presented indicating that reading didn't just 'happen' as a result of aural-oral proficiency, insights from cognitive psychology were introduced and taken into account in language learning and reading. Attention was given to the mind of the reader in the reading process. Goodman's psycholinguistic model, which according to Urquhart and Weir (1998: 40) was first published in 1967, held that the reader reconstructs meaning by using cues in a text (bottom-up) and then goes on to relate that meaning to her own experiences (top-down). Thus he viewed reading as a psycholinguistic process, consisting of both language and thought, and operating within a sociolinguistic context. Goodman says: Reading is a receptive language process. It is a psycholinguistic process in that it starts with a linguistic surface representation encoded by a writer and ends with meaning which the reader constructs. There is thus an essential interaction between language and thought in reading. The writer encodes thought as language and the reader decodes language to thought (in Carrell, Devine & Eskey 1988: 12). 37
In discussing the impact of what they call the Interaction Conceptualizations of Reading, Bogdan and Straw cite the rise of the role of the reader in the act of reading and comprehending. Of central concern for them are the knowledge, experience and strategies of the reader herself (1990: 45).
In an interactive approach, therefore, reading is seen as part of a communicative process. The communication takes place between the writer and the reader, via the text. The active participation of the reader is vital in the reading process because making use of her own background knowledge is important in making sense of the written word. In addition to background knowledge the reader makes use of orthographic, lexical, syntactic and semantic knowledge of the language being read.
3.1.3.1 Bottom-up and Top-down As indicated above, the interactive approach maintains that information is processed by the reader from the bottom up and from the top down. These interact and complement one another for the reader to construct meaning.
The term bottom-up is associated with Gough who published this model in 1972 (Urquhart & Weir 1998: 39). Bottom-up processing is seen as text driven and involves recognition skills. The reader needs to recognize the values and meanings of letters and words, of grammar and cohesive devices, and of sentences. Urquhart and Weir (1998) refer to these as low level activites. The information is seen to flow in discrete stages and there are no feedback loops whilst or during reading.
Top-down processing is knowledge driven. It starts with hypotheses and predictions which readers try to verify by working down to print. It demands that the readers make use of their own interpreting skills and how they infer states and events from texts. This is based on their existing background knowledge. If learners do not have the knowledge, it must be built up by the teacher. Background knowledge refers to the reader's prior linguistic knowledge or schemata (see 3.1.3.2 below), her level of proficiency in the language, prior content schemata (content area of the text) and prior formal 38 schemata (knowledge of the rhetorical structure of the text) and cultural schemata (see chapter two). The concept of cycles which can loop backwards or forwards comes into play in this model. Inferences can be made by the reader by moving backwards and forwards in a text. If contradictory information to what the reader expects comes up later, top-down processing adjusts accordingly. Reading is interactive because it involves parallel processing of bottom-up and top-down factors simultaneously. Urquhart and Weir (1998) view the top-down process as a higher level activity.
3.1.3.2 Schema theory Schema theory goes hand in hand with the Interactive model. Attributed to Rumelhart, (see Evans 1992; Maria 1990: 4), it indicates that the text is not the exclusive carrier of meaning. Readers process meaning by an interaction between their background knowledge, known as schemata, and the text. Maria states that: Schema theory is a theory of knowledge that tries to explain how we store our knowledge, how we learn and how we remember what we have learned (1990: 85).
Schema theory involves background knowledge. Knowledge is contained in units called schemata. Urquhart and Weir (1998) divide schema theory into formal schemata, which encompass the rhetorical and linguistic structure of texts, and content schemata, which includes cultural knowledge and subject specific content.
Schemata exist in every society for situations, events, actions and sequences of actions. They are developed by a reader's own experiences and organized knowledge of the world, and are related to her culture. Evans (1992) indicates the following schemata which are needed by the reader: Linguistic schemata or knowledge about the grammatical structure of a text; Content or cultural schemata or background knowledge including knowledge of the subject matter and sociocultural conventions; 39
Formal schemata, that is, knowledge of the rhetorical structures and organization of texts; Genre schemata, what Kintsch (1998) calls Textual schemas, or knowledge about the forms and structures peculiar to distinct varieties of texts.
For the understanding of a text to occur, the reader must have, and activate, appropriate schemata or background knowledge during reading or risk not understanding a text. It must be evident then, that an L2 learner has to be taught, or must acquire, such schemata with regard to the language being learnt in order to read it with comprehension. As was indicated in chapter two (see 2.2), unless background knowledge of Zulu culture is present, and unless L2 Zulu texts reflect Zulu culture, learners will continue to interpret Zulu texts as epiphenomena of their L1.
3.1.3.3 Macro and Micro structures With regard to top-down, bottom-up processes, and schemas, Kintsch (1998) uses the terms macro and micro structures. Micro structure is viewed as the local structure of the text (see Rosenblatt's efferent reading in 3.1.4.1 below), the sentence-by-sentence information as supplemented by, and integrated with, long term memory. Macro structure is seen as global, derived from the micro structures and often must be inferred by the reader. Knowledge and experience, that is schemata, are used to supplement the information in the text for the reader to attain comprehension. Kintsch further emphasizes the interacting factors that assist in the formation of macro structures. Among these he includes general cultural knowledge, situation type, conventions plus signals in texts like titles, initial topic, sentences, summaries, syntactic and semantic signals. He uses the term 'situational model' (see Rosenblatt's aesthetic reading in 3.1.4.1 below), the construction of which requires knowledge of the language, knowledge of the world, knowledge of the communicative situation and personal experience. 40
3.1.4 Transactionist approach This approach takes reading one step further than the interactive model. During the 1970's, a paradigm shift occurred away from viewing the text as authority to a view that focuses on the reader's relationship with the text and her engagement and involvement in constructing her own meaning from it.
The transactional theory, attributed to Rosenblatt (see Church 1997; Evans 1995: 214, 215, 221), proposes that the meaning of a text is obtained from a transaction between the text and reader within a specific context. According to Rosenblatt: The reader brings to the work personality traits, memories of past events, present needs and preoccupations, a particular mood of the moment, and a particular physical condition. These and many other elements in a never-to-be duplicated combination determine his response to the peculiar contribution of the text (1964: 30-31 in Church 1997: 2). The transaction is twofold. The reader is engaged in an active transaction with the text but at the same time there is a transaction between the reader and writer. In other words, meaning resides in the transaction between the author and the reader, mediated by the text. The notion of the creation of new schemata in the reader's memory as a result of the transaction is proposed. In this regard Evans says: Readers bring their own background knowledge and experiences to bear on the reading process ... and the reader's knowledge and beliefs are changed by the transactional process, as is the (mental, reconstructed) text (1995: 257). In relation to this, Straw discusses the reader as a 'meaning maker' rather than a 'meaning getter' (Bogdan & Straw 1990: 67).
Evans' notion of the creation of new schemata through the reading of authentic texts is particularly important in L2 Zulu, if reading is used to increase intercultural understanding. As suggested in chapter two (see 2.5), texts that focus on the creation of new schemata can be used when teaching reading comprehension. 41
3.1.4.1 Efferent and aesthetic reading Rosenblatt's distinction between two types of reading is worth noting here, since not all reading in L2 Zulu for the target group can be of a transactional nature as their vocabulary is restricted and linguistic competence is limited. According to Church (1997), Rosenblatt distinguishes between two modes of experiencing a text, namely efferent reading and aesthetic reading.
Efferent reading is straightforward reading for knowledge or information and, in the opinion of the writer, can be related to the transmission and translation models (see 3.1.1 and 3.1.2 above). When readers have specific needs or facts they wish to retrieve from a text, they engage in efferent reading. Church supports this statement and indicates that a great deal of reading instruction, for example 'correct answer, worksheet, test', adopts the efferent stance. Much L2 Zulu reading instruction will involve this kind of reading because learners at this stage require extensive practice in developing bottom-up reading skills and strategies.
In aesthetic reading the unique, lived through, experience or engagement of the reader with the text is primary. Rosenblatt indicates that attention is given to the associations or feelings being aroused by the words as well as the meanings of those words.
The exercises in 4.7 and Appendices B, C and D demonstrate that not only efferent reading catered for, but also aesthetic reading is within the reach of the target group in L2 Zulu. It is worth noting that another person can read efferently for someone, but no-one can read aesthetically for someone else. This makes a strong case for aesthetic reading in the assessment of reading comprehension, as imitating or echoing the views of other readers can be eliminated or at least avoided some of the time in the L2 classroom. 42
3.2 Types of reading
Rayner and Pollatsek (in Uruqhart & Weir 1998: 101) indicate that most accounts of the reading process or models thereof have focused on the skilled, adult reader, reading narrative or textbook variety texts. This type of reading is known as careful reading. Teachers have been led to believe that careful reading is superior to any other kind of reading. Rayner and Pollatsek suggest that the reading needs of learners, in our case children who are emergent readers, are different, and therefore the teaching and testing of reading requires a wide range of reading behaviours and strategies. Because of the focus on careful reading, other reading behaviours such as skimming, scanning and searching (3.2.2; 3.2.3; 3.2.4 below), which we consider to promote flexible reading, have been neglected.
Guthrie and Alvermann have the following to say and are quoted at length to emphasize the need for different types of reading: ... reading instruction in the elementary grades, has tended to use narrative texts as the primary vehicle for practice. ... However, if narrative is the exclusive diet, then the strategies associated with flexible reading may not be developed. ... Nonnarrative texts must be a part of the reading environment from the start. It is through frequent demonstrations with all kinds of texts that the developing reader learns to appreciate multiple functions that reading serves in our lives and also is introduced to the flexible reading strategies that lead to success (1999: 57).
As indicated in chapter one, it is this flexible reading and strategic competence for a wide variety of text genres that appears to be lacking across the elementary school curriculum in South Africa. The implication for the L2 Zulu classroom is that teachers need not be discouraged, nor learners disadvantaged, by not having enough vocabulary or linguistic competence to engage in reading narrative texts, since there are so many other kinds of reading in which competence can be developed. 43
Urquhart and Weir discuss five types of reading, four of them already mentioned, namely searching reading, skimming, scanning, careful reading and browsing (1998: 100 f.). As will be discussed below, skimming, searching and scanning reading deal with the ways in which readers look at and process texts quickly and selectively. They know what they are looking for (this is their purpose or goal) and try to get the information as quickly as possible.
3.2.1 Browsing This type of reading is mentioned first as it will not be discussed in depth here. It consists of reading without goals or aims and there is no attempt to integrate what is read into the learner's macrostructure or to maintain the gist. Urquhart and Weir state that: ... this reading type ... is difficult to operationalise for teaching and testing purposes (1998: 108). A key objective in reading according to Nuttall (1996) as quoted in Urquhart and Weir (1998: 17,96) is to give students a realistic purpose for every L2 reading activity. The lack of material makes browsing reading difficult for Zulu learners and the development of reading materials of this kind for L2 Zulu learners does not fall within the scope of this study. The question must also be raised as to whether the target group would engage in browsing reading in Zulu in the long term (another reason to underline aiming at building cross- cultural understanding). Publishers are in the process of producing basal readers and narratives for the language (for example see Bhengu et al 2000; Nxaba et al 1998a, 1998b, 1998c, 1999a, 1999b).
3.2.2 Skimming This involves reading for gist. The reader is concerned with what a text as a whole is about. Urquhart & Weir (1998: 103) say that: the reading is selective with sections of the text either omitted or given very little attention; an attempt is made to build up a macrostructure on the basis of as few details from the text as possible. An example of skimming is the running of the eye over the contents page of a book to establish what is contained in that book. 44
3.2.3 Searching The reader locates information on predetermined topics. She wants information to answer set questions or to provide data, for example in completing assignments. Searching differs from skimming in that the search for information is guided by predetermined topics. Only key ideas will be sought.
3.2.4 Scanning Scanning entails reading selectively to achieve very specific reading goals, for example to find a date, or the name of a river, in a text. As a further example, it may involve looking for specific words or phrases, figures or percentages, names, dates or items in an index. The main feature of this type of reading is that any part of the text which does not contain the pre-selected symbol(s) is dismissed by the reader.
It is worth noting here that a lot of reading done today is no longer linear, that is, concerned with moving the eye from left to right across the page. Brochures, advertisements and internet websites require unique forms of scanning, skimming and searching reading and if skills and strategies for such flexible reading are taught in the L2 Zulu classroom, readers will be able to transfer these skills to other school subjects and use them for life, once their schooling is completed.
3.2.5 Careful reading Urquhart and Weir (1998: 103) describe careful reading by saying: the reader adopts a submissive role and accepts the writer's organization, including what the writer appears to consider the important parts and the reader attempts to build up a macrostructure on the basis of the majority of information in the text .
Careful reading is further divided into careful reading at the local level (bottom-up) and careful reading at the global level (top-down). 45
Local level tasks involve: word recognition cohesion automaticity grammatical skills vocabulary acquisition through direct instruction and automaticity to develop reading speed. Global level tasks involve: comprehension instruction, reading for stated main ideas both explicit and implicit inferring pragmatic meaning related to a text — answering questions such as 'what?', 'which?' (referential); 'why?' and how?" (explanatory inferences) and making evaluations (evaluative inferences).
3.3 Reading Skills and Strategies
A discussion of skills and strategies that are implicit for, and need to be taught to, and developed in readers for reading comprehension follows in order to clarify why learners in Zulu L2 language classrooms where the focus is on pure grammar, that is linguistic schemata, and vocabulary (word decoding) are failing to learn to read with comprehension. Reading and reading skills and strategies must be specifically taught (Maria 1990: 70 f.) if reading competence is a goal in the L2 Zulu classroom.
3.3.1 Skills Urquhart and Weir define a reading skill as: ... a cognitive ability which a person is able to use when interacting with written texts. ... unlike comprehension, which can be viewed as the product of reading a particular text, skills are seen as part of the generalized reading process (1998: 88).
Skills are considered to be useful for the structuring of reading syllabi and can provide a framework for this purpose. Grabe (1991: 377) cited in Urquhart 46 and Weir (1998: 91) gives the following taxonomy of skills which readers should be taught: Automatic recognition skills Vocabulary and structural knowledge Formal discourse structure knowledge Content/world background knowledge Synthesis and evaluation skills/strategies Metacognitive knowledge and skills monitoring. In Carrell, Devine and Eskey (1988: 59), Grabe, who emphasizes that attention be paid to the lack of a large vocabulary and basic syntactic structures in L2 readers, gives a 'Parallel Processing sketch' of skills which interact during the process of reading. These are: graphic features letters words phrases sentences local cohesion paragraph structuring topic of discourse inferencing world knowledge Text-based processing cannot take place at all until the reader has acquired skill in decoding the syntactic structures and content vocabulary of a text.
Evans suggests that once strategies are internalized and automatic they become skills. She encourages teachers to provide learners with enough practice in the different skills so that they can eventually use them automatically to increase their reading comprehension (Rand Afrikaans University departmental lecture notes).
Within the context of the teaching of reading, skills are ranked by Urquhart and Weir (1998: 91) using the following criteria: 47
Logical implication. One component presupposes all components below it; Pragmatic implication. A reader displaying one skill in the system , can be assumed to possess all the lower' skills; Difficulty. The components are arranged in order of increasing difficulty; Developmental. Some skills are acquired earlier than others; Discourse level. A skill is ordered with respect to the size or level of the discourse unit it relates to. The course designer must take these into account in the development of reading materials for L2 Zulu.
3.3.2 Strategies According to Urquhart and Weir (1998: 94), strategy research became popular in the 1980's. Pritchard defines a strategy as: ... a deliberate action that readers take voluntarily to develop an understanding of what they read (cited in Urquhart & Weir 1998: 95). Urquhart and Weir state that: ... efficient and effective second language reading requires both top- down and bottom-up strategies in different combinations for different purposes (1998: 188). Maria (1990) maintains that a strategy is an intentional, deliberate, self selection of a means to an end which is not automatic initially. The goal in teaching a strategy, is to have it internalized by the learner so that it becomes automatic. She indicates that strategies are particularly important for children because they are engaged in initial learning in many fields. In relation to this, she distinguishes between declarative knowledge or metacognitive awareness of available strategies, and procedural knowledge or knowledge as to how to use the strategies (1990: 33). Guthrie and Alvermann support Maria's view that strategies are cognitive processes that are 'controllable' and 'conscious'. They emphasize that strategies are difficult to acquire and suggest that children need sustaining motivations and excellent teaching to internalize them (1999: 31). They also suggest using a variety of text genres (see 48
3.6.1.2. c) to make learners learn to employ a number of different reading strategies.
Strategies can be characterized as being: essentially problem solving on whatever level (macro or micro); goal oriented; purposeful; involved with efficiency and selection; directly teachable (adapted from Urquhart & Weir 1998: 188, 189).
Strategies are divided into Metacognitive Strategies and Cognitive Strategies. Cognitive strategies are defined as the familiar processes that enable people to read. They range from working out meanings of words in context through to skimming an entire text to get the gist. Metacognitive strategies are more concerned with the reading experience itself. Learners need to be aware of what they are doing and to be told what strategies they should be using or be taught how to use different strategies. They are required to develop the ability to manage and consciously regulate the use of the correct learning strategies for different situations and texts. They need to understand for themselves how they learn.
3.3.2.1 Metacognitive strategies These are divided into: pre-reading (planning) strategies to which can be added previewing and prediction; while-reading (monitoring) strategies. Important among these are self-questioning and self-monitoring which get learners to engage independently and actively with the text; post-reading (evaluation) strategies. Williams and Burdan (in Urquhart & Weir 1998: 180 f.) draw on the above and hold that knowledge of strategy involves what strategies should be used for 49 different types of reading task. For teaching purposes, they suggest the following: determining objectives selecting methods predicting difficulties asking questions planning monitoring checking revising plans evaluating outcomes. With reference to how to go about strategy training they advise teachers to: assess strategy use (through think aloud, interview, questionnaire); explain the strategy by naming or telling readers how to use it, step by step; model the strategy by demonstration or verbalization of own thought processes while doing it; scaffold instruction by providing support while students practise; adjusting support to suit students' needs; phasing out support to encourage autonomous strategy use; develop motivation by providing successful experiences.
The explicit teaching of reading strategies, or what can be seen as helping learners learn to read, is what has been seen to be absent in Zulu L2 instruction. Including such instruction in L2 courses will help in doing away with the erstwhile notion that comprehension will 'happen' on its own.
3.3.2.2 Cognitive Strategies Tasks at the local level involve word recognition, automaticity, vocabulary acquisition, grammatical skills and cohesion. Attention has been given to
cognitive strategies in L2 Zulu (see Brokensha & Wood . 1985; Gowlett, Ngwenya & Dowling 1999; Wilkes & Nkosi 1995). 50
Word recognition or decoding Teaching word recognition in L2 Zulu requires a great deal of attention. Because the language is agglutinating and is written conjunctively, a single word often represents what are three, four, five or six words in English, for example Ngingakusiza? 'Can I help you?'. Specific attention must be paid to teaching the recognition of affixes and identification of word stems and roots so that readers can access meaning and learn to use dictionaries at a more advanced level. In the example above, the learner needs practice in 'peeling away' the grammatical morphemes and identifying the verb —siza, if she needs to access meaning of it in a dictionary. To develop rapid word recognition and decoding skills, Haynes (see Urquhart & Weir 1998: 191) indicates the necessity of getting the level of automatized vocabulary up. In the Thuthukani course (Rassmann 1996 — 2000) a systematic colour coding system of affixes, roots, stems and tense markers is used to train learners in the recognition of such forms in Zulu.
Automaticity This involves processing written language without thinking consciously about it. The precise recognition of letters and words and linguistic forms demands basic exercises that teach readers to improve the speed and accuracy of carrying out such activities. It is,now considered more important to recognize words quickly than to try to decode by context. Overlearning, which can be viewed as similar to Krashen's promotion of quantity and 'narrow reading' or reading several texts of a linguistically similar nature (1987: 73), is also suggested because the repetition of similar formulae frees learners to focus on meaning.
Vocabulary Acquisition L2 readers are often dogged by words they have difficulty decoding. Words have to be acquired by learners in the target group before automatic recognition of them can be achieved. Vocabulary acquisition can be achieved and built up by deliberate instruction and language exercises. Dictionary work at this level is not recommended in accessing meaning as it slows reading down. In chapter one the limited time (see 1.3) for teaching L2 Zulu was also 51 indicated as a factor to be considered. Dictionaries do not give information on the situations in which to use words (Krashen 1987; Seelye 1981). In the case of Zulu, dictionaries have lagged so far behind the languages that often the meanings of words, for example `rollerblade', 'video', bling', 'astronaut', cannot be accessed in them at all. In other cases the words in dictionaries do not match what learners find to be in use when attempting to communicate with speakers of Zulu. For example, the word for `(pair of) trousers' is given in Doke, Malcolm et al (1990) as ibhulukwe, but Zulu children doing the Thuthukani (Rassmann 1997) course made use of the word ibhruku (see reference to Byram and Morgan: 1994 in 2.4.1). The teacher should therefore act as a bridge between texts and learners and actively teach vocabulary at the pre-reading stage. d. Grammatical Skills A distinction must be made between vocabulary and grammar work, which is aimed at teaching reading on the one hand, and the using of texts to teach grammar and vocabulary. There is little information or research done on this (Urquhart & Weir 1998: 200), but in the case of teaching Zulu as L2, a great deal of time is devoted working on grammatical forms (and therefore the writing and use of texts to teach grammar) because almost every structure in the language is government-bound. The term 'government' is defined in Trask as: The grammatical phenomenon in which the presence of a particular word in a sentence requires a second word which is grammatically linked with it to appear in a particular form (1999: 106) . Some examples of this in Zulu, which complicate L2 learning especially for children are: uma when'; noma 'although', governing a verb in the participial submood; ake 'please; ngeke `will definitely not' governing a verb in the present subjunctive mood; -ze 'really, indeed' governing a verb in the past subjunctive mood.
The Zulu system of concordial agreement also means that learners must master several forms of what are single items of vocabulary in English. 52
Agreement [is the] grammatical phenomenon in which the form of one word in a sentence is determined by the form of another word which is grammatically linked to it (Trask 1999: 7). For example, in Zulu, the stem —phi? 'which?', will require the learning of a full set of fifteen enumerative prefixes so that learners can recognize the word stem meaning 'which?', which must agree with the noun to which it refers in a sentence. Examples of this are: umfana muphl? 'which boy?' ihhashi liphi? 'which horse?' isinkwa siphi? 'which bread?' Learners in the target group looked at whole words and were not yet able to find word stems. Note also that the word order is different, requiring them to look to the end of the Zulu sentence for the question word, as opposed to the beginning of the sentence when reading English. e. Cohesion Cohesion refers to devices within texts that show relationships between, or replace, different elements. Examples are conjunctions, reference, substitution and ellipsis. Maria (1990) discusses cohesive ties with regard to comprehension instruction and indicates that cohesive ties within a sentence are easier than those operating between sentences. She distinguishes between Cataphoric reference, which requires reading ahead to determine the referent for the cohesive tie (this is difficult for children to do), and Anaphoric reference where the cohesive tie relates back to something read before in the text. She states further: Cohesive ties that replace noun phrases are easier to learn and understand than those that replace verbs or verb phrases and they are easier than those that replace clauses (1990: 139). School-age children have problems with certain conjunctions even on the sentence level. ... deciding which conjunction to teach and when to teach them becomes a problem similar to that encountered with teaching vocabulary (1990:143). Silberstein clarifies cohesion by saying that 'cohesive devices link otherwise independent sentences thereby creating texts' (1994: 67). 53
The skills and strategies that have been discussed above are dealt with below in 3.6 where the 'what to do' aspects of teaching reading are discussed.
3.4 Texts
For the reasons indicated in the introduction, at present the subject of reading texts in L2 Zulu is concerned more with producing suitable texts in a fairly new field rather than with text selection. A text is a '...genuine discourse for a specific communicative purpose' (Evans 1992: 70). Different texts imply different rhetorical structures and differences in genre, for example dialogues, stories, scientific texts, newspaper articles, poetry. In order to learn different reading strategies and become flexible readers, learners must be exposed to different text genres. In addition to this, individual texts will suggest particular teaching activites (Silberstein 1994).
3.4.1 Appropriate Texts Carrel, Devine and Eskey (1988) suggest that texts be not so much simple as appropriate. They also indicate that L2 readers, especially at beginning levels, should be exposed to texts that allow them to encounter complete, self- contained samples of actual written language. This will be shown to be feasible in L2 Zulu in relation to taxis (see chapter four). In addition to this, as pointed out below, several scholars emphasize real needs and interests of learners and relevance to their own experiences, with regard to appropriate texts.
Silberstein (1994) suggests success can be ensured if texts are realistic in terms of learners' reading needs and abilities and that they must be authentic (see below); that reading teachers ask: What kind of reading does the text invite? In what respects is the text similar to the kinds of reading the students will need to do? (1994: 25). 54
Eskey and Grabe indicate that teachers should choose, edit, modify or create appropriate texts, then sequence them in increasing difficulty. Such texts must introduce and provide practice in useful reading strategies (in Carrell, Devine & Eskey 1988: 228).
Brumfit (1986a) suggests the following criteria for selecting (here read 'creating') texts: linguistic level cultural level length pedagogical role genre representation (in Evans 1992: 70).
Kintsch (1998) indicates that texts should have some old information the reader already has and that it be linked with the new information. Too much overlap, or previous knowledge, makes the text boring, but where there is too much new information or too little overlap, comprehension might not occur.
3.4.2 Authentic texts The term 'authentic' tends to imply 'difficult', but with regard to texts it implies language used in non-pedagogic, natural communication. Authentic texts can be simple and should not be confused with simplified texts. The case against the latter is strong. Evans suggests using text attack strategies with authentic texts and says: Simplification often removes cohesive devices and adds additional words which then diffuse the information and texts become too difficult to read (1992: 70). Simplified texts are also known as inconsiderate texts (see Carrell, Devine & Eskey 1988) and these are usually texts 'written to formula' and they are frequently unclear. In contrast considerate texts are ones which are full of idiosyncratic and stylistic connotations. 55
Krashen stresses the need for 'unsequenced' but natural input and is of the opinion that learners do better when they read for meaning in addition to reading great quantities of material. He maintains that a large quantity of reading done by learners leads to linguistic competence (1987: 73). The data taken from taxis and used for reading in chapter four are all of the above, that is, authentic, simple, considerate and unsequenced.
3.4.3 Textual Schemes Maria (1990: 40 f.) distinguishes between Basal readers, Trade books and Content area reading materials and instruction. Basal readers teach the reading process or how to read. Trade books can be linked to Browsing or recreational reading. Maria finds these inadequate with regard to other areas of the curriculum: ... teachers must supplement basal reader instruction with content area reading instruction. Content area texts ... are designed to teach the content of a discipline not the reading process. They are important in reading instruction because they provide the opportunity for functional reading instruction, the application of reading skills and strategies for learning (1990: 40). According to Maria, functional reading is extremely important in the upper elementary, middle and high school years and therefore applies to the target group being discussed. She also maintains that functional reading isn't commonly taught. Teachers think that it is not their job and that basal readers, which are connected to careful reading, will do the trick of producing competent, flexible readers.
Kintsch (1998) describes textual schemas by stating that particular text types tend to be organized in certain ways. Readers must be exposed to many text types, expository and nonexpository prose, and be prepared for mastering different reading skills and strategies by reading as many different text genres as possible. 56
3.5 Motivation and Engaged reading
The role of motivation of the reader is crucial to successful reading. Guthrie and Alvermann (1999) cite the role of motivation in the readers recalling what they know and integrating this with new information. They maintain that motivated readers interact socially, and that as motivation increases, learners' strategic expertise expands as they talk with peers, share and discuss reading. They also emphasize the role of collaboration or working with peers in successful reading and say that to read a wide range of texts requires 'interest and knowledge as well as skill' (1999: 39). They state furthermore that: In determining effective teaching from an activity theory perspective, we must consider such factors as internal motivation, problem solving, social interaction, and the differentiated forms of support offered by the teacher (1999: 49).
An extension of motivation in reading is the concept of engagement. Dewey (see Guthrie & Alvermann 1999) considered motivational rewards to be limited. He called them 'bells and whistles', add-ons to the official curriculum. He believed in engagement or 'reflective inquiry'. Guthrie and Alvermann state that: ... not only is engagement productive for achievement, but it is an integral part of reading proficiency. A fusion of motivation and cognition, of skill and will, of interest and thought is integral to reading engagement (1999: 4) ...the full set of motivational, conceptual, strategic and social operations are central to the engaged reader (1999: 19). ... [Reading engagement] is the condition in which a person builds on existing conceptual knowledge by using cognitive strategies in order to fulfill motivational goals and to understand or participate in a social world (1999: 20).
Thus engaged literacy involves not only a variety of teaching strategies, but taps into the reader's motivation, strategies and reflections too. Engaged reading is frequently task based and in order to achieve the goal or purpose of 57 the task, learners have to comprehend what they read (see 4.7.6, 4.7.7; Table 4.5; Appendix C).
Zulu L2 readers can be motivated to be engaged readers through good teaching, development of reading skills and strategies, and exposure to interactive, transactional, appropriate and authentic texts.
3.6 Reading Comprehension Instruction
Comprehension involves obtaining information from written texts. Comprehension instruction, or what the teacher does to teach reading, focuses on the reading process rather than on the understanding of specific texts. Through comprehension instruction, the teacher bridges the gap between the learners and the reading text. Learners are taught skills and strategies for coping with texts at pre-reading, while-reading and post-reading stages. Maria states that: ... since written language is more difficult to comprehend because of its syntax, organization, abstract concepts, and lack of direct interaction between reader and author, instruction in reading comprehension is necessary (1990: 13).
3.6.1 Factors and skills There are three factors, namely decoding skills, language skills and domain knowledge that work in different ways when a text is being read (Kintsch 1998). Maria (1990: 14) summarizes factors affecting the reading process in a table which is adapted below. She stresses that learners need to be taught: Decoding, or word recognition fluency. This is a bottom-up skill. World knowledge. Schema theory. Background knowledge which is considered to be important in reading because comprehension can fail if it is not activated or already existing. 58
Linguistic knowledge which includes vocabulary, syntax, text structure and structural cue words. Context-dependent language. Comprehension in such cases can only occur if the situation is understood. Metacomprehension which refers to: the reader's knowledge about reading and different reading tasks, the reader's knowledge about herself as a reader, and the reader's knowledge about and use of reading strategies.
Materials for teaching reading comprehension must therefore encompass all of the above. With the exception of world knowledge and cultural schemata, which have been discussed in chapter two, the factors mentioned above will be discussed below and examples of tasks to develop competence in comprehension in learners will be given.
3.6.1.1 Decoding or fluency in word recognition Word recognition is not the same as vocabulary instruction. In word recognition instruction, attention must be given to teaching: Word recognition skills, through structural analysis, for example sort the nouns, find a verb, identify the odd word out. Games and activities that repeat a pattern would promote this. Phonemic awareness, through the use of rhyming charts, songs, rhymes, word games. Promotion of rapid, precise recognition of letters and words by using basic recognition exercises.
3.6.1.2 Linguistic knowledge a. Vocabulary instruction Maria sums up the teaching of vocabulary as follows: Use a variety of techniques based on difficulty of the concept, the level of the reader's world knowledge, the way the text presents the word and the teacher's long and short term goals for vocabulary and comprehension instruction (1990: 110). 59
A variety of strategies is encouraged to maintain interest, motivation to learn and retention of words. In addition to this, there is a strong case for teaching vocabulary in context. Carrell, Devine and Eskey state that: Research specific to L2 reading has shown that merely presenting a list of new or unfamiliar forms doesn't guarantee the learning of the word or the concept behind the word (1988: 243). For success in teaching vocabulary they advocate that words be taught in related sets, that they be taught thoroughly, in context, and that only a few words per lesson per week be taught (see chapter four and Appendix B). Silberstein indicates that vocabulary should be taught from context and that the words can be put in exercises on the sentence level. She suggests selecting words: if the meaning is not available from the context; if the item is likely to impede comprehension; if the word is frequent enough to be worth teaching (1994: 105). Maria, who also points out that simply teaching meaning of words is not effective, says: ... isolated practice using words other than those found in the reading texts is not recommended (1990: 110). She states further that vocabulary must involve conceptual learning and the context of a particular subject; that new schemata be built for existing words and new schemata be built with new words using for example labeled pictures and categorizing of words while reading. She advocates the use of the 'Discriminative Self-Inventory Checklist Learners mark off: * I know it well 11 I know it somewhat — I've seen/heard it o I've never heard of it. She suggests that a difficult word be introduced before reading, be given special attention while reading and be included in after reading activities. Urquhart and Weir (1998: 197) advocate the key-word method, semantic mapping and features analysis. Nuttall (cited in Urquhart & Weir 1998: 199) suggests relating a new word to a known word, contrasting one word with another, relating a word to a word in the L1. 60
Syntax, rhetorical patterns, grammatical features Exercises which teach the rapid recognition of all of the above must be devised. Recognition of rhetorical markers, for example of cause and effect; verb tense; auxiliary verbs; qualificatives; cohesive devices, for example repetition of a noun phrase, using pronouns or demonstratives and recognizing conjunctions and other intersentential devices is essential. In Zulu, the concord system requires extensive attention, partly so that it can be ignored as redundant when meaning is being constructed. Chunking, or phrase identification fits well with searching reading exercises. Matching sentence pairs or phrases is suggested to develop recognition of cohesion. With regard to sentence structure, Maria (1990: 157) stresses the need to understand different types of sentence structure as well as the relationship of one sentence to another and the structure of texts. She suggests that teachers provide learners with scaffolding and support. Short paragraphs that have been specially written as examples of particular structures can be used to give learners practice in recognizing them. Comprehension of sentence structure is well taught by having learners rearrange scrambled words, combine sentences and by asking questions appropriate to the sentence. Exercises making use of the doze technique, which involves deleting content or structure words from sentences, force learners to focus on semantic and syntactic information and use background knowledge.
Text structure instruction can be carried out by the reading of predictable texts by learners, constructing story maps, or giving time order sequences for events in a text.
Textual competence instruction Exposing learners to different text types facilitates competence in genre schemata. Examples of such texts types are prose, expository texts, dialogues, flight, bus or train schedules, advertisements, signs, labels, instructions, graphs, charts, diagrams and maps. The shorter or more concise text types, for example recipes, notes, postcards and advertisements are particularly useful for L2 Zulu reading because of the limited language 61 proficiency of beginners. Advertisements however should be selected carefully if accurate cultural schemata are to be built because in South Africa different cultural groups are targeted by advertisers. Several examples of the same genre can be used for narrow reading to develop fluency and strategic competence, for example the use of letters to Drum magazine (which follow a set formula) in search of pen pals has been used successfully by the writer for helping L2 learners master the genre of 'letters' in Zulu. The texts themselves suggest particular teaching activities, for example recipes in Zulu have a restricted vocabulary and suggest practice with the Imperative and Present Subjunctive Moods. Silberstein (1994) advocates keeping learner interest by not demanding the same activities for each passage. Maria (1990: 150, 152, 155) proposes that textual structure instruction can be developed through the construction of story maps and the learning of schemata for particular genres, for example how to write a dialogue. She also suggests-ordering of events on a time line and asking learners questions that relate to particular aspects of a genre or text type.
3.6.2 Metacognitive strategies To become competent readers, learners require guidance in pre-, while and post-reading skills and strategies.
3.6.2.1 Pre-reading strategies Pre-reading involves predicting, previewing, activating or building schemata and background knowledge of learners. There are many ways to do this. It is concerned with breaking down what needs to be taught in order to read with comprehension and then setting tasks and developing skills that will help learners achieve their goals. Previewing might involve previewing the text to develop an overall sense of content. Visuals can be looked at, a semantic map of the content or concepts can be made. A class discussion, debate of views on the subject, or recounting of real life experiences, can be held to establish what learners know collectively and to establish what still needs to be taught. Culturally loaded concepts can be presented (see chapter two). Vocabulary is introduced. Tasks indicative of a clear purpose for the reading can be set, for 62 example aiding prediction by a questionnaire about the text. Predicting can also be taught if you: give only the first and last sentence of a paragraph and ask for the middle; expose a text bit by bit; ask learners to determine the order of a number of paragraphs; have learners unscramble two intermingled texts; make use of cloze exercises in which function or content words are to be filled in by learners (Carrell, Devine & Eskey 1988: 260). Maria (1990: 88, 91) believes that predicting is best done in groups as this promotes curiosity and the urge to settle arguments. She suggests building background knowledge by: using a story map, which is an outline of a story including setting, characters, action, problem and resolution; making a visual display; carrying out activities linked to the reading, for example making and eating pap before reading about traditional food; reading about a related topic, which would be done in the Ll (see Appendix D); watching a TV program related to the topic (for example the movie 'Taxi to Soweto'); putting up original ideas of learners and asking them to categorize them, and involving learners in setting topical questions themselves. Evans discusses 'manipulating the reader and the environment' (1992: 75) and suggests the use of slide shows, games and task based activities using reference materials.
Advance organizers, which form a conceptual bridge, and scaffolding tasks, can be presented at this level (see Appendix C). An advance organizer is used when the reader does not have the right knowledge or if the text is not explicit. It is a written statement, which must be read, giving the reader an outline of what she will learn or is required to do (Carrell, Devine & Eskey 63
1988: 41). Questions can serve as scaffolding, for example setting yes/no or true/false questions, as can the use of exercises teaching vocabulary, syntax and grammar contained in the text to be read. These should be determined, designed, graded and sequenced by the teacher.
3.6.2.2 While reading strategies Urquhart and Weir (1998: 186) stress the develcipment of self-questioning and self-monitoring strategies. Maria (1990: 73f.) states that learners must be trained to ask and answer good questions, to predict upcoming events, justify predictions with evidence from the text. She suggests using 'think sheets' which learners complete while reading, for example being asked to find categories of words and fill them in on the sheets while as they come across them. Silberstein (1994: 41) advocates stopping at several points during reading to focus attention on prediction and to give practice in recognizing syntactic and discourse clues. She also discusses the concepts of recognizing presuppositions, recognizing words, predicting and self- monitoring while reading. Jigsaw reading would be appropriate here as it involves giving learners different parts of a text and then getting them to work together to create a logical sequence (fitting it together). In a similar vein, 'anomaly' or 'nonsense' exercises, which involve giving learners texts on familiar topics that have embedded in them anomalous words, phrases and sentences can be utilized. Learners must stop when they get to the 'nonsense' ones. Visual imagery or constructing a 'mind's eye' view are considered to be a useful for the development of metacomprehension.
3.6.2.3 Post-reading strategies Post-reading tasks serve to reinforce what has been read as well help in the acquisition of language. There are many ways of assessing comprehension other than by asking questions. Maria (1990: 233 f.) suggests oral discussion, retelling, interviewing, drama and reader's theatre. Many other tasks and activities are effective in when learning must be consolidated. Some of them are: 64
creating a post-reading semantic map. It is useful for learners to compare this with a pre-reading semantic map in order to establish what they have learnt; drawing a hierarchy of ideas from the text read, in a diagram; writing an outline of their own, of a paragraph; giving learners a column of main ideas and a column of details from the reading. Learners work in pairs to match them up; choosing a main idea or title from several choices; answering questions of evaluation and personal response; making a visual summary or display from selected key content; creating a time line, ordering events from the reading; making a flowchart summarizing key events in the text; making use of text-mapping strategies by creating a web of the key content and connecting information with boxes, circles and connecting lines; and answering inferential questions by finding evidence in the text and giving reasoning for it.
Pre-, while and post-reading activities often function together. Maria (1990: 98) suggests worksheets containing What I know, what I want to know and what I learned' sections. In addition she suggests an 'Anticipation Reaction Guide' which consists of four to five statements related to the central text. In the pre-reading stage learners say whether they agree or disagree with the statements. They read them again in the post-reading stage and react again providing justification and information from the text.
3.6.3 Tasks to promote engaged reading Motivation and learner interest are essential to successful reading and thus it follows that the teacher give them attention when designing tasks and activities for reading. Guthrie and Alvermann emphasize that: ... adopting an engagement perspective suggests that reading is not only a constructive process, but a social process as well (1999: 59). 65
They strongly suggest ensuring that there is social interaction in the classroom because when readers interact socially, motivation increases and learners' strategic expertise is broadened as . they talk with their peers, share books and discuss texts. Evans (1995: 64) indicates that activity-based and student-centred methods guide students in the development of general language competence and interpretative skills. The teacher must therefore create opportunities that invite student participation and give them options with regard to tasks. This might involve a choice between reading alone, reading to a friend, listening to a tape while reading silently, or reading each other's work. Urquhart and Weir (1998) agree with this, indicating that the classroom agenda should be 'formative, co-operative and developmental'. Guthrie and Alvermann point out that: ... to read a wide range of texts requires interest and knowledge as well as skill. ... Classroom settings that invite collaboration are more likely to spark interest, effort and attention than settings in which individuals are isolated (1999: 33, 39).
The skilled teacher will organize activities that reflect the kinds of tasks learners might encounter and which reflect what they need to practice. She will also embed skill instruction with meaningful engagements.
3.7 Conclusion
This chapter has been restricted to an outline of those models, theories and approaches to reading, which might be applicable in teaching L2 Zulu to ten to fourteen year-olds. Types of reading, skills, strategies, texts and motivation, or engaged reading, have been discussed. Some suggestions from the literature on the subject of how to teach reading comprehension have been presented. In the following chapter, the theoretical base set out in chapter two and this chapter will be applied and reading tasks devised and demonstrated. The materials will include skills and strategies and types of reading on as many levels as possible within two units of teaching. Multi-level texts will be presented to engage and meet the needs of learners at different levels of competence in a single Zulu classroom. 66
CHAPTER FOUR DATA ANALYSIS AND READING MATERIALS
4.1 Introduction
The issue of making use of linguistically and culturally authentic materials and visuals as referred to in 1.2.5 in the teaching of 'L2 Zulu is addressed in this chapter. The information covered in the previous two chapters is applied. Two units of teaching from the Thuthukani course already devised for teaching L2 Zulu to the kind of learner described in 1.2.7 will be expanded with additional reading materials based upon data recorded from taxis in Gauteng. The purpose in doing this is to demonstrate that several aspects of reading theory and culture can be used to increase the reading skills and strategies, as well as the language and cultural competence, of the target group. As stated in 1.2.7 the target group is not homogenous, has had limited tuition in Zulu in terms of contact hours, has a vocabulary of approximately 500 words and consists of emergent readers. The reading exercises already in the Thuthukani course are included in the appendices to illustrate the development of bottom-up and top-down comprehension skills.
4.2 Supporting and background materials
Because reading does not occur in isolation, but forms part of an integrated holistic language teaching course, which also includes listening, speaking and writing, all the relevant materials forming part of the themes have been placed in the appendices to this work. The reading skill is often combined with the teaching of other skills in a specific lesson. The appended material is categorized as follows: Appendix A — Teacher's lesson materials which contain oral work for listening and speaking and the background knowledge to be used for pre-reading, speaking, writing and scaffolded instruction. Appendix B — Teacher's support materials, namely a game and information resources for a taxi project. The game is used for mastery 67
of new vocabulary. The resources for the project are part of an advance organizer which results in LEA (Language Experience Approach or writing for fellow learners) peer reading. Appendix C — Learners' workbook pages. These contain writing and reading exercises, grammar notes and guidelines for project work. Appendix D — Additional related reading material for use in language across the curriculum, or to provide variety of choice of reading materials for learners already competent in Zulu. These consist of texts written by mother-tongue speakers of Zulu about taxis and articles from the English language media which exemplify or build cultural schemata.
4.3 Types of reading exercises
4.3.1 Exercises for Comprehension Instruction Attention is given to developing both bottom-up (recognition of words, denotative meanings, words in related sets and limited in number as described in 3.6.1.2.a; sentences; grammar and cohesive devices) and top- down (using readers' own interpreting skills as described in 3.1.3.1 above, and strategies), engaged, interactive and transactionist reading. Background knowledge or schemata (see 3.1.3) is developed so that readers can construct their own mental texts as they read (Evans 1992). Exercises giving attention to orthographic, lexical, syntactic and semantic knowledge are included (3.3.1). Careful reading at both local and global levels (3.2.5) is covered. Reading which requires the interaction of learners' background knowledge and the texts is included. New, formal and cultural schemata are built and created through the reading based on the data collection documented in this chapter.
4.3.2 Intercultural competence instruction The activating and building of specific cultural schemata in relation to taxis in the reading exercises is developed in the teaching units. This includes verbal and non-verbal information such as hand signals for catching taxis, messages 68 conveyed through visual information and procedural knowledge for riding in a taxi, which already exist in the Thuthukani course. The cultural schemata are integrated into the lessons in order to raise motivation and facilitate language learning (see 2.2). The information gleaned from taxis portrays the values, world views, and beliefs of the authors of the texts. As will be shown, the texts are frequently incomprehensible and meaningless unless the cultural background knowledge of learners is activated or built up in pre-reading activities, but at the same time they are simple and considerate. Using the Vygotskyan notion of the teacher mediating shared meaning between the text and author, the writer of this study increases learner awareness and understanding by categorizing the texts for them. The interpretation is made by the writer within the context of the application of customs relating to names and naming and Zulu praise poetry, and the author's knowledge of Zulu culture, to the texts, so that transactionist, aesthetic reading can be supported.
4.4 Taxi texts
The data which forms the basis of transactionist reading (see 3.1:4) shown below has been recorded and collected for twelve years. The purpose in collecting it has been to find non-pedagogic, authentic, comprehensible reading material for L2 learners of Zulu in large quantities which, as discussed in chapter two (see 2.2; 2.4.1), will give learners a view of Zulu culture from within and increase their cultural schemata.
4.4.1 Area in which data collection took place The data has been collected in the Gauteng province of South Africa. The area within which it was recorded extends from Vereeniging to Walkerville and Eikenhof, south of Johannesburg. Within Johannesburg, suburbs and areas where taxis have provided reading material include Braamfontein, Auckland Park, Melville, Melrose, Crown Mines, Robertsham, Kibler Park, Mondeor (Southgate), Killarney, Rosebank, Emmarentia, Hyde Park, Aeroton, Illovo, Booysens and Parktown. Taxis in Randburg, Sandton (including Marlboro and Benmore Gardens) to the north and Bruma Lake in the east, have also yielded information. 69
4.4.2 Method of data collection The information on any given taxi was noted and written down exactly as found presented on the vehicle. Precise location of it on the taxi, for example windscreen, back door, rear window, bumper were noted. The colour, font and style of the text were copied.
Supporting visual and other non-verbal images (for example a red rose, black cat, crocodile, cannabis leaf, cross, hands held in prayer), stickers (cap, bulldog, splat, flag, takkie), and advertisements (Nike, Reebok, Jack Daniels, Lacoste) were observed and noted.
The information was stored by month, year and area in which taxi was seen.
4.4.3 Data in chronological order
Table 4.1 Zulu Data Zulu Texts Transactionist Date and place interpretation or translation Nyakaza ndoda "Move about man" 1991 Rosebank UMangwenya "Makes like a crocodile" 1991 Eikenhof; 1992 Johannesburg Yacifosh' imamba "The mamba is ready to 1991 Eikenhof strike" Indaba kabani No 4 "Whose business is it No 4" 1991 Southgate Isilingo No 2 "Temptation No 2" 1991 Walkerville Melusi "Herdsman" 1991 Aeroton Isilungo No 3 "Virtue No 3" 02/1992 Braamfontein Busisiwe "Blessing" 1992 Southgate Pho indaba kabani? "Well whose business is it?" 02/1992 Braamfontein Siza kancane "Help a little!" 02/1992 Johannesburg Suka sihambe "Get up so that we can go!" 07/1992 Crown Mines Xola mthakathi "Be at peace wizard!" . 1992 Southgate Washesha ndoda "You're in a hurry, man" 08/1992 Rosebank 70
Mseshe mseshi "Search him detective" 11/1992 Rosebank Inxeba lendoda alihlekwa "The wound of a man is not to 1992 Eikenhof be laughed at" Proverb meaning 'Don't laugh at others as you may be in the same position one day' uSogweba "He who rounds up (with whip 1992 Eikenhof cracks)" Okay baba wami "Okay my father/man" 1995 Johannesburg Washeiela "He slips out and comes 08/1995 Johanneburg; back" 06/1998 Southgate Ubuyile uLulu "Lulu has returned" 11/1995 M1 South Udlayedwa [sic] "He eats alone" 11/1995 Crown Mines Ukuthula bakithi "Peace, my people!" 1996 Killarney Isidakwasonke No 9 "Total drunkard No 9" 1996 Turffontein Zwakala "Be understanding" 1996 Johannesburg Khululeka "Freedom" 03/1996 Southgate lzandla ziyagezana "One hand washes the other" 04/1996 M1 South Heyi wena suka emva kwami "Hey you get off my back" 1996 Killarney Gugulethu "Precious" 04/1996 M1 South Mamkhoza "Mrs Famous" 04/1996 M1 South Qed'mona (mona is Sotho) "End here" 1996 Killarney Inkulumo ayipheli izintsizwa [sic] "Talk does not finish off our 10/1996 zakithi young men" Bathathe jikelele "Take them everywhere" 11/1996 Sandton lmfihlo umuntu evota "A person's vote is secret" 12/1996 Hyde Park Hamba nabo mshayeli "Go with them driver" 02/1997 Southgate UThandekile ubuyile "Thandekile is back" 02/1997 Southgate lsitha sami uwe "My enemy, you should fall 04/1997 Booysens down!" Senzeni thina "What are we to do?" 1997 Killarney Xolani madoda "Peace, gentlemen!" 1997 Rosebank Ithemba la Mambatha "Mambatha's hope" 07/1997 Walkerville • 71
Bakhaliphicebo [sic] "They cry where is the plan?" 08/1997 Southgate Amandla endoda awapheli "A man's strength doesn't 09/1997 M1 North end" Zibambele ndoda "Restrain yourself man" 09/1997 Crown Mines Inzala bantu [sic] "Gusher/spewer of people" 10/1997 Rosebank Ndlela "The way" 1997 Rosebank Into enjani le ekhuzwayo "What kind of surprise is 11/1997 Crown Mines this?" UNkulunkulu ubathanda bonke "God loves everyone" 11/1997 Rosebank Mbonge uJehova "Give thanks to God" 11/1997 Hyde Park Kancane kancane — Kuyalunga "Slowly slowly — Following is 11/1997 Crown Mines landela [sic] okay" lnkanyezi yokusa "Morning Star" 06/1998 Hyde park Bathini oNdaba "What do the Ndaba's say?" 07/1998 M1 South Woza wedwa ndoda "Come on your own man" 07/1998 Isikhwele sabomakoti "The brides' square" 08/1998 Parktown Indlala ibanga ulaka "Hunger creates anger" 1999 Sandton Biza amaphodisa [sic] "Call the police The dog has 02/1999 Sandton Ivukile inja woken up" Khulumani-ke "Speak then!" 02/1999 Sandton Inhliziyo zenu zingakhathazeki "Let not your hearts be 1999 Sandton troubled" Phambili madlangamandla "Forward furious people of 02/1999 Sandton strength" lnjabulo yentokozo "The joy of happiness" 1999 Sandton Dlula mntanami, ubaba "Pass my child, father is in 12/1999 Mondeor usebhavini the bath" USathane ujampa amafence "Satan jumps fences" 06/2000 Melrose Ezibuhlungu zamadoda azipheli "Men's sorrows don't end" 03/2001 Killarney Ukujabula kuyashintshana "Happiness is reciprocal" 03/2001 Johannesburg Ayizondi inkabi "The ox does not hate" 03/2001 Sandton Nkalakatha "Bigshot" 04/2001 Rosebank Amathunzi amnyama "Black shades" 04/2001 Sandton 72
Ezibuhiungu azipheli "Sorrows do not end" 2002 Randburg Bayajabula — Yiyo leyondoda "They (passengers) are 06/2002 Auckland Park [sic] happy — He's the man (driver)" Amandla endoda "Strength of a man" 06/2002 Auckland Park Isidudla sami "My overfilled grain sack" 07/2002 Auckland Park Beka izindaba zakho "Mind your own business" 07/2002 Melville Thula sizwe "Be quiet so that we can 07/2002 Melville hear" Hawu wahlupha indoda "Oh you have bothered a 09/2002 Crown Interchange ehlupheka Ngiyekeleni madoda man (already) troubled Leave me alone men" Umuntu incwadi engafundeki "A person is an unreadable 09/2002 Auckland Park book" lzitha engizazi nengingazaziyo "The enemies I know and 09/2002 Auckland Park ngizinika kuwe Nkosi those I don't know I give to you Lord" Walala wasala "You snooze you lose" 09/2002 Auckland Park Qoma ntombi ngafa Yinhlamba "Choose (a husband) girl I'm 10/2002 Kibler Park kanyoko dying! It is your mother's curse" Ukuthula akukho "There is no peace" 10/2002 Auckland Park Ukuthula makwande "May peace increase" 10/2002 Eikenhof Nyakaza ndoda weza wedwa "Move about man you come 10/2002 Randburg eGoli by yourself to Johannesburg" Aba thandazi [sic] (with a "They don't pray/Those who 10/2002 Auckland Park Cannabis leaf) pray" Siza Nkosi "Help Lord!" 10/2002 Randburg Uzobuya "He (the driver) will be back" 10/2002 Randburg Siyaya "We are going" 10/2002 M1 Robertsham lncwadi yomshado "Marriage letter" 11/2002 Auckland Park IBhunu lesiganga "Whiteman (Boer) Of the 11/2002 Emmarentia . small round-topped hill" 73
Landela ndoda "Follow, man!" 11/2002 Rosebank Zab'alaza Gogo [sic] "Stand firm old lady" 12/2002 Sandton Kusakusa ezweni "Nationwide" 12/2002 Midrand Nazi lezinja [sic] (Picture of Here are these dogs" 12/2002 Bruma Lake dogs) Sicelo 2 "Request 2" 01/2003 Crown Interchange Isono semali "The sin/crime of money" 01/2003 Marlboro Zibomvu izinhliziyo zamadoda "Men's hearts are red 01/2003 Melrose Arch (Men are brave)"
Table 4.2 Data in other languages English, Afrikaans, Sotho Interpretation Date and place t
Look Listen and decide Song title July 1991, Southgate Remember me July 1991, Southgate Soul Provider Service July 1991, Johannesburg Wheels 2000 July, 1991, Eikenhof Ghostbuster Song Title 07/1991 M1 North Wind of Change 07/1991 Johannesburg I am not Sekorokoro Sotho "I am not a broken- 07/1991 Sandton down crock" Ten to seven Operating time 08/1991 Blue Max Colour of vehicle 08/1991 Oriental Plaza Ha o cha o che che Sotho 'When you're hot 08/1991 Mondeor you're hot" Mr Clean 07/1992 Southgate The Best of the Best Pride in service 1992 Kibler Park Blue Bird Colour of vehicle 1992 M1 South Bara's sow Workhorse' vehicle 1992 Braamfontein Mr Bojang les Song title 1992 M1 South Easy come Easy go Driver's attitude 1992 Robertsham Elton John Boy Name 1992 M1 South 74
Greater is he who dwells in me Biblical 1992 Eikenhof than he who dwells in the world Boeing 727 Driving style 1993 Eikenhof Wildcat JJ 1993 Eikenhof Let it be Song title 1993 Robertsham Nicole Name 1993 M1 South You to you Service 1993 Eikenhof Geneve Name 1993 Eikenhof One more night 1993 Eikenhof Why Lord why Belief, injunction 1993 Eikenhof Suzette Name 1993 Kibler Park Red Rose Colour of vehicle 1994 Kibler Park Highwayman Characteristics 1995 Harrismith Jaquelina Name 1995 M1 South Blue Train Colour of vehicle 2001 Walkerville I'm Mr Don't Care Message to others 03/2002 Southgate The Jackal's friend Trickster from folklore? 03/2002 Southgate You're my angel Song title 06/2002 Crown Interchange Perseverance is virtue Personal philosophy 06/2002 Crown Interchange Mr Clean No 11 08/2002 Southgate The Storm is over 08/2002 Auckland Park Nobody knows ? 09/2002 Auckland Park Fly + 50/50 "Cool" + Song title 09/2002 Auckland Park Poor Man Feel it (with visual Freedom 09/2002 Crown Interchange with hands breaking out of chains) Jesus is the way the truth and Biblical 09/2002 Crown Interchange the answer May God bless you all Amen Mello Yellow Colour of Vehicle 09/2002 Mondeor Black Mamba Colour of Vehicle 09/2002 Randburg Let my enemies live long so that Personal wish 09/2002 Kibler Park they might see my success 75
Nana take me home Service 09/2002 Crown Interchange Why you want umuntu wami "Why do you want my 10/2002 Auckland Park person?" Message to driver behind One Big Family Message to others 10/2002 Benmore Gardens Speed King Driving style (Play on 'Speed 10/2002 Randburg Queen') No Fear Advertising slogan 10/2002 Eikenhof Scorpion Driving style 10/2002 Randburg Try me (Visual of cat and striking 10/2002 Killarney snake) Message to driver behind Don't break my heart Song title 10/2002 Eikenhof Mafia Driver's attitude - 10/2002 Auckland Park Powered by Posh Play on advertising slogan 12/2002 Sandton "Powered by Mercedes Benz" .com.LXH.za Imitation of internet website 12/2002 Sandton Lesedi Sotho "Light" 12/2002 Bryanston Iketle Oupa Sotho/Afrikaans "Relax old 12/2002 Vereeniging man" Message to driver behind . Oxblood 12/2002 Auckland Park Poor But Wise Personal philosophy 12/2002 Walkerville Try again Message to passenger left 12/2002 Vereeniging behind Gee pad 2 Afrikaans "Out of my way 01/2003 Marlboro (number) 2" Alcohol a good stain remover Personal philosophy 01/2003 Robertsham Princess Name for vehicle 01/2003 Eastgate If you read Placed directly below 03/2003 Eikenhof
`Emergency Exit' sign .. , Seke wajaha Lebelo /eya Sotho "Don't rush Speed 03/2003 Crown Mines bolaya [sic] kills" 76 lndoda Ga lzwe [sic] Zulu, Tswana "Let the man 03/2003 Walkerville be heard" Summer Time 05/2003 Auckland Park Everything is in God's Hands 05/2003 Braarnfontein Pledge 06/2003 Crown Interchange God Bless my Passengers 06/2003 Mulbarton
4.4.4 Characterisitics of the texts The reasons for the suitability of taxi texts as potential reading material are: The texts are authentic because they are used in non-pedagogic, natural communication. They are placed on taxis in order to communicate with people in the real world. The texts are considerate (see 3.4.2) and well organized. A considerate text is one which is full of idiosyncratic and stylistic conventions. The texts invite emphasis on the transactionist process of aesthetic reading in which meaning is constructed by the reader (see 3.1.4). The texts reflect the values, beliefs and world views of their authors (see 2.3.5 and 4.5.2) and can therefore be instrumental in building cultural schemata. Learners are given access to the collective imaginings and historical frames of reference of the authors. The texts are short and are therefore within the reading capabilities of the target group. The texts, when presented together provide the learner with a large quantity of reading material. The texts provide the learner with integration, repetition and meaningful use of words and sentences in context. They aid vocabulary instruction which is essential for reading comprehension. Since almost everybody travels to school daily, reading occurs while in the traffic and the same texts are often read again and again. The texts have a readability level compatible with the level of the learners. The teacher uses them by grading and sequencing them according to the competence of her learners. 77
The texts deal with topics that are interesting, contemporary and comprehensible. They are created to fulfil some social purpose, often to send messages to fellow travellers or the world at large, in the language community in which they are produced. The texts can engage the readers in reflective enquiry. Once the interest of learners is engaged and they start 'reading' taxis of their own volition when out in the traffic, much time will be spent reflecting on the meanings of the messages which learners bring back to the classroom. Learners are motivated and begin to read for pleasure; mental texts are constructed, comprehension and integration lead to new knowledge and long term memory storage. The texts are not grammatically sequenced but nor are they inordinately difficult. The texts, because they are found on the backs of moving vehicles, are instrumental in developing flexibility with regard to reading skills such as automaticity, searching and scanning. The texts change constantly and provide new reading material at no cost. The texts can be read both inside and outside the classroom.
4.5 Analysis of Cultural Schemata
Because of the language level of the target group as described in chapter one, the analysis of the cultural schemata of the texts is done from the stance of the teacher as the mediator or bridge between the reader and text author. The aim in doing this is to support the learners while they develop awareness, and understanding of the C2. The analysis is therefore not necessarily `correct', but is the result of the interaction of the background knowledge of the writer with the texts. Learners are `scaffolded' with these kinds of transactions until they are able to interact with the texts independently.
4.5.1 Taxis as conveyors of culture Minibus taxis are cultural realia and conveyors of culture. At the same time they are a source of conflict for South Africans. The data shows that taxi 78 drivers do not view themselves in the same way as other road users see them. Taxis are part of the urban folklore of our society. As a topic they can be used across the curriculum. They are frequently in the news and provide an excellent source of learning and reading material for teachers (see Appendix D). They can be found in advertisements, on news broadcasts, in newspaper articles, cartoons, movies and on the internet.
Because the target group are emergent readers with restricted language competence in Zulu, the English texts are used alongside them to increase cultural awareness. A further objective in the teaching of reading is met because the use of them for skimming, scanning and searching provides learners with skills transferable to other subjects in their school curricula.
4.5.2 lzibongo, lzithopho and Zulu naming customs — Parallels with taxis The information on taxis must be seen within the greater context of Zulu (and African) culture. When the connection between the texts on taxis is made with traditional Zulu customs of naming, the material collected has greater clarity and significance. Taxi texts have not appeared in isolation. They are an extension or progression from the customs and oral traditions of rural life to urban life. They are the same genre, but appear in written form. lzibongo and izithopho are a form of social commentary and a reflection of the lives and culture of their owners and taxi texts are the same genre in a written form.
4.5.2.1 lzibongo In a wider context izibongo are 'praise poems'. On a smaller scale, Koopman says: isibongo ... in the singular it means 'clan name'; in the plural 'praises' and these may be the two lines of praise created for one's favourite dog, to the highly developed and polished praises of the great kings ... a useful way of regarding the concept 'praise in the Zulu context is to regard a praise as any form of address or reference (whether of one word, or extended at length) which seeks to go beyond the basic identity of the individual, and which seeks to further the 79
status of the individual in a positive way (1986: 147,148).
Gunner who considers the word as being English and therefore does not use italics for it, says: Izibongo ... can be translated as `praises' praise names' or 'praise poems'. ... what izibongo are primarily concerned with is naming; identifying and therefore giving significance and substance to the named person or object (1994: 1, 2).
The texts on the backs of taxis often reflect the statement above. In addition to this, Gunner holds that: Izibongo may be freefloating in a way that written poetry is not, but there are still certain conventions of language that mark them off from ordinary speech and give the language a rich, varied denseness. The cluster of praise names which mark and identify a person often make use of very condensed compact language. Information which in normal discourse would be presented in a leisurely expansive form is compressed, often paralactic ... Expression is often cryptic and aphoristic (1994 :4).
When considered in this light, the following names of taxis become clear: IBhunu lesiganga 'Whiteman (Boer) of the small round-topped hill' Based upon Gunner's comments above, this is considered to be a praise name for the taxi. The vehicle is white, hence iBhunu, and operates along Barry Hertzog Avenue in Emmarentia, Johannesburg, and up over the 'round topped hill' of the suburb of Linden. Ukuthula akukho 'There is no peace' This can be interpreted as an aphorism, which is an incisive formulation of a truth or sentiment or a concise statement of a principle.
Another parallel between izibongo and taxi texts can be made using Gunner's following statement: 80
New incidents, harsh observations on the wandering life of an urban worker with few rights can be set in izibongo, alongside more conventional images of strength ... lzibongo can thus be a combination of shrewd revelations on an individual's life and personality, social comment and compressed narrative (1994: 9).
Examples of this can be seen in these taxi texts: Ezibuhlungu azipheli 'Sorrows do not end' Amandla endoda 'Strength of a man' Amandla endoda awapheli 'A man's strength doesn't end' I'm Mr Don't Care Khululeka 'Freedom' Umuntu incwadi engafundeki 'A person is an unreadable book' lsono semali 'The sin/crime/damage of money' Alcohol a good stain remover Poor but wise
Similarly, taxi texts exemplify the following sentiments:
What gradually became evident through listening to izibongo ... and from asking people about their own izibongo and those of others, was the oblique way in which people used izibongo to catch and hold their lives and personalities [italics mine] ... they attempt, through delineating the life ... to rally people around him, to evoke feelings of loyalty and self-identity which relate to a wider set of loyalties with which the leader associates himself (Gunner 1994: 10,18).
This can be seen in the following: UNkulunkulu ubathanda bonke 'God loves all of them' This suggests that we all have an equal place on the roads. Ukujabula kuyashintshana 'Happiness is interchangeable' Jesus is the way the truth and the answer May God bless you all Amen 81
One Big Family The Jackal's friend
4.5.2.2 Izithopho — Personal praises Koopman (1986) has made an extensive study of Zulu names and naming customs and his observations have many parallels with regard to 'naming' of taxis. He uses the term izithopho for personal praises in order to distinguish them from izibongo 'clan names' and izibongo zamakhosi 'chiefly praises'. He distinguishes (stick)fighting praises, dancing and courting praises, descriptive praises (referring to height, skin colour, striking eyes for example) and sports praises, for example for boxing and soccer. To these then the writer adds the new term of 'taxi praises'.
Courting praises often contain references to the attractiveness of the young man which means that he can have his pick of the girls. Taxis praised in this way can have the 'pick of the passengers'. Thus: Mr Clean No 11 Speed King The Best of the Best Bayajabula — Yiyo leyondoda 'They (the passengers) are happy — [sic] He's the man/That's the man'
Dancing praises refer to any special mannerisms, agility of foot movements and speed of movement during ukugiya or 'dancing a war dance'. In football praises speed and agile footwork are the main focus. Compare the dance and football izithopho (Koopman 1986:64) given on the left with these from taxis, given on the right, which refer to driving style, skills or behaviour in traffic. uZindlelazimazombe ct lsidakwasonke 'Mr Zig Zag paths' 'Total drunkard' Kuzuhlanya ct Nyakaza ndoda 'Stop the madman 'Move about man' (frenetic dancing)' Shaluza wemfana ct Washesha ndoda 82
'Flash past boy' 'You're in a hurry, man' Shelela ct Washelela 'Slip out of the way 'He slips out and come back' and comes back'
Others in a similar vein are: UMangwenya 'Makes like a crocodile' The crocodile metaphor is common as is animal metaphor in izibongo. It invokes the image of taxis waiting at taxi ranks like crocodiles basking in the sun, only to slip out into the stream of traffic like crocodiles swimming in water. A taxi with no words was observed near Killarney with the head of a black cat (the driver behind) in the mouth of the crocodile (taxi driver). Boeing 727 Wildcat JJ
(Stick) fighting is still practised in the rural areas and the praises depict general qualities of ubuqhawe 'manliness', fearlessness, enthusiasm and courage. All of these taxis can be similarly described: Amendla endoda 'Strength of a man' No Fear Scorpion Yaqosh' imamba 'The mamba is in a striking pose (try me)' Try me This accompanies the picture of a cobra ready to strike, that is the driver, and a black cat, (the car behind the taxi), provoking the snake with its paw. Make my day Zibomvu izinhliziyo zamadoda 'Men's hearts are red' The colour red here refers to fearlessness and willingness to fight.
Koopman's category of descriptive praises (1986: 67) '...are praises which either (commonly) describe the appearance of the bearer (for example height, skin colour, flashing eyes etcetera) or his personality'. Taxis often reflect their appearance, colour or (driver's) personality: 83
Highwayman This taxi was seen on the highway at Harrismith on the way to Durban. Inzala bantu `Gusher/spewer of people' (Passengers alighting) Isilungo No 3 'Virtue No 3' Blue Bird Mello Yellow Black Mamba Red Rose Bara's Sow (Operating at Baragwanath Hospital) Isidudla sami 'My overfilled grain sack' (Bursting with passengers) I'm Mr Don't Care
4.5.2.3 Name giving categories Koopman states that: ... it is possible for a child to be given a name by one parent that reflects on the other, or refers to some kind of friction within the family ... Zulu prefers rather to bestow such names on dogs (1986: 75). Moving further afield in Africa he quotes Hunt on the vaKaranga that '...when any person conceives that he or she has a grievance against another, it is apparently the practice to bestow a name on a dog which will act as a perpetual reminder to the guilty party of his fault' (1952: 67). He also quotes Samarin writing of the Gbeya, (1965: 57) as saying: The dogs of the Gbeya ... can be looked upon as screens upon which the Gbeya project their attitudes towards many different aspects of their life. Such projection is accomplished by giving to the dogs, names that verbalize complaints, ridicule, humour, and so on. They are short, even telegraphic 'texts' about life in general or about one's particular place in it. .... It seems clear that dogs have names, not to facilitate communication between the master and the dog, but for the sake of the human community. ... the names are used to remind the community of a particular incident or situation. 84
Koopman holds that among the Zulus, dogs' names are used to remind the community of incidents and situations. This appears to have been carried over to taxis in the urban setting. There is all kinds of friction in urban society — taxi wars, road rage, family matters and personalised incidents are all reflected on the backs of taxis, for example: The Storm is Over Hawu wahiupha indoda 'Oh you have bothered a ehlupheka Ngiyekeleni madoda man (already) bothered. Leave me alone men' Qoma ntombi ngafa 'Choose (a husband) girl I'm Yinhlamba kanyoko dying. It is your mother's curse' This would appear to be connected to a marriage proposal. The driver unable to say what he wishes directly, has used his taxi to remind the community of his situation. Ukuthula bakithi 'Peace my people' Senzeni thina What should we do?' Khulumani-ke 'Speak then' Into enjani le ekhuzwayo 'What kind of surprise is this?' Busisiwe 'Blessing' Indlala ibanga ulaka 'Hunger creates anger' Pho indaba kabani? 'Well whose business is it?' Bakhaliphicebo [sic] 'They cry where is the plan' USathane ujampa amafence 'Satan jumps fences' May my enemies live long so that they might see my success Biza amaphodisa [sic] 'Call the police Ivukile inja The dog is awake'
With regard to giving names, Koopman is emphatic that a name is a reflection of circumstances that surround the event of birth or in this case, we believe, at the time of the acquisition of a taxi. This is not the same as the eurocentric concept of a name having a 'meaning'. Koopman cites twenty-four different 85 categories of names pertaining to circumstances at the time of birth of a child. Once more similarities can be seen in the case of taxis.
God/Christianity Siza Nkosi 'Help Lord' Mbonge uJehova 'Thanks be to God' USathane ujampa amafence 'Satan jumps fences' Aba thandazi [sic] 'Those who pray' This could also mean 'They do not pray', as the text was in a circular form with
a dagga/cannabis leaf in the middle indicative of . Rastafarians. lzitha engizazi nengingazaziyo The enemies I know and ngizinika kuwe Nkosi the ones I don't know I give to you Lord'
Number Mr Clean No 11 Isilingo No 2 'Temptation No 2' Isidakwasonke No 9 'Total drunkard No 9' Gee Pad 2 `Out of my way 2 (Afrikaans)'
Injunction, that is, an order or admonition directed either to drivers behind the taxi, to passengers who could not be picked up because the taxi was full, or to society at large. Siza kancane 'Help a little' Thula sizwe 'Be quiet so that we can hear' lnhliziyo zenu zingakhathazeki let not your hearts be troubled' Beka izindaba zakho 'Look to your own affairs' Zibambele ndoda `Restrain yourself man' Okay baba wami 'Okay sir' Suka sihambe 'Get up so we can go' Phambili madlangamandla 'Forward strength eaters/ [sic] heroes' Ukuthu/a makwande 'May peace increase' 86
Xola mthakathi 'Be at peace wizard' Mseshe mseshi 'Pump him for information detective' Nyakaza ndoda weza wedwa Move about man coming eGoli alone to Johannesburg' Walala wasala 'You snooze you lose (stay behind)' Zwakala 'Be comprehensible/audible' Xolani madoda 'Peace men' lnxeba lendoda alihlekwa 'The wound of a man is not to be laughed at' This is a proverb meaning 'don't laugh at me as you never know when the joke will be on you'. lzandla ziyagezana 'One hand washes the other' Also a proverb, this means 'You scratch my back I'll scratch yours'. Heyi wena suka emva kwami 'Hey get away from behind me' Kancane Kancane — 'Slowly, slowly — Kuyalunga landela [sic] It is okay (to) follow' Uzobuya 'He'll be back' Zab'alaza Gogo [sic] 'Stand firm/Don't give way, grandma'
Happiness, trust or luck lnjabulo yentokozo 'The pleasure of thankfulness' Enhlanhleni yesikhova `By the luck of the owl' lsikhova can also mean a 'banknote' and might refer to luck with money. Ithemba la Mambatha [sic] `Mambatha's hope/trust'
Love and gratitude UThandekile ubuyile 'Beloved is back' Gugulethu 'Precious' Ubuyile uLulu 'Lulu is back' Princess 87
Busisiwe 'Blessing'
Father's (here read taxi owner's) circumstances Perseverance is virtue Udlayedwa [sic] 'He eats (works) alone' Hamba nabo mshayefi `Go with them driver'
Pride in the taxi lnkanyezi yakusa 'Morning star' Mamkhoza 'Mrs Famous' Powered by Posh This is a play on words of the advertisement for a different vehicle which reads 'Powered by Mercedes Benz'. Skybird
Two new cateqories can be added to these, namely the concept of a taxi being a modern day 'work horse', and that of naming taxis after popular songs. The first appears to be linked to the custom of animal husbandry. The Zulu in traditional rural society keep animals (Hammond-Tooke 1993). Cattle are highly valued and a sign of wealth. Boys and young men are responsible for their families' sheep, goats and cattle. Oxen are used as work animals for ploughing and pulling sleds. Not surprisingly there are references to herdsmen, herding and oxen in taxi nomenclature. Taxis have become 'oxen' or 'pack horses' in urban areas, not only because of the work they do in transporting (herding) people but also because they appear to replace oxen as a means of making a living. The following refer to this in some way:
Oxen/'Packhorses' Melusi 'Herdsman' uSogweba 'He who rounds up (with whip- cracks)' Ayizondi inkabi 'The ox does not hate' The 'ox' here is a personification of the taxi, the message to other drivers being that the driver has no quarrel with them. 88
Kusindwa nongathwe/e (This refers to the heaviness of the load being transported) Oxblood
Song titles `Ghostbuster `Don't Break My Heart' 'Nkalakatha' 'Bigshot' `50/50' let it be' 'You're my angel' `Mr Bojangles'
4.6 Analysis of Formal Schemata
To develop the bottom-up skills of the target group, the data can be sorted into different categories according to the grammar and syntax which occur in the texts. Exposure to and repeated reading of such features builds up genre competence. The data can be grouped by the most frequently occurring grammatical and syntactic patterns.
4.6.1 Linguistic Schemata The analyses below are confined to the linguistic competence of the target group as based on the Thuthukani course.
4.6.1.1 Imperative This is the command form of the verb and is either singular (command to one person) or plural (command to more than one person). The commands are directed to other drivers, the person directly behind the taxi, or to God.
Hamba nabo, mshayeli 'Travel, go with them, driver!' Nyakaza ndoda 'Move about, man!' Siza kancane 'Help a little!' Siza Nkosi 'Help, Lord!' 89
Xola mthakathi 'Be at peace, wizard!' Landela ndoda 'Follow, man!' Zab'alaza gogo 'Stand firm, old woman!' Khululeka 'Be free!' Woza wedwa ndoda 'Come on your own man!' Dlula mntanami ubaba 'Overtake my child father usebhavini is in the bath' Beka izindaba zakho 'Mind your own business!' Xolani madoda 'Be at peace, men' Khulumani-ke 'Speak then! (plural)'
4.6.1.2 Vocative In Zulu the first vowel of a noun is dropped when speaking directly to someone. This can often be seen in taxi texts. Readers can be given a number of texts and asked to search for such forms, which will serve as a revision exercise. gogo < ugogo 'grandmother' mntanami < umntanami . 'my child' ndoda < indoda 'man' madoda < amadoda 'men' Nkosi < uNkosi 'God' baba < ubaba 'father' mshayeli < umshayeli 'driver'
4.6.1.3 Imperative with Object Concord or Reflexive Prefix Mbonge uJehova 'Thank him, God that is!' Bathathe jikelele 'Take them all over the place' Zibambele ndoda 'Restrain yourself man'
4.6.1.4 Remote Past for emphatic use Verbs can be used in the Remote Past tense, marked by a long vowel -a-, to indicate an emphatic statement in the present (Cope 1982: 178). Walala wasala 'You snooze, you lose' Yagfosh' imamba 'The mamba is ready to strike' 90
Washelela 'He slips out and comes back again' Washesha ndoda 'What a hurry you are in man' Hawu wahiupha indoda 'Oh you are bothering a man ehiupheka Ngiyekeleni already bothered. Leave me madoda alone men!'
4.6.1.5 Sequences of Commands In a sequence of commands, the first verb is in the Imperative form of the verb and the second is in the Present Subjunctive. This mirrors one of the patterns covered in the lesson material of this unit (see Appendix C) where the taxi driver instructs his passenger to 'Get in so that we can go!'. Suka sihambe 'Get up, so that we can go' Thula sizwe 'Quiet, so that we can hear'
4.6.1.6 Present Subjunctive These texts can be used for teaching grammatical competence when this tense is analysed in a later unit in Thuthukani 3. Learners read the texts and identify the different uses of the Present Subjunctive. Suka sihambe Second verb in a sequence of commands. lsitha sami uwe Subordinate clause expressing 'must, should'. Senzeni thina Permissive or deliberative interrogation. Thula sizwe Second verb in a sequence of commands. Indoda Ga izwe Hortative. Ga is Tswana. Corrected for students, the text would be Indoda mayizwe.
4.6.1.7 Concordia! agreement (cohesion) When a noun occurs as the subject of a sentence, the verb or predicative form must have a Subject Concord that agrees with it in class and number (Taljaard & Bosch 1998). lzandla ziyagezana 'Hands wash each other' Ukuthula akukho 'There is no peace' 91
Indtale ibanga ulaka 'Hunger creates anger' USathane ujampa amafence 'Satan jumps fences' UNkulunkulu ubathanda bonke 'God loves everybody' Ezibuhlungu azipheli 'Sorrows never end' Amandla endoda awapheli 'A man's strength doesn't end' Ukujabula kuyashintshana 'Happiness is reciprocal'
4.6.1.8 Tenses Tenses which learners know, can be identified in texts and grouped so that learners can scan them in order to identify them. This will include the Imperatives (4.6.1.1), Remote Past (4.6.1.4) and Present Subjunctive (4.6.1.6). Siyaya 'We are going' Uzobuya 'He will be back' UThandekile ubuyile 'Thandekile has returned'
4.6.2 Syntax Even though language teachers teach L2 learners that Zulu word order is subject verb object, one of the differences between word order in sentences between English and Zulu is the occurrence in Zulu of the subject of the sentence after the verb or at the end of it. This pattern is frequently found in taxi texts and reading them together can help learners master it. lvukile inja 'The dog has woken up" Ayizondi inkabi 'The ox does not hate' Zibomvu izinhliziyo zamadoda 'Men's hearts are red' Bathini oNdaba 'What do the Ndabas say?' Ubuyfie uLulu 'Lulu is back'
4.7 Examples of different types of reading exercises
The themes from Thuthukani contain the following reading activities: • Once oral mastery is attained, core dialogues are read first silently after the teacher for sound-symbol correspondence, and then aloud with the teacher as model for correct Zulu tone and sentence 92
intonation. The overhead projector is used for this. The key at the beginning of Appendix A indicates where overhead transparencies are used. Learners read the dialogues aloud in pairs. The game in Appendix B promotes automaticity of vocabulary. The song Shosholoza is used as a reading and singing exercise because of its cultural significance (see Appendix A), because it fits the story line of going to a sporting match and for the vocabulary (isitimela) and grammatical content, that is where the train comes from (Concordial agreement Class 7). An additional cultural schema is built by learning to sing African call response music. The first theme contains a reading exercise using rhetorical and syntax patterns (see Appendix B). Post-reading exercises involve learners reading their sentences to each other. Peer reading and collaborative reading are achieved through a taxi project (see Appendix A and Appendix C). Learners make use of the materials provided in Appendix B and design their own taxis. These taxis are placed on the walls of the classroom and read by fellow learners. It can be noted here that this has been a most successful exercise in engaged reading and reading for pleasure. Learners have even requested taxis from learners from preceding years on the Thuthukani course because they enjoy them so much. At the end of the two themes learners write and read or act out a mini drama of their own based on all the knowledge they have learnt in the two units (see Appendix C).
The purpose of this study however has been to demonstrate multi-level additional reading material for the target group based on the theories discussed in the preceding chapters, for example word recognition, automaticity, background knowledge, cultural schemata, skimming, scanning, rapid word recognition, chunking. Examples of the application of these theories follow. The first exercises are based on format schemata (see 93 chapter three) or language work, and then aesthetic reading and cultural or content schemata are addressed. They follow the order from easy to difficult.
4.7.1 Searching reading Nonsense/Anomaly (see 3.6.2.2). Note this kind of exercise does not constitute engaged reading.
Read the sentences and cross out the word that doesn't help it make sense.
NgeSonto isitimela urea siya ePitoli
Ngo-5 ntambama ngemoto uVusi uzobukela ibhola. Kusasa ngiya esikoleni ngemoto ngoJanuwari. lthekisi imoto liphuma eThekwini. USibongile uzohamba ngamarollerblades namhlanje ntambama ngani. Ubaba nomama bazohamba isithuthuthu ngani ekuseni?
4.7.2 Scrambled sentences Write each sentence in the correct speech bubble so that the passenger at the back successfully pays his fare.
a. Yebo kulungile. Nayi imali, mshayeli! b. Ngicela unike umshayeli imali! c. Ngiyabonga d. Kulungile, ngicela unike umshayeli imali.
94
4.7.3 Coherence Match the sentences on the left with the ones on the right so that an appropriate form of transport is used. a UVusi uzoya eNew York kusasa. Bazohamba ngethekisi. USipho uzosala ekhaya namhlanje. Uzohamba ngesithuthuthu. NgoMgqibelo omama baya edrobheni. c.- Bazohamba ngemoto. Umngane wami uya eKyalami kusasa. d . Uzohamba ngamarollerblades. Abasebenzi bazovakashela eThekwini. e. Uzohamba ngendiza.
4.7.4 Making use of learners' existing background knowledge Read the sentences and write down the Zulu word for the form of transport
you think would be suitable to travel by.
Izosuka eJohannesburg International ngo-5 ntambama. Siya eMonti. Sizosuka ePark Station ebusuku. AmaHells Angels ahamba ngazo. UVeli uya eMakro kusasa. Uzothenga... Ubaba uzothenga intercedes.
4.7.5 Transactionist reading The following exercises require pre-reading, while reading and post-reading activities. Pre-reading — Class discussion about what learners know about taxis (see Appendix A). Create mind maps of existing attitudes to and knolwedge about minibus taxis. Build learners' schemata by giving a description of categories of taxi texts as described in 4.5 above and illustrate, using examples from Tables 4.1 and 4.2. While Reading — Learners work in pairs or groups to complete the exercises in Tables 4.3, 4.4, 4.5 below. They are requited to read each text and mark off what category they think the text fits into. 95
• Post-reading — Class as a whole discusses their results and substantiate their choices. Learners make a post-reading mind map.
Table 4.3 Learner classification of English texts This promotes searching reading and builds cultural schemata. Read the text and put a cross in the appropriate box to show what you think it means.
ld
r
in iew le or
oy
to s ty l v nce wo j e e le r h s it ra t
na
d u
ing or ious t r n liness rs 's ing i ea
i lig ng he drive iv ide he x rou f t treng Ot Dr Pr Re messag Man Messag Perso So s Copy a app ta o o Tax You're my angel
Oxblood
Princess
Fly 50/50
One Big Family
I'm Mr Don't care
Why you want umuntu wami
Try me
Jesus is the way the truth and the answer May God bless you all Amen No Fear
Make my day
Poor but wise
The Blue train
.com.LXH.za
Powered by Posh
Don't Break my heart
Try again 96
Table 4.4 Learner classification of Zulu Texts Read each text and put a cross in the appropriate box to show what you think the message is.
a
er
ing
h
hy e t s wn ld r wn ng ag nce o her f o t ra losop tre o i wo o in h le s ea
he mess oy to s ty le l p s t j r s ess, app Tit d u
ing o iou
n lin 's ing i n i lig rsona her x iv ide x Pr Re Ot Dr Message Pe Ma arou Copy Song ta Ta Nyakaza ndoda
Amandla endoda
Okay baba wami
Siza Nkosi
Landela ndoda
Uzobuya
Khulumani-ke Suka sihambe
Thula sizwe
Gugulethu
Ayizondi inkabi
USathane ujampa amafence Siza kancane
Sicelo 2
Busisiwe
Ukuthula akukho
Ukujabula kuyashintshana Nkalakatha .
Zibambele ndoda
Bathini oNdaba 97
Table 4.5 Learners' engagement in transactional literary reading This exercise should be converted to, and done in Zulu by Ll Zulu learners working in pairs. L2 learners answer in English. Class discussion follows.
Write down what you think each driver had in mind when he had this information put on his taxi.
Melusi
Ukuthula bakithi
UNkulunkulu ubathanda bonke
Kancane kancane — Kuyalunga landela Beka izindaba zakho
Walala wasa/a
Uzobuya
Siyaya
lsitha sami uwe
lzandla ziyagezana
4.7.6 Jigsaw reading
This is engaged reading. Divide the class into six groups. Have each of the following texts on separate cards which are shuffled and dealt to the six groups: 98
Busisiwe Heyi wena suka emva kwami Gugulethu Zibambele ndoda UThandekile ubuyile Landela ndoda Mamkhoza Okay baba wami Chantal Xolani madoda Melusi Isitha sami uwe USogweba Zibomvu izinhliziyo zamadoda Inzala bantu Amandla endoda awapheli Isidudla sami Amandla endoda Bara's sow Biza amaphodisa. Ivukile inja UNkulunkulu ubathanda bonke Washelela Mbonge uJehova Nyakaza ndoda Siza Nkosi lsidakwasonke Kusakusa ezweni Bathathe jikelele Izitha engizazi nengingazaziyo Inhliziyo zenu zingakhathazeki ngizinika kuwe Nkosi
Each group draws a card with one of the following categories on it:
Function or use of the vehicle Faith, belief Message to driver behind `Man'power, strength of a man Name of the taxi Driving style
Learners must negotiate for texts that fall into their categories by swopping cards with other groups until each group has the five texts that fit into their category. 99
4.7.7 Izimpicabadala — Riddles The cultural knowledge and vocabulary of more competent learners is extended by giving them these traditional riddles to read. Each answer is a form of transport chosen from the word bank shown . imoto; ibhasi; ibhonoyiiindiza; Funda ukhethe! isitimek; umkhumbi
Nghikuphica ngomuntu wami ogijima edolobheni. Ngikuphica ngenyoka yomgwacio. Ngikuphica ngomuntu wami odla, ehlanza. Ngikuphica ngenkunzi endiza emoyeni. Ngikuphica ngesitimela samanzi. Ngikuphica ngenyoni yami okuthi uma indiza ingawashayi amaphiko.
4.8 Conclusion
The material in this chapter has been used to demonstrate that the theories, practices and research described in chapters two and three, in conjunction with the material in Appendices B, C and D, can be successfully applied to the teaching of reading in L2 Zulu to the target group defined in chapter one. Data taken from minibus taxis has been analysed and used to illustrate that aesthetic or literary reading is within reach of the group. Examples of several types of activities and exercises at varying levels have been given to show the teaching of reading to diverse groups of learners. Through the use of the core materials, the tasks and activites were designed to facilitate learners' motivation, engaged reading, reading comprehension and intercultural competence. 100
CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusions
This study has investigated the theories, models and approaches concerned with the reading process, reading comprehension and cultural comprehension, and the teaching of them.
A survey of existing courses designed for Zulu as a second language for the target group, found that specific attention to the teaching of reading and reading comprehension, with respect to current research, was lacking. An examination of reading exercises in published courses showed that reading had not progressed beyond the transmission and translation models and that the development of fluent flexible reading skills and strategies with the purpose of constructing meaning had not been advanced. The development of genre competence was not evident and collaborative, engaged reading was not given attention. Construction of mental texts and transactionist reading had not been addressed.
Inadequacies in cultural content in reading were found to be attributable to a lack of integration of formal and cultural schemata in the presentation of materials, the existence of inappropriate cultural schemata or the addition of uncontextualized background knowledge. The absence of the development of the building of cultural schemata to aid reading comprehension was noted.
With regard to metacognitive strategies, there was a lack of variety in post- reading exercises in the existing courses. Such exercises were usually in the form of questions which required predetermined answers. Pre- and whilst reading strategies were not given attention.
The application of the principles and research of the subject investigated to a unit of teaching, showed that Zulu L2 reading in the intermediate and senior primary school phase can be taught succesfully in its own right; is able to 101 include the integrated learning of cultural, textual and formal schemata; and that transactionist and literary reading with correct choice of authentic texts, is possible.
That 'Reading comprehension provides a unifying thread for the integration of instruction in all the language processes' (Maria 1990:203), has been demonstrated. The materials in chapter four and the appendices have shown that reading can play an effective role in a variety of language learning contexts. The teaching of searching, skimming, scanning, efferent, aesthetic and engaged reading, word recognition, automaticity, cohesion, grammatical skills have been presented as part of and integral to cultural schemata and language learning. That reading materials that are well designed and taught can develop learning skills and strategies, and language skills in other areas, and increase the background knowledge and intercultural competence of learners in the target group has been shown.
5.2 Recommendations
It is recommended that in developing reading materials designed for L2 Zulu and the teaching of reading comprehension, the following should be considered:
Situations Select topics or themes that are culturally comprehensible for the target group and that link and integrate language acquisition with acquisition of culture. Use these situations as the basis of syllabus design and the starting point to the teaching of L2 Zulu. Select situations that take into account the age, interests and cognitive capacities of the target group. Identify areas of common or diffused culture within South Africa and make use of these in materials development. Identify and make use of important areas where effective intercultural communication might be essential in the world beyond school. 102
Avoid 'unnecessary' schemata, that is ones which are not contemporary, comprehensible or appropriate for the target group. Create a long-term cultural development program alongside of a vocabulary and grammar development program. Use the mother tongue of learners to teach those aspects of cultural schemata that might be deemed necessary but, because of the linguistic level of the group, cannot be presented in the L2.
Texts Create texts that are founded in the reality of contemporary life, that are considerate, well written and carefully organized, that promote the mastery of different text genres. Make use of texts with local settings and which specialize in high frequency vocabulary. Utilize synthetic (written to fit requirements of skill instruction) and authentic texts for both formal and cultural schemata. Develop tasks and activites at different levels of complexity for the texts that help learners view the target culture from within. Provide large quantities of reading materials with natural sequencing of language at the appropriate reading level of learners. To avoid the 'one size fits all' approach, refrain from translating texts and situations from other languages or cultures.
Strategies Make use of the research from Applied Linguistics, that is sociology, psychology and anthropology in developing materials. Use a variety of strategies for vocabulary development; training in the use of advance organizers and styles of reading; practice in developing topical questions before and post reading; enrichment of background knowledge. Devise exercises that give training in automaticity, reading, comprehension and interpreting, in a contextualized and integrated manner. Design exercises for grammatical competence and grasp of vocabulary and culture. 103
Make use of scaffolded instruction, and break down tasks into pre- while and post-reading activites Design tasks that focus on comprehension, application and reading for different purposes. Train learners to use strategic reading, to comprehend and interpret texts. Embed skill instruction with meaningful engagements. Train teachers of L2 Zulu in L2 teaching methodology.
Classroom settings Provide tasks to invite collaboration in the classroom, that foster social interaction, that is learners working with teachers, pairs, groups, discussion and feedback, and buzz groups. Provide learners with multi-level and a choice of tasks that engage and motivate them to read. 104
APPENDIX A KEY TO AND LESSON MATERIALS FROM TEACHER'S BOOKS
Icon Description C C Overhead transparency. Each one carries a number.
TA/11, Show only the half of the transparency indicated a or b. T o Overlay for a transparency with the same number. The corresponding underlay should always be put up with AIDS
NG VA Visual Aid. These are picture cards to be used for
vocabulary learning and getting meaning across.
TEACHI They are also great for revision, using in tests, handing out to learners for role play and competitions. F Flashcard. An efficient way to teach new words and
focus attention on difficult phrases. Help in reading. TR Teacher's Resource. Background information for projects and cultural enrichment. w Workbook activity. Books closed at all other times.
Ukufundisa — Lesson input. Teacher to be actively engaged in getting content across.
Ukufunda — Reading either aloud for pronunciation practise or silently for grammar or meaning.
Co-operative learning or Pairwork.
Ukulalela — Listening exercises
Tape for song , game, pronunciation or listening.
Ukubhala — Written work for learners * • ea, ••• Groupwork, Game, Independent or Project work
lmisebenzi — Speaking Exercises for oral mastery.
Ukukhuluma — Learner input, Role play . 105
Work on the Chalkboard.
Assessment suggested.
Print Description
4 ISIFUNDO A theme or unit of teaching
Specific Outcomes are given at the beginning of each Unit
4 Cross referencing and further notes or tips for the teacher
4 A single line separates tasks or activities within a lesson
A double line shows the end of a lesson or how far you should teach at a given point. Pressing on regardless leads to brain overload in learners. Teach less than a lesson, but not more. If time is left over, round off with revision activities, using what has been learnt in games, competitions, dictations, marking work or speaking. Do not cancel lessons — five minutes is better than none.You will notice that most lessons are designed so that the first half is teacher input/whole class activity (where they need a teacher) and the second half is individual (where they don't need a teacher), that is, devoted to Workbook activities. It is essential for consolidation of language that learners complete reading and writing activities as soon as possible after oral work. Slower learners should do this at home.
+Bold TypeAll isiZulu language to be taught — dialogues, speaking, listening cues, vocabulary, sentences Headings Teaching aids to be used
4Italics The information that you should convey to the learners — the actual lessons
4Plain Type Notes to the teacher. These are tips and suggestions on how to proceed
4( ) Non-verbal cues or substitution of cues e.g. (man) means 'hold up a picture of a man' (name) means use the child's name when giving the cue. 106
The following lessons are firstly from Thuthukani 2, then Thuthukani 3 ISIFUNDO 12 UKUHAMBA
➢ Isandiso sokusebenzisa - nga- Umbuzo mate Amabizo — forms of transport and game - Shosholora ➢ Describing and writing about where, how and when you travel Amasiko — Urban folklore - asrtatbekisi Taxi project - owning and personalising a taxi
Ukucula Shosholoza
T2.56 Shosholoza, kulezo ntaba W 53 Isitimela siqhamuka eSouth Africa
Wena uyabaleka, kulezo ntaba Isitimela siqhamuka eSouth Africa
This song started out as a work song sung by migrant workers who came to work on the mines in Johannesburg. These workers came to the city by train. Today the song has become a national song usually sung at sports gatherings. The song follows the leader-chorus' principle of African music. The leader's part and the part of the chorus overlap.
T2.56 Point out to the learners that on the transparency there are three different colours. Red represents the leader's part. Blue is for the part the chorus sings and purple shows where they all sing together or overlap.
Learners repeat the words of the song after the (- Learners can use page SO in The Workbook teacher for pronunciation. when They practise for They sing with the tape doing only the leader's the class competition part — point to the words and cue them when to sing. They ignore the leader and sing the chorus part with the tape. Divide the class into two. One half sings with the leader and the other half sings with the chorus.
107
Inkulumo Uhamba ngani?
Vusi is back from America. Bongani his cousin is going to a soccer match in Durban between South Africa and Egypt.
T257b Uyaphi ngoMgqibelo?
Ngiya eThekwini.
..... Uhamba ngani?
Ngethekisi.
Uzobuya ring?
NgeSonto.
Ukufunda Learners read the dialogue aloud for pronunciation. T2.57a
M5C _ A n,,,hi v" MN • ff,■■• Use the pictures to teach these modes of transport. T2.58 indiza; ibhayisikili; imoto; isithuthuthu isitimela; ithekisi
Ukubhala Copying
T2.57a Learners copy the dialogue down on the top half of W 54 page 54 in their Workbooks. T2.58o On the bottom half of page 54 they copy the modes of transport down from the transparency.
Umdlalo `Izinombolo'
See the section on This game reinforces the vocabulary taught above. Ganes In the Make sure that you demonstrate the rules and introduction for the procedures clearly before the learners start rules playing. The game can also be kept for end of 1 term. 108
Imisho UChakijana uyakhuluma
Listen while I point to each picture and say how Chakijana is travelling. Teach these phrases till learners are fluent, then teach the sentences.
T2.59 "by bicycle" ngebhayisikili; "by rollerbiades" ngamarollerblades "by taxi" ngethekisi; "by car" ngemoto "by train" ngesitimela; "by plane" ngendiza "by motorbike" ngesithuthuthu
I Keinember to make Ngihamba ngebhayisikili sure learners know the weaning of the Ngihamba ngamarollerblades sentences they are saying Ngihamba ngethekisi
Ngihamba ngemoto
Ngihamba ngesitimel a
Ngihamba ngendiza
[ Ngihamba ngesithuthuthu
Ukufunda Learners read the sentences aloud for pronunciation. Make sure they look carefully at the T2.590 way the phrases are written
Imisebenzi a. Let's revise some place words so that you can say where you are going. Give the English meaning for these places:
eGoli / to Johannesburg eThekwini / to Durban eMonti / to East London ePitoli / to Pretoria eSouth Africa / to South Africa eCape Town / to Cape Town
b. I'll ask you where you are going. Answer saying that you are going to the place you are cued. Uyaphi? Ngiya e (cue) x6 places
109
Use cues that you can manage. Draw a quick map and fill in places. Use a map from the media centre, or just cue the places orally. After the class has practised together, ask individuals the question and let them give their own answers.
T2.58 c. / will point to a picture and ask you how you are ► travelling. Say you will use the transport I point to. Uhamba ngani? J [Ngihamba nge_.(sa)
d. List the following on the blackboard or bring a prepared list with you to put up for this exercise. ngoMgqibelo ngo-8 ngophasi-5 ngeSonto ngoJanuwari ngo-2 ngoDisemba
Imagine that you are going somewhere. I will ask you when you are coming back. Use the cue I point to. Use the words on the board as cues when you ask the question. I Uzobuya nini? [Ngizobuya (cue ) T2.60 e. Use this transparency to integrate all the ► questions. Learners answer all three questions at a time, saying where they are going, how they are travelling, and when they will return. Extend this by getting the whole class to ask volunteers the three questions: Uyaphi? Uhamba ngani? Uzobuya nini?
Ukubhala Copying
T2.590 Learners copy down the sentences with the modes of W 55 transport on page 55 of their Workbooks. •
Ukubhala Note making
T2.61 Work with the learners on one block at .a time, exposing will be using yellow, orange and green W 56 crayons to code the rules. 110
Odour Code all Read the meanings for nga- in the box with sentences on the Chakijana. transparency: In the rule box (top left) learners should colour MP- yellow nga- yellow, nge- orange and ngo- green. nge- orange Learners copy the sentence Ngihamba green ngamarollerblades down and colour code nga- yellow. Learners copy the sentence Ngihamba ngebhayisikili and code nge- orange. Learners copy the sentence Ngigeza ngo-6.15 and code the ngo- green. Learners colour in the questions ngani? and `how?' the same colour. Finally in the box on the bottom right, get them to work out all the meanings of nga- they have learnt.
Reproduction
W 57 Learners consolidate this section by doing the exercise on page 57 in their Workbooks. I
••• :el Amasiko Taxis – features that make them unique
Any additional Discuss taxis in different parts of the world and information from how different countries or famous cities, e.g. your area or learners London, New York, Mexico City, Morocco have can be added to this. their own distinctive looking taxis. the sky is the limit. Move on to our own South African minibus Taxis. Find out if learners have seen any and whether they have noticed what they look like. Design a South African taxi
TR6-11 In different areas of the classroom, put up examples of authentic taxi graffiti as supplied in the teacher's resources.
This information is classfied under the headings: Names (6a-c); Taxi Associations (7a-c);
t:!E Bumper stickers (8a-d)41FS Flags (9a-b);
OSIoqans(10a-c); Football Clubs(11a-d) 111
Explain to learners that they are now taxi owners and must consult the information you have put up on the walls and choose information from different categories to create their taxis.
W 58 Learners have a brief on page 58 of their ► Workbooks. They consult the information put up and make rough notes on this page. After this decision making exercise, learners convert the information to reality on page 70.
W 70 ► Assess the taxis according to the grid on page 70 in the Workbook. Put them up as a classroom display and for learners to read each others' work.
ISIFUNDO 1 UKUBULISA NOKUVALELISA More greetings and goodbyes Catching a taxi and paying the fare Asking someone to do something politely Revising vocatives, adverbs of time; Untbuzo -phi? Non-verbal taxi language Giving a sequence of commands Writing a dramatization and acting out a Journey on a taxi
Inkulumo A taxi driver, on his way from Umlazi to Durban, stops at a garage for petrol.
T3.1 [Siyabonana, mnumzanel
Sibonene, ndoda!
Ninjani?
Sikhona, singezwa nina?
Sikhona. Ngingakusiza?
Ngicela uphetroli we-R50.
Kulungilel 112
Ngiyabonga. Nayi imali! Sala kahle!
Imisebenzi Revising the terms for the Khumalo family. T3.2 Point at each family member as you ask Ngubani lo?
/ ubhuti / usisi / umama I ubaba I umkhulu / ugogo
We are going to practise using the new way to say 'hello': Siyabonana...
I'll say umkhulu and point to him. You say: Siyabonana mkhulu
umkhulu / Siyabonana mkhulu ugogo / Siyabonana gogo ubhuti / Siyabonana bhuti usisi / Siyabonana sisi umama / Siyabonana mama ubaba / Siyabonana baba
T3.2 Now imagine that each member of the family is greeting you. Return the greeting usin: Sibonene...
(umama)Siyabonana mfundi / Sibonene mama (ubaba) Siyabonana mfundi / Sibonene baba (umkhulu)Siyabonana mfundi / Sibonene mkhulu (ugogo)Siyabonana gogo / Sibonene gogo (uVusi)Siyabonana mngane / Sibonene bhuti (uNomvula)Siyabonana mngane / Sibonene sisi
Practising Sizobonana 'Goodbye'; which you can teach learners to contract to Sobonana.
Sizobonana means 'We will see each other'. these words are When I give you a time, imagine that you are from thuthukani ■ telling a friend that you will see them then.
113
Let's begin by going through these words. Give me the English for:
ngoMgqibelo / "on Saturday" ngeSonto / "on Sunday" esikoleni / "at school" kusasa I "tomorrow" ebusuku / "at night" ngo-5 / "at five o'clock" ntambama / "in the afternoon"
When I give you a word, say goodbye to your friend.
ngoMgqibelo / Sizobonana ngoMgqibelo ngeSonto / Sizobonana ngeSonto esikoleni / Sizobonana esikoleni kusasa / Sizobonana kusasa ebusuku / Sizobonana ebusuku ngo-5 / Sizobonana ngo-5 ntambama / Sizobonana ntambama T3.3 ■ d. Let's go through these pictures before we do the next exercise. Give me the isiZulu as I point:
'a man' is... I indoda `Mr, gentleman' is... / umnumzane 'a worker' is... / umsebenzi 'girls' are... / amantombazane `boys' are... / abafana 'friends' are... / abangane 'doctors' are... / odokotela 'fathers' are... / obaba 'mothers' are... / omama
How would you ask these people how they are? I'll point to the pictures and you ask them. You will be revising If I point to the man, you say: Ninjani ndoda? the Vocative rules from If I point to the doctors, you say: Ninjani Courses I and 1 bodokotela?
(indoda) / Ninjani ndoda? (umnumzane) / Ninjani mnumzane? (umsebenzi) / Ninjani msebenzi? (amantombazane) / Ninjani mantombazane? (abafana) / Ninjani bafana? (abangane) / Ninjani bangane? (odokotela) / Ninjani bodokotela? (obaba) I Ninjani bobaba? (omama) / Ninjani bomama? 114
Divide the class in two, or let learners work in pairs. One (half) plays the part of the person or people in the pictures, and says they are fine when You can swop roles asked. The other (half) imagines that they are halfway through talking to them and asks them how they are.
I'll point to the man. Group/learner 1 says to groupneamer 2: Ninjani ndoda? Group/leamer 2 says to group/leamer 1: Sikhona, singezwa nina?
(indoda) / Ninjani ndoda? / Sikhona singezwa nina? (umnumzane) / Ninjani mnumzane? / Sikhona singezwa nina? (umsebenzi) / Ninjani msebenzi? / Sikhona singezwa nina? (amantombazane) / Ninjani mantombazane? / Sikhona singezwa nina? (abafana) / Ninjani bafana? / Sikhona singezwa nina? (abangane) / Ninjani bangane? / Sikhona singezwa nina? (odokotela) / Ninjani bodokotela? / Sikhona singezwa nina? (obaba) / Ninjani bobaba? / Sikhona singezwa nina? (omama) / Ninjani bomama? / Sikhona singezwa nina?
Ukufunda Put the dialogue up again and call on pairs of learners to act out the parts. Tell the class that for the rest of the year you will use these forms of greeting at the beginning and end of each lesson. Here is an example. T3.1 Uthisha: Sivabonana, bafundi! Abafundi: Sibonene thisha! Uthisha: Ninjani? Abafundi: Sikhona singezwa nina? Uthisha: Sikhona/sisaphila
At the end of the lesson say goodbye like this:
Uthisha: Sizobonana bafundi Abafundi: Usale kahle thisha!
115
Ukubhala Copying
T3.1 Learners copy down the dialogue on page 1 of W 1 their Workbooks.
Amasiko Ukugibela ithekisi
Ask learners if they have ever seen a taxi rank. Where is it? Get them to describe it.
In South Africa, taxis wait at taxi ranks for passengers. A taxi driver has a set route and will leave whenever his taxi has some passengers.
1.SignaIs vary from If a person is not at a rank, and wants to catch a area to area. You taxi, he or she stands at the side of the road and need to find out what gives a special signal to the driver as the taxi those in your area are. approaches. If the driver is on that route he will Or get your learners to stop. ask someone who uses taxis often Before telling the class what the signal for a taxi is, see if anyone in the class knows. Some learners might know more than . one signal.
The most generally used sign is to hold up the index finger pointing in the direction the passenger wants to go. When a taxi stops, passengers get in Learners can fbid immediately and once the taxi is going, they pass out about fares too their fare forward. The fare is usually set for each route. Other passengers will pass the fare forward 1 and the change back again, if necessary.
Inkulumo Teach this dialogue in two parts when doing the oral work. Do it as a whole when you get to reading aloud and copying.
T3.4a Our taxi driver pulls out of the garage and, not far away, he sees Mrs Ntuli, who is going shopping in Durban, signalling for a ride to town. He pulls over. Uyaphi, mama?
Edrobheni.
Ngena, sihambe! 1 0, kulungile!
116
Mrs Ntuli climbs into the taxi. The driver pulls off immediately. Mrs Ntuli who is in the middle row asks the person in front of her to pass her fare to the driver.
T3.4b Ngicela unike umshayeli imali!
[ Yebo, kulungile. Nayi imali, mshayelil
Ngiyabonga!
Ukufunda Learners read the dialogue aloud, first after you, then in threes, from the overhead transparency. T3.5
Imisebenzi a. Practising the phrase Ngena, si el
Give me the English meaning of each isiZulu verb / say. Itevising previously learnt words thula / "keep quiet" -lalela / "listen" -phendula / "answer" -dla / "eat" phuza / "drink" dlala / "play" funda / "read" bhala / "write"
When I give you a phrase, tell your friend to come into the classroom, so that you can do the activities I give you.
I'll say: ...sithule "so that we can be quiet" You say: Ngena sithule "Come in so that we can be quiet" I'll say: ...silalele "so that we can listen" Go over the answers You say: Ngena silalele "Come in so that we can again and cheek listen" understanding by getting learners to ...sithule / Ngena sithule give you The English ...silalele / Ngena silalele for each sentence ...siphendule / Ngena siphendule 117
...sidle / Ngena sidle ...siphuze / Ngena siphuze ...sidlale / Ngena sidlale ...sifunde / Ngena sifunde ...sibhale / Ngena sibhale
You are on a school trip and one of your teachers is driving the bus (use the name of a teacher in the school). Ask the friend in front of you to give him whatever item I call out.
If I say: amaswidi You say: Ngicela unike uMr (name) amaswidi If I say: itiye You say: Ngicela unike uMr (name) itiye
amaswidi / Ngicela unike uMr (name) amaswidi itiye / Ngicela unike uMr (name) itiye iCoke / Ngicela unike uMr (name) iCoke iFlake / Ngicela unike uMr (name) iFlake ubisi / Ngicela unike uMr (name) ubisi isinkwa / Ngicela unike uMr (name) isinkwa
Ask your friend to give each person the money you owe them. I'll point to a picture and say the word.
T3.6 I'll point to the woman and say: umama You say to your friend: Ngicela unike umama imali I'll point to the teacher and say: uthisha You say: Ngicela unike uthisha imali
umama / Ngicela unike umama imali uthisha / Ngicela unike uthisha imali ubaba / Ngicela unike ubaba imali usisi / Ngicela unike usisi imali ubhuti / Ngicela unike ubhuti imali usista I Ngicela unike usista imali udokotela / Ngicela unike udokotela imali
Imagine that you are catching a taxi. I'll ask you where you are going and point to a place. Say that you are going there.
T3.7 If I point to Cape Town and ask: Uyaphi? You answer: Ngiya eCape Town Uyaphi? / Ngiya e (eCape Town) / (egaraji) / (edrobheni) / (eGoli) /
118
(eMonti) / (eThekwini) / (ePitoli)
■• Ukubhala Copying
T3.5 Learners copy the dialogue down on page 2 of their Workbooks. W2 Revision W3 ■ The crossword puzzle on page 3 should be completed before the net lesson i
••• :01 ••••• Ukubhala nokukhuluma W 4, 74, 5 You will need to use two, but at the most, three lessons for this recombination work.
Divide learners into groups of not more than four to work out a mini drama. Each group consists of a taxi driver and three passengers whom he picks up on his route.
Each time a passenger signals the taxi and the taxi (Use props such as four stops, the driver must greet her and ask her where chairs in a row to she is going. Each passenger must get in and pay represent the taxi. the fare or ask a fellow passenger to pass the Learners' own money forward. Passengers can talk inventiveness and props to each other using approriate isiZulu to suite their can be given extra characters. At the end of the journey driver and narks. Remind thew to passengers must say goodbye. use correct hand signals and terms of address On page 4 in the Workbook learners have an outline of what to do. The group should jointly } work out a rough draft of the drama on page 74. This must be handed in for correction before the oral presentation and written out on page 5 by each learner. Give a mark for both the spoken presentation and the written script. 119
APPENDIX B
SCANNING READING FOR BACKGROUND/CULTURAL INFORMATION
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GAME FOR DEVELOPING AUTOMATICITY OF VOCABULARY
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ikhadi elilodwa amakhadi amabili amakhadi amathathu
• 124
APPENDIX C LEARNERS WORKBOOK PAGES FROM THUTHUKANI 2: 53 F; THUTHUKANI 3: 1 — 4 SHOWING READING (AND WRITING) EXERCISES.
Umculo
Dash away, Shosholoza, dash away Shosholoza, ku/ezo ntabo Aitimela skiharnuk, eSouth Africa From those mountains. Shosholoza The train is heading for South Africa. Shosholoza, ku/ezo ntaba sigthamulgieSouth Africa You are running away From those mountains. Wen uyabaleka The train is heading for Wen uyabaleka, ulezo ntabo South Africa. sigharn4t1 eSouth Africa
DBY450* GP 125
Reading aloud for pronunciation and acquisition of vocabulary.
UBONGANI UYAPHI? Idethi:
Bongani, Vusi's cousin, is planning to go to a match between Bafana Bafana and Egypt.
Where are you going on Saturday?
I'm going to Durban.
How are you travelling?
By taxi.
When will you come back?
On Sunday.
■
Bhala amagama!
■-■1•111.111111 IMOPIIErt --- • 111111111MO MI • - 126
ISIFINYEZO Idethi:
"by, on, at, in, with"
/ Vowels
nga- + a- nga- nga- + i nge- nga- + u- ngo-
Ngihamba ngesitimela "I travel train" Ngivuka ngo- 6 "I wake up six" Ngizobuya ngeSonto "I will come back Sunday" Ngizofika ngoJanuwari "I will arive January" 127
Constructing sentences through reading comprehension. UKUFUNDA NOKUBHALA
Write meaningful sentences describing your travel plans. Read them to a friend.
NgeSonto NgoMgqibelo esikoleni. Kusasa eGoli. eMonti. Ngo-5 giya Ngihamba /off Ngizobuya Ngophasi-6 ePitoli. nge- Ngo-2 ---ekhaya.
NgoJanuwari eThekwini.
NgoJulayi eMlazi.
1 . 72e./0- offai,a. ealtaifra. 11,9daada oveateita, 71#1,44/4 apfritade-6.
6.
128
Scanning reading (see Appendix B). Taxi Project
You are a taxi driver with your own, new taxi.
You have:
A licence to operate from your local Taxi Rank. Put in a music centre to entertain your passengers. Put white-wall tyres on the wheels
You want your taxi to look different from all other taxis, so that your customers will recognize it easily and make sure they catch it.
Study the information you are given in class, OR do your own research by observing taxis. Decide on one each of the categories in the boxes below for the back of your taxi. Make sketches and notes below and then use page 70 to create the taxi of your dreams.
Name; Slogan:
Taxi Association:
Cr
Sticker(s):
[Iambs agetkelds1 uu
129
Peer reading on completion of project. ITHEKISI LAMI lgama lami:
1. Presentation 2. Authenticity 3. Application e.g. colouring, Name 2 Club 3 3
neatness Association 2 Bumper
• 130
Reading aloud for pronunciation after oral mastery and writing down the Zulu.
EGARAJ I A taxi driver comes to fill up his taxi with petrol.
Hello, sir!
Hello (man)!
How are you?
Fine, and you?
Fine. Can I help you?
I'd like petrol for R
O.K.
Thank you! Here is the money! Goodbye!
Yes, see you, sir! 131
Reading aloud and development of procedural competence in catching a taxi.
After the driver leaves the garage, Mrs Ntuli, who is going shopping, flags down the taxi. Where are you going (madam)?
To town.
Get in, so that we can go!
Oh, O.K.!
Mrs Ntuli climbs into the taxi. The driver pulls off immediately. Mrs Ntuli asks the person sitting in front of her to pass her fare to the driver.
Please would you give the driver the money!
Yes, O.K. Here is the money, driver! 132
Mini drama. Learners collaborate in writing and then shared reading. UKUKHULUMA
Work in a group of four and write a dialogue between a taxi driver and three passengers he picks up on his route.
Decide the following before you begin:
Umshayeli ngubani?
Umgibeli 1 ngubani?
Umgibeli 2 ngubani?
Umgibeli 3 ngubani?
Ithekisi liphumaphi?
Ithekisi liyaphi?
Umgibeli 1 gets in at the taxi rank and the others flag down the taxi on its route.
Use as much isiZulu as you can in your presentation, for example, greeting people; using the correct terms of address, asking the driver where he is going; paying your fare; saying goodbye when you get out.
When you present the dialogue to the class, remember to use the correct sign language as well.
Work at the back of this book and write out a rough draft of your work. Hand it in to your teacher for correction. After you have presented your dialogue to the class, write it out neatly on page 5. 133
APPENDIX D
SITUATIONAL READING FOR USE BY LEARNERS ACROSS THE CURRICULUM
Sunday TIMOS Mundylo 3 March 31 2002
ES thathas to be itr behalf of our brother who has whisper to myself. If wronged. The king reluctantly 4y one wants to be a taxi forgives the accused and we're driver, (God forbid) one has to go back on the road. to a special driving school.* But now he smiles no more. His The thought comes to me as EN PASSANT anger seems to have made his the taxi I am travelling In weaves foot heavy. in and out of morning traffic at S'bu Malthantbesti Silently his subjects sit con- breackneck speed, the indignant templating life, the meaning of hoots and the obscene upraised which is not hard to grasp while digit on the hand of one motorist tearing through busy traffic. going unnoticed by the driver. We breathe a sigh of relief after • Like the old saying goes, a another near-collision, and my man's home is his castle, and in mind switches back from prayer. this case, his taxi is his kingdom. Riding shotgun "Could it be . . . no it has to be I travel with these kings daily. that there Is a special driving When you enter a taxi you find school for taxi drivers? yourself in a contained little The thought flashes before my realm — the fad that most taxi eyes, just like my life did a couple drivers happen to be Zulu has no So his highness rules that if lite-deficient. The latter are al- of minutes ago. relevance here! there is one of the fairer gender lowed to sit close to the king. At the kings' driving school, In this world, the taxi driver is who dares to sit alongside the And he is not afraid to let his students who do learn how to use king, his authority never to be king (i.e. in the front seat) she will be known. If one looks direct- their indicators when turning, or questioned. shall be his tax collector and his ly above and to the right of the actually find out what the middle The king appoints a tax collec- queen. throne of a particular kingdom, a pedal is for, immediately warrant tor to make sure that all the fares I have noticed that in these sticker reads: "No fatties in a fail from their instructor. are paid. This person sits imme- circumstances, His Majesty be- front!" • As I arrive at work, praising the diately to the left of the king and comes fond of changing gears Hark! A sound? All gasp in hor- Lord that I am not the next horror hands the money to his tempo- more often than necessary, and it ror as the smile Is wiped off the story in tomorrows daily news- rary master, who, in turn, insists won't be long before he "mistak- king's face by the opening of a paper, I have to reach out of the on counting the bounty himself, enly' brushes on her thigh. long Tom beer can. window to open the door to this while simultaneously attempting We peons don't mind, as long A loud screech is heard, the moving junk heap from the to watch the road, change gears as the king is happy, as long he smell of burning rubber fills the outside. and overtake all at the same smiles. air, and we know that some poor As His Majesty pulls off, I spot time. It can also be noted that the minion Is in danger of being a bumper sticker on the rear of No one dares to complain for little people of the kingdom are banished. his sorrowfully unkempt king- fear of invoking the wrath of His categorised. The main distinc- `None shall eat or drink In any dom: `King of the road". Royal Highness. tion is between the people who taxi kingdom' is the spoken rule Who needs the Rand Show But what is a tong without a are large in stature (and I don't of all kings. when you can pay R13.50 fora 45- queen? mean big-boned) and the cellu- We peasants beg for mercy on minute rollercoaster ride?
From: The River of Wit by Sindiso Gongotha WITS STUDENT June 2003 Vol 55 # 3
...I see a taxi. I rush and point my finger had said: "Via Booysens, driver!" Their talk is to the heavens to say — I am going to all about weekend happenings. They are so town. The driver stops. I make my way in, loud. I can't blame them, its unbelievable, it's "four-four-sekunjalo" — so I squeeze Chiefs lost to Black Leopards myself next to these three ladies who just Their talk about soccer is not what catches my. don't look happy that they have woken up. attention. I raise my aerials (ears) as they begin On the seat behind ours is a group of men who to discuss winning the lottery. ... I wish to seem to know each other, they might be working comment, but my mother taught me better. I at the factories in Booysens, because one of them keep quiet, wishing to be invited to their contrasting talk... 134
24 Mail&Guardian November 23 to 29 2001 r- To understand Africa's problems ... Look no further than taxis
with a grinding of tinsd gears, the do to them), but because of the tur- COMMENT docile passengers began collecting bulence in his mind as he computed ' Shyaka Kanunsa money among themselves and passing the change. Ron. Seat by seat, rowby row, convey- In the space of about five minutes, o the individuals who ing the coins by means of tapping the the fellow had broken every road call themselves taxi person in front with the solemn chant law: making a call on his cellphone, drivers in this country "four" (amount collected per seat). The jumping a red light, changing lanes wake up with a death person in front— whose seat batch in the most reckless manner ... wish each morning? had already sent theirs — sent the Ask anyone why the most economi- DNot only does the evidence suggest money on with the same "four!" cally advanced nation in Africa has an emphatic yes. but apparently On it went, like some sort of ended up paradoxically with one of their death wish includes the inno- mantra in a hurtling, lunatic mini its messiest, obviously non-regulated cent, docile sheep that commute in temple. "Four!' — until all the collec- public transportation systems and their vehicles! tions were with the driver, a man the usual non sequiturs and glib I am no stranger to strange behav- who by now had taken on the sinister answers come tumbling forth. iour by taxi drivers, since in Rwanda, aura of any of those cult masters that 'Oh, you know we are poor people:' where I come from, the breed is not every now and then lead htmdreds of So? exactly a paragon of the law-abiding their followers into mass suicide. "Well, during apartheid and the road-user. But the first time I Now Rwanda might not be famous racial segregation years we Africans travelled in one rust bucket of a pub- for concerns about its people's wel- didn't have anything, so the taxis are lic transportation vehicle in Johan- fare, but at least there it is considered part of our economic empowerment". nesburg, I was a heaving, seething illegal for a taxi driver to deliberately Oh really? mass of nerves by the time I got out endanger his own life and the lives of With the outrageous conduct of The driver, a fellow bedraggled the passengers he is conveying. Yet the taxi drivers, not to mention the enough to match his vehicle's here was this man on a South African taxi wars that rocked the nation a appearance — so much so that I road, speeding along like a demon few years ago, doesn't it look like began wondering whether there are with little apparent thought of the 15 what people have here isn't eco- any regulatory authorities here — lives aboard. And terrifyingly all he nomic empowerment but the first yelled at me to get out of the could think of was to count the empowerment of taxi goons to kill frunt seat as there was still space in takings, his face contorted not from or maim black people and jeopar- the back. Matters were made worse concentrating on what other road dise their lives day in, day out? because I couldn't understand a users were doing (or what he might "Hey, but you should realise these word of isiZulu (someone trans- arc people who have lived too long lated) and I couldn't see the space he in poverty and so can't afford func- was talking of, as the three occu- How tolerant can you be tional, roadworthy vehicles for their pants in the back looked cramped business." enough without shoving in a fourth. of the fellow who hurtles How sweet! So in the name of "That is the way of the taxis hcrc," you along hairpin economic empowerment for these an elderly, matronly looking woman law-abiding citizens, every South soothed me. But that was only for bends, mind intent only African who can't afford a car is starters. on dispensing change? supposed to put his or her life on As soon as the "taxi" got moving the line every morning. 135
Mail&Guardkoz November 23 to 29 2001 25
Where is the anger at being packed like sardines in a scrap heap that will leave your clothes tattered as you attempt to get off? Photograph: Siddique Davids
The most telling aspect of the taxi taxis, one of the most irritating eye- manipulated into becoming mass industry, one notices, is the utter lack sores in this most beautiful of coun- murderers as they attempted the of outrage among commuters at the tries, has added some insight into the "final solution" on their T tsi country- antics of the perpetrators — yes per- problems plaguing the continent. men? I would say — though this might petrators — of this highly hazardous So you want to know how a thief seem far-fetched to some — just take a business. Where is the anger at being like Mobutu could reduce Zaire, in careful look at the blind obedience to packed like sardines in a scrap heap terms of pure natural resources the even the most thuggish driver. that will leave your clothes tattered wealthiest country on the continent, Kenyans grumble louder each day as you attempt to get off? to the poorest of pauper nations? I can as the government, led by a manipu- How tolerant can you be of the hear the apologists going on about lative Arap Moi — that septua- fellow who hurtles you along hairpin American interference. But fora real genarian who has clung to power bends, mind intent only on dispens- answer, just watch commuters will- since 1978 — leads them into deeper ing change, even as sudden thoughts ingly cram themselves into moving economic ruin, but you never hear of ending up in some hospital's contraptions held together with an of any riots even as thousands go emergency ward assail yob? Anyway, assortment of strings, wire and glue! destitute daily. why should anyone turn me into an Are you wondering how a Instead all its press reports is the impromptu collector of taxi fares, demented buffoon like Idi Amin "incredible" fortitude of Africans in and the pusher of doors as other could turn Uganda, a country once adverse circumstances. Of their commuters get off? called the pearl of Africa, into a stoicism, stolidness and patience as "Oh, but some of these men carry non-functional, severely depleted they "courageously" carry on under guns and you can't dare mess with entity known only for state sanc- brutal dictators. them!" Indeed. And how many of tioned massacres, or how a mealy- Stoicism, fortitude, stolidness! you are in that taxi that can't over- mouthed dictator like Robert What an embarrassing people we power the driver at some point away Mugabe can single-handedly ruin a can become. For it should have from the taxi rank? country? For an idea, just observe become painfully obvious long ago For this jaded African, the experi- what goes on in a taxi! that these adjectives can only apply ences with South Africa's public And how could Rwandan Hutus be to donkeys or mules. 136
DRUM March 1996 SUNDAY TIMES September 16, 1990
Slaat ha die or the lot' allies is s
•han.sx: ..712vde ■ th. MI hopc ■ I ..La twa: ■ crt:a“
ne....■ , I r •,t Our .1 n J 1.rd We're not just inside. We're on top.
(61-63,FrA" INTO THE FUTURE, RESOURCEFULLY.
The Star — Thursday July 10 2003
MADAM &. EVE BY STEPHEN FRANOS & Rico
a 137
ADDITIONAL READING FOR LEARNERS WHO SPEAK ZULU
These descritopns by Technikon students serve as a resource for teachers who have L1 speakers in their classes. Questions and tasks can be set for them and then they can be used as a comprehension for learners who know Zulu.
1. AMATHEKISI USibusiso Nxumalo (Isitshudeni saseTechnikon Witwatersrand, 2002)
Amathekisi anezinhlobo ezimbili. Uhlobo lokuqala elamathekisi ahamba izindlela ezimfishane. Uhlobo Iwesibili elamathekisi ahamba uhambo olude. Lawa ahamba uhambo olufishane awami emarenkeni kodwa uwamisa ngokukhomba phezulu. •Lawa ahamba izindlela ezinde ama emarenkeni, futhi wona adonsa izinqola emuva ezokufaka imithwalo. Uma unomthwalo omningi, ufakiwa enqoleni kodwa uma umncane, uhlala kule ndawo esemuva kwesitulo somshayeli.
Emarenkeni kunamalayini lapho khona uthola amaqueue marshall, azokutshela ukuthi amathekisi aya kwezinye izindawo akuphi, futhi yiwo akuhlalisayo ethekisini. Uma uhleli emuva, ufuna ukubhadala ; kufanele unikeze lo muntu ohieli phambi kwakho imali yakho ukuthi naye ayidlulisele phambili, ize ifike kumshayeli. La mathekisi ezindlela ezimfishane ama noma kukuphi kodwa awezindlela ezinde ama emarenkeni kuphela.
Amathekisi ayanceda ngokuthi awahambi isikhathi eside kodwa ayasheshisa. Into amathekisi ahlupha ngayo ukuthi kunokuba nezimpi lapho khona kufa abantu abanganacala. Enye into ehluphayo ngamathekisi ukuthi abashayeli bakhona banokushayela kabi emigwaqweni bese kuba nezingozi.
Amanye amathekisi mahle, futhi anemisakazo ekhalela phezulu. Amathekisi amanye anemibhalo ngaphandle. Kaningi atholakala abhalwe amagama abantu abaculayo nabadlala ibhola. Ngaphakathi esibukweni sangaphakathi nendawo abashayeli bathanda ukulengisa imisila yezimpisi. 138
2. AMATHEKISI USiphiwe Gamede (Isitshudeni saseTechnikon Witwatersrand, 2002)
Amathekisi anezindlela zazo zokumisiwa. Uma ukhomba ithekisi noma eya kuphi, kunendlela yakhona. Uma ukhomba ithekisi eya eBara ukhomba phambili Iokho ukwenza uma usuka e-Orlando West noma e-Orlando East, kanti uma uya edolobheni ukhomba phezulu, noma uya eHighgate wenza u- two. Uma ngabe uya endaweni eseduze njengaselokishini uvele ukhomba phansi.
Amarenki amathekisi wona awafani. Kukhona lapho abasizanayo khona uma ubuza, bakuphendula kahie, kanti kwamanye amarenki abashayeli bona bayadelela. Abanye bathanda izimpi njenga laba [sic] abanaki abashayeli. Erenkini kuhiukanisiwe; kubhalwa igama lendawo lapho uya khona, Iokhu kwenzelwe ukuthi ungalahieki. Igama lelo Iibhalwa phezulu erenkeni. Izinhlangano zamathekisi zikhona lapho eGoli, futhi bayababhekelela abagibeli babo ngoba uma kuphela inyanga, siyaye sithole amamagazines mahhala.
Into engingayisho ngamathekisi ukuthi ayasisiza futhi ezintweni eziningi ngoba abanye bethu asinazimoto, sihamba ngawo siya esikoleni. Ngingasho futhi ukuthi ayahlupha. Esikhathini esiningi uyaye uthole ukuthi yiwo adala izingozi. Kanti futhi nokuthi (abashayeli) bahiuphe abantu abadala, babathethise.
Ukuhlala ethekisini emuva kuhiala abayifour, kwezinye kuhiala ngabathathu. Ngaphandle kokuthi akunayo itraffic, sihiala ngama four-four. Uma ufuna ukwehla ethekisini uvele uthi 'short-right, short left, dankie driver' noma 'after robot'. Amathekisi ama lapho kwehla khona abagibeli.
Izinto ozithola ngaphandle ethekisini, uthola kubhalwe umnini wethekisi nekheli. Kwesinye isikhathi kubhalwa izinombolo zocingo. Ngaphandle uthola kubhalwe imilayezo njengaboBoss of the Road, kanti ngakhathi khona babhala ukuthi If you bang the door you bang me, okungukuthi ungashayi isivalo ngoba ulimaza umshayeli. Kanti abanye babhala ukuthi izidlula [sic] akumelanga zihiale phambili eduze komshayeli. Futhi emathekisini kunendawo yemithwalo emva komshayeli. 139
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