Investigating Climbing As a Spiritual Experience a Thesis Presented To

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Investigating Climbing as a Spiritual Experience

A thesis presented to

the faculty of

The Patton College of Education of Ohio University

In partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree

Master of Science in Recreation and Sport Sciences

Michael F. Pond

May 2013

This thesis titled

Investigating Climbing as a Spiritual Experience

MICHAEL F. POND

has been approved for

the Department of Recreation and Sport Pedagogy

and The Patton College of Education by

Bruce C. Martin

Assistant Professor of Recreation and Sport Pedagogy

Renée A. Middleton

Dean, The Patton College of Education 3

Abstract

POND, MICHAEL F., M.S.R.S., May 2013, Recreation Studies

Investigating Climbing as a Spiritual Experience (126 pp.)

Director of Thesis: Bruce C. Martin

This research explores the role that climbing plays in the spirituality of climbers.

Twenty semi-structured interviews were conducted following the framework of phenomenology which yielded five major themes. This study identified ways in which climbing was spiritually enriching, climbing’s influence on spiritual development and wellbeing, how climbing led to having spiritual experiences and the outcomes of these experiences, and the ways in which participants created their own spiritual practices and beliefs independently of organized institutions. William James’ criteria for mystical experiences were used as a framework for analyzing spiritual experiences. This study highlights the lack of a theoretical framework that specifically applies spirituality to the context of serious leisure. This research contributes to the bodies of literature regarding spirituality, leisure studies, and literature relating to spirituality within leisure contexts.

Dedication

This thesis is dedicated to all those who find solace in high places: those whose minds

are clearer when the air is a bit thinner and who, when in doubt, go higher.

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank all those who helped me along the way: the spiritually- minded climbers who provided inspiration for this study, Andy Szolosi and Elizabeth

Collins for offering support and invaluable insight, and Bruce Martin, my advisor, who exceeded my expectations throughout my thesis process. Thank you for holding my feet to the fire and for helping me make a product of which I can be proud.

Table of Contents Page Abstract………………………………………………………………………………… 3 Dedication……………………………………………………………………………… 4 Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………. 5 Chapter 1: Introduction………………………………………………………………… 8 Setting Component: Nature………………………………………...... 10 Altered States of Consciousness: Spiritual Outcomes……………………………... 11 Recreation Component: Recreation Activities………………….…..………………12 Spirituality in Popular Climbing Literature…………….……………..………….... 13 Willi Unsoeld: An Archetype of the Spiritual Climber……………………………. 17 Chapter 2: Literature Review…………………………………………………………... 20 Spirituality……………………………………………………………...………….. 20 The Relationship of Spirituality and Religion………………………….………….. 29 The Varieties of Spiritual Experiences…………………………………………….. 35 Research Questions…………………………………………………….………….. 40 Chapter 3: Methods………………………………………………………...………….. 42 Phenomenology……………………………………………………………………. 42 Phenomenology of spirituality…………………………………..……………... 44 Data Collection…………………………………………………………………….. 46 Sample………………………………………………………………….………….. 48 Data Analysis…………………………………………………………...………….. 50 Credibility of the Study……………………………………………………………. 50 Chapter 4: Results…………………………………………………………..………….. 52 Relationship of Experience and Spiritual Development….……………...………… 53 Individualized Spirituality……………………………………………....…………. 54 Climbing as Spiritual Fellowship………………………………………..………… 59 Nature as a Dimension of Spirituality……………………………………………… 64 Varieties of Spiritual Experience in Climbing……..………………….....………… 71 Meditative states..…………………………………………………....………… 72 Techniques for entering meditative states ………………………..…………. 74 Increased focus and presence……………………………………..………….. 77 Outcomes of meditative states……………………………………………….. 80 Meditation outside of climbing…………………………………...………….. 83 Trance-Like states……………………………………………………………... 86 Mystical experiences…………………………………………………………... 88 Religious experiences in climbing……………………………………………... 94 Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusion………………………………………………… 98 Relationship of Experience and Spiritual Development…………………………… 99 Individualized Spirituality……………………………………………..…………... 101 Nature as a Dimension of Spirituality……………………………………………… 103 Varieties of Spiritual Experience While Climbing…………………...... 105 7

Meditative states……………………………………………………………….. 107 Mystical and religious experiences…………………………………………….. 107 Suggestions for Future Research……..……………………………………………. 108 References……………………………………………………………………………… 111

Chapter 1: Introduction

Rock climbing, as such, should be accepted with the greatest enthusiasm; yet I feel that certain values should be preserved in our contact with the mountains. While it is rarely a case of the complete ascendancy of acrobatics over esthetics, we should bear in mind that the mountains are more to us than a mere proving ground of strength and alert skill. Rock climbing should be considered a thrilling means to a more important end. (Ansel Adams, quoted in Taylor, 1932, p. 102, italics added)

More than once I have felt the mystical connection to the mountain that I learned on Mount Hunter. It is always there, if I am open to it. [The climb] Deprivation taught me about the existence of this mystic path in the mountains. It made me ask myself, ‘How can I be tired while climbing on the mountain when I have become the mountain?’ I have searched within myself, through both passive and active meditation, for the tools to open this ‘door’ whenever I will it. I still search.” (Mark Twight, 2001, p. 147)

“I think [climbing] just heightens my awareness of what’s going on in the world, or in the spiritual world, I guess…It’s like going to church. I’m practicing. I’m exercising my body, my mind, and attempting to exercise my soul. It’s kind of like going to prayer for people. It’s kind of like prayer for me. (Evan)

While popular literature has touched on the subject, academic literature has yet to thoroughly explore the relationship of climbing and spirituality. There is a small and growing body of academic literature that focuses on spirituality in the broader context of leisure, with qualitative and empirical studies that shed some light on the complexity of the relationship of leisure and spirituality, and call for future study to further the knowledge on the topic (e.g., Heintzman, 2000; Heintzman & Mannell, 1999; Schmidt &

Little, 2007; Stringer & McAvoy, 1992).

However, currently there are no comprehensive theoretical models that address the nexus of leisure and spirituality that have been confirmed by research. Heintzman

(2010a) noted that until recently, the majority of the literature on spirituality and leisure 9

was speculative and conceptual (e.g., Driver et al., 1996; Dustin, 1994; McDonald, 1989;

McDonald, Guldin, & Wetherhill, 1988). There are a few theoretical models that address leisure and spirituality (e.g., Fox, 1999; Fredrickson & Anderson, 1999; McDonald,

1989; McDonald, Guldin, & Wetherhill, 1988). These models, however, were developed prior to the recent surge in research on the topic. Heintzman (2010a) reviewed these models and concluded that they are outdated and need to be refined in order to reflect the level of complexity that is being shown by recent research.

Heintzman (2010a) conducted a review of the literature on leisure and spirituality, and grouped the studies into the following categories: leisure and spirituality; wilderness and park visitors; wilderness experience and spirituality; adventure education, environmental education, and outdoor education; and residential camping and spirituality.

In an effort to clarify the complex factors and characteristics that influence and describe a spiritual experience and its effects, Heintzman (2010a) separated the components of spiritual experiences that occur in the context of leisure into four categories: the antecedent conditions, setting components, recreation components, and spiritual outcomes. Antecedent conditions are people’s characteristics prior to the experience, including “personal history and current circumstances, motivation and attitude, sociodemographic characteristics, and spiritual tradition” (p. 76). Setting components are the qualities of the area in which the experience takes place, including being in nature, being away, and place processes. The recreation components include the type of recreation “activity, free time, solitude, group experience, and facilitation” (p. 79). The 10

combination of the previous components may lead to short- and long-term spiritual outcomes, which may include having a spiritual experience (short-term), improving one’s sense of spiritual well-being (long-term) and undergoing improvements on one’s leisure- spiritual coping (long-term). While a comprehensive list is beyond the scope of this paper, a few components that are prominent in research are discussed below.

There is no parsimonious definition of spirituality (Pargament, 1999; Roof, 1993).

An aim of this study is to explore the concept of spirituality and its role and meaning within the context of climbing. Spirituality is explored more fully in chapter two, where a functional definition is given that will be used throughout the study.

Setting Component: Nature

Several studies have identified the specific roles that nature plays in the spiritual lives of participants (Heintzman, 2010a). Participants in Narayanan’s (2009) study reported seeing the desert as a sacred space. Schmidt and Little (2007) found that nature acted as a catalyst for spiritual experiences, where recreation done in a natural setting was conducive toward bringing about a spiritual experience for participants. Marsh (2008) surveyed backcountry skiers and found ninety five percent of participants reported that a bona fide wilderness setting was the strongest component that contributed to spiritual experiences in the backcountry. Heintzman (2000) reported that wilderness setting was conducive to spiritual well-being, and Livengood (2009) found that New Paradigm

Christians connected with God and God’s Creation in nature. White and Hendee (2000) found that naturalness was an important factor leading to spiritual benefits while areas 11

with more development led to fewer spiritual benefits. Heintzman (2010a) did a review of spirituality and leisure literature and gave several reasons why nature can be an important component that influences the spiritual outcomes in recreation settings:

Nature elicits a sense of wonder, awe, and amazement (e.g., Fox, 1997; Grafanaki et al., 2005; Heintzman, 2000; Loeffler, 2004; Schmidt&Little, 2007); helps some people connect with their God or a higher power (e.g., Heintzman, 2000, 2007a, 2007b, 2008b; Livengood, 2009; Loeffler, 2004); provides a sense of peacefulness, calm, stillness, and tranquility (e.g., Grafanaki et al., 2005; Fox, 1997; Heintzman, 2007a; Loeffler, 2004; Stringer & McAvoy, 1992); creates space to explore spirituality through reflection (Bobilya et al., 2009); and is powerful and therapeutic (Fox, 1997). (p. 78)

Nature has been shown to be an important component in the relationship between recreation and spirituality, though there is some variation in the literature in the exact role that nature plays.

Altered States of Consciousness: Spiritual Outcomes

One component of a spiritual experience can be the affective condition of an altered state of consciousness. This has been referred to using a range of labels including a sense of peace (Heintzman, 2006), awareness (Marsh, 2008; Sanford, 2007; Schmidt &

Little, 2007), focus (Sanford, 2007), flow (Sanford, 2007; Tremblay, 2010), trance state

(Tremblay, 2010), being “in the zone” (Sanford, 2007), mindfulness (Sanford, 2007), meditation (Narayanan, 2009), shift of consciousness (Narayanan, 2009), heightened consciousness (Narayanan, 2009), or a Zen-like state of mind (Sanford, 2007). These labels all point to the same affective quality: being fully engaged in an activity to the point where one is clear-headed without extraneous thought. These states are most often 12

reported as being enjoyable, and could be labeled as self-actualizing or self-transcending

(see Csikszentmihalyi, 1988, 1993; Marsh, 2007; Maslow, 1964 ).

Many people report losing awareness of the self during this kind of experience.

One may be clear-headed and engaged in the activity while it is taking place but may lose awareness of the self. Only after it has passed does one recognize the mental state that has occurred. An interesting point to consider is that the Buddhist term awareness refers to having the clear-headed state of mind (fully engaging the present) while simultaneously being aware of the self. This is what Buddhists aspire to in meditation and

Zen activities. The similarities between the two mental states are fascinating to conceptualize, but have seen little attention from research. The range and characterization of these mental states are not fully understood and are addressed by the fields of theology, spirituality, psychology, cognition, and others. It is beyond the scope of this study to attempt to fully understand these mental states. In this study, these states will be described when appropriate, and referred to using the general term, “altered states of consciousness,” or, more specifically, as meditation or meditative states, and characterized, described, and analyzed appropriately.

Recreation Component: Recreation Activities

Though a wide range of recreational activities have been found to lead to spiritual outcomes (Stringer & McAvoy, 1992; Schmidt & Little, 2007), activities done in nature tend to lead to spiritual outcomes more than activities that were not based in nature

(Heintzman, 2010a). The following recreational activities have been identified as having 13

spiritual outcomes: BASE jumping (Allman, Mittelstaedt, Martin & Goldenberg, 2009;

4x4 touring (Behan, Richards & Lee, 2001; Narayanan, 2009), backcountry skiing

(Marsh, 2008), canoeing (Foster, 2012; Fredrickson & Anderson, 1999; Heintzman,

2006, 2007; Peace, 2010), fly fishing (Snyder, 2007), gardening (Unruh & Hutchinson,

2011), rafting (Fredrickson & Anderson, 1999; Morse, 2011), hiking (Fredrickson &

Anderson, 1999), and whitewater boating (Sanford, 2007; Smith, 2002; Tremblay, 2010).

There are studies that have shown that single-sex groups have had a positive impact on attaining spiritual outcomes in groups consisting of all-male (Heintzman, Burns, &

Robinson, 2006, Heintzman, 2006, 2007) and all-female (Fox, 1997; Fredrickson &

Anderson, 1999) participants. One study was conducted with an all-Christian sample

(Livengood, 2009). Interestingly, only a few of the above studies (Allman, Mittelstaedt,

Martin & Goldenberg, 2009; Marsh, 2008; Sanford, 2007; Smith, 2002; Snyder, 2007;

Tremblay, 2011) focused on the spirituality among serious leisure participants (see

Stebbins, 1982). The researcher is not aware of any empirically-based research that addresses spirituality among climbers, though the topic has been touched on by popular literature and in more theoretically-based scholarly literature.

Spirituality in Popular Climbing Literature

Some contemporary climbing literature portrays climbing as having a spiritual component, though spirituality is rarely addressed directly or at length. Most often, spirituality is given a glancing blow, leaving the reader to speculate about the nuances of the relationship between climbing and spirituality and the role that spirituality plays in 14

the climbers’ lives. For example, House’s Beyond the Mountain (2009), Twight’s Kiss or

Kill (2001), and articles by Prezelj (2007), Vidal (2008), Potter (2010), and Kauk (2005) provide firsthand accounts of experiences that can be considered to be spiritual, though the authors avoided speaking at length about spirituality. And while the terms “spiritual” and “spirituality” are rarely employed, these accounts described a level of deeper meaning that rings of a distinctly spiritual quality. Twight (2001) underscored his primary motivations for climbing, saying: “I don’t care about what I climb, only how it affects me” (p. 30). He later described the affective state that typified the type of experience that he sought: “I achieved such heightened states of awareness during some of my hard solo climbs that I recalled individual crystals in the granite and could draw accurate topos long after the fact” (2001, p. 70). Twight experienced a state of consciousness in which he was hyper-aware and deeply engaged in the act of climbing.

Other climbers have described similar states. For example, Potter (2010) wrote:

Emotions and wants rush in, but I concentrate on each breath and quiet my mind... I become completely immersed in my senses…the smell of damp rock, the heat rising off my body, creating steam as it meets the chilled air, the hum of the wind as it hits the wall, and, most powerfully, my instinct to climb. I’ve thought about [this climb] for many years, yet as my hands reach out and touch the opening holds, no thought registers in my mind. I feel my fingers take every lock perfectly and I move without fear, because falling is not within my reality...I calm myself with a mantra from a favorite song, and repeat, “I’m invisible, I’m invisible, I’m invisible…" I leave the ground behind…Calmly spinning, I scan as far away as I can see. The last rays of the day’s sun warm my back and my stare locks onto my own shadow. I follow the lines of my body on the stone in front of me, spreading my arms as wings, and bathe in the beauty of existence. (p. 1)

These authors provide a glimpse into the experience itself – how climbing can be spiritual in the moment. A common thread in these accounts is the unique mental state that is 15

described, including Twight’s hyper-awareness and Potter’s unwavering focus. Some climbers have also written about the effects that spiritual experiences have had on their lives and sense of spirituality. Kauk (2005) described his experiences climbing and their effect on him, stating: “Every move seemed to glow with this inspired, magical, creative feeling. Every climb was about liberating ourselves” (p. 15). This mental state is characterized as an example of altered states of consciousness while in a recreation context.

Preselj (2007) emphasized the short-lived quality of such experiences. He wrote:

Such bursts of ardor, I knew, go out almost instantly, leaving only the vague residue of memory and the cinders of words. . .The essence of a climb burns out in the moment of experience. The core of an alpinist’s pursuit will always lie in ashes. (p. 79).

Similarly, House (2010) found that after summiting the climb of his life, success eluded him:

Just before the top, I kneel in the snow, overwhelmed by emotion. Years of physical and psychological journey – to make myself strong enough, to discover whether I am brave enough – all fold into this one moment. It seems sacrilegious to step onto the summit. In that moment, I understand that on the outer edge of infinity lies nothingness, that in the instant I achieve my objective, and discover my true self, both are lost. (p. 206)

Additionally, he reflected:

When I stood on the greatest summit I’ve ever achieved, success vaporized. As many before, I learned that the moment we think we have attained the goal, we lose it. Success is empty. The sum of all our luck, judgments, lessons learned and heeded, elevation gained and lost, our fitness and skill is zero…The sum is zero, and so the goals become the plotlines to our lives (p. xi).

This outlook is almost Zen in character, relying on the present experience and resisting over-thinking. With a “sum of zero,” how does one continue? Where is the greater meaning or direction in one’s life? Perhaps one does not need firm answers or successes.

Perhaps the questions are best left unanswered. Vidal (2008) asked:

In the end, what is it that we are really looking for in the mountains? Risk alone? Only personal satisfaction? I’ve always thought that the day I figured out why I climb, I would quit the pursuit. For now what I seek through climbing may be to keep seeking. (p. 67)

Kauk (2005) shared a similar outlook, saying:

What will become of all this climbing? I used to wonder. And now I know: when you’re up there, moving through the clouds, nature humbles you. Dwelling in the presence of such beauty, you begin to keep your senses and your imagination fully engaged all the time. The natural world provides all this for us: what it means to be educated, what it means to be human. (p. 17, italics in original)

Matthiessen, a Zen Buddhist climber, concluded: “How could I say that I wished to penetrate the secrets of the mountains in search of something still unknown that, like the yeti, might well be missed for the very fact of searching?” (p. 121). Kauk (2005) seems to have reconciled this conflict to an extent, having chosen to focus primarily on spiritual growth when climbing:

Today, merely looking at the rock, I feel a similar certainty about my life. The years of focusing on technical difficulties have inevitably passed, letting me shed off the competitive side of climbing and focus on the spiritual. I’m still out there on the rock, still searching for that perfect flow of breathing, relaxing, moving. But my ascents take place more within me now. (p. 17)

A central theme among these climber-authors is that they continue to pursue climbing for its deeper meaning. There is a strong emphasis on the process of climbing as a means to deepen their spirituality, without a destination per se. Kauk (2005) concluded: “My mind 17

is opened once more, like a young boy’s. There are so many new realms of who we are that await to be discovered.” The journey is the key. Indeed, the journey is what brought them there in the first place.

Willi Unsoeld: An archetype of the spiritual climber

Willi Unsoeld was an iconic climber who serves to provide an archetypical model of how the natural world and an outdoor pursuit can shape the spirituality of an individual. A work that directly explores Unsoeld’s spirituality is Roper’s (2002) Fatal

Mountaineer. Unsoeld was a prolific climber and university professor whose spiritual beliefs synthesized traditional Christianity with beliefs and practices of Eastern religions

(Buddhism and Hinduism) and who used alpine climbing as a means of spiritual devotion. Unsoeld was a famous climber (he and Thomas Hornbein were the first to climb Mt. Everest’s West Ridge. He also lost nine toes heroically saving his partners’ lives on the same climb), had formal training in Christianity, adopted Buddhist philosophy (he worked for the Peace Corp director in Nepal and went on several expeditions to Asia’s great ranges), publically promoted Outward Bound, and was a prominent pioneer of American experiential education. This combination of roles and experience put Unsoeld in a position to speak publicly about his unique spiritual beliefs.

Unsoeld was a religious man – he came within a hair of being ordained as a minister – but described himself as a “Metaphysical Buddhist and an ethical Christian

(Hunt, personal communication). Unsoeld’s spirituality was expressed most deeply in the mountains. He reflected: “These places are sacred because of the very stuff they’re made 18

of. The molecules there have been affected by the goddess herself. It’s all holy, and especially in the really holy parts” (Roper, 2002, p. 18, italics in original). Unsoeld often related his beliefs using Rudolf Otto’s (1923/1950) concept of mysterium tremendum et fasciens, the feeling of being overwhelmed by the dreadful, awesome, raw power of the divine, by its “unspeakable beauty” (p. 96). While some meet God in Church, Unsoeld found God in his experience in the mountains which “Gives you your basis for proceeding (Roper, 2002, p. 243). Unsoeld famously quipped, “Surely mountaineering is more than a matter of summits” (p. 146).

Climbing played a central role in Unsoeld’s religious life, but it was the means to an end, the activity through which he experienced spiritual awakening and made contact with the divine:

Everything else drops away, all of bullshit life, and the margins of error become very thin. At such moments elemental life – the opposite of bullshit – suddenly has your undivided attention, and if it does not, you or someone else may be in big trouble. . . [to] force a thrilling narrowing of your focus to the few things that really matter. (p. 14, italics in original)

Unsoeld exemplified the individualized sense of spirituality that appears among climbers in popular literature. His views and practices were shaped by powerful firsthand experiences in the mountains, which influenced him to synthesize his beliefs from several spiritual traditions. His primary spiritual practice was climbing. While there are likely as many approaches to spirituality as there are climbers, Willi Unsoeld can serve as an archetype for an independent, spiritually-minded climber. 19

While popular literature has touched on the subject, academic literature has yet to thoroughly explore the relationship of climbing and spirituality. There is a small and growing body of academic literature that focuses on spirituality in the broader context of leisure, with qualitative and empirical studies that shed some light on the complexity of the relationship of leisure and spirituality, and call for future study to further the knowledge on the topic. The goal of this study is to explore the role that climbing plays in the spirituality of climbers.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Spirituality

"Like love, like wrath, like hope, ambition, jealousy, like every other instinctive eagerness and impulse, it [religion] adds to life an enchantment which is not rationally or logically deducible from anything else.” (William James, 1902, p. 33)

“The Tao that can be talked about is not the real Tao.” (Lao Tzu, Tao Te Ching, quoted in Forstater, 2003)

Spirituality is seen as a fundamental element of the human experience (McDonald

& Schreyer, 1991; Schneiders, 2003). Some have even gone so far as to say that humans are “hard-wired” to be spiritual (Hamer, 2005). Something so central – or at least ubiquitous – as spirituality can be so difficult to define, perhaps because of its very centrality to the human condition. The modern word “spirituality” has its roots in Greek and Hebrew, which saw the spirit as life (Teske, 2003). The Hebrew word ruach means

“divine breath” and nephesh refers to the product of the spirit, translated as “person” or

“soul” (Teske, 2003). Similarly, the Greek word pneuma means “breath of life,” which is unique from the ideas and images of the psyche, or one’s “soul” or “mind.” Indeed, the word breath has more power, more poignancy than air. Breath has a deeper meaning.

And just as breath bestows life, spirituality can breathe deeply into one’s life. The so- called “breath of life” can give a meaning, purpose, or significance to one’s existence.

The specific term spirituality originated in the Roman Catholic tradition of the

Middle Ages, from the Latin spiritualis which pertained to the monastic (Spirituality,

2006). The Latin spiritualis became the French spiritualité, and later the current English 21

term (Spirituality, 2006). In the mid-1900s, Catholics began to use the term spirituality more broadly, referring to an individual’s active piety, contemplation, and relationship with God, though the current use of the term has of course spread well beyond

Catholicism and its original meaning. While many non-Western languages do not have an equivalent word for spirituality (Griffin, 1999), the term has recently spread to be adopted in use by many current religious traditions, including Protestantism, Judaism,

Buddhism, Islam, Hinduism, Taoism, Confucianism, and individuals without a religious faith (Wolfteich, 2003). Spirituality is often seen as independent (but not necessarily exclusive) of religion; many today claim spirituality while renouncing institutional religion.1

Spirituality, however, has proven to be quite troublesome for scholarship.

Scholars and theologians continue to be confounded in the attempt to establish a universally-accepted definition of spirituality (see Pargament, 1999; Roof, 1993). Despite this limitation, precise definitions are necessary to establish a set of parameters on which this study can be based. This section will explore the various characteristics and elements of spirituality and will arrive at several working definitions that will be used for the purpose of this study.

1 Until recently, spirituality and religion did not have as distinct meanings as they do today. The following section is a discourse on religion and spirituality that further investigates this concept. Most sources that predate the mid-20th century used the two terms interchangeably. 22

It has been difficult to define spirituality, at least a definition worthy of consensus. A Google search of “spirituality definition” receives over 13 million hits.

There are hundreds of academic articles that define spirituality (e.g., Elkins, Hedstrom,

Hughes, Leaf, & Saunders, 1988; Heintzman, 2009; Pargament, 1999; Peace, 2010; Roof,

1993; Turner, Lukoff, Barnhouse & Lu, 1995; Wright, 1984; Zinnbauer et al., 1997), while many more call out how difficult it is to define (e.g., Spilka, 1993; Zinnbauer et al., 1997) and the problems for scholarship that ensue (e.g., Heintzman, 2010b; Hill,

2000; Koenig, 2008; Pargament, 1999; Spilka, 1993). Criticizing the looseness with which spirituality is at times defined in research, Spilka (1993) called spirituality a

“fuzzy” term that “embraces obscurity with passion.” How can something as widespread and varied, yet so personal be defined? A successful definition must be parsimonious yet elegant, inclusive yet not watered-down, and fit for the spectrum of beliefs that exist in the world today. Every definition of spirituality reflects a theological perspective as well as the cultural and historical context from which it comes (Wolfteich, 2003). A unified definition is particularly difficult when one considers the range of beliefs in the world.

Individuals of many religions believe in their spirituality to the exclusion of others’. Many Christians, for example, believe that spirituality must exist within a relationship with the Christian God (Heintzman, 2010a). According to them, any alleged spirituality that lacks a belief in, and relationship with the Christian God is illegitimate.

While contentious, is this not a fundamental element of Christianity? In the Second

Commandment, God says, “I am the Lord your God…You shall have no other Gods 23

before me” (Exodus 20: 2-3, New International Version Bible). If one believes in the One

True Lord, all others are by default untrue. Likewise, many major religions believe that they are the sole true belief and that any and every other belief is incorrect, and (usually) the subscribers to these other beliefs are going to get what is coming to them (i.e., Hell).

That said, there is significant variation within religions and among people of religious or non-religious beliefs regarding others’ spirituality. There is significant disagreement among Christians regarding the legitimacy of other spiritualities. One study found that among Christians who viewed their beliefs as the only true spirituality, some compartmentalized or dichotomized their concept of spirituality, some held the beliefs that other spiritual traditions can indeed be legitimate, some believed that spirituality can only reach its full potential when connected with the Christian God, and some Christians saw spirituality as a complex process and were unsure of the legitimacy of other spiritual traditions. (Heintzman, 2010a). A view of this small sample of Christians highlights the variety of ways that members of even just one religion conceptualize spirituality. This diversity only increases between different systems of belief.

Consider materialism. As a philosophical doctrine, materialism is the belief that there is nothing supernatural in the world, that “Matter is all there is” (McMullen, 2005, p. 5775). This is deceptively simple; materialism might better be defined by what it denies. It is in direct opposition to theism. Materialism denies the existence of any entity or power that is fundamentally different from or superior to everyday matter. It therefore rejects deities that have control or influence over the world – supernatural forces, spirits, 24

angels, and the like. Materialism challenges the notion of a soul insofar as its existence beyond the human body. This belief shares ground with atheism, which denies the existence of God (Shinn, 1999); humanism, which denies the existence of God and sees man as the solver of man’s problems (Wine, 1999); scientism, which denies the existence of God and contends that science is the only true way of knowing things (Franz, 2003); and agnosticism, which says, simply, “I don’t know” (Chuman, 1999).

There is also a growing body of people who describe themselves as spiritual but not religious. Zinnbauer et al. (1997) and Roof (1993), for example, found “highly active seekers” that categorically rejected religion (not just one in particular) in favor of a highly individualized spirituality that typically included mysticism, New Age beliefs and practices, individualism, and whom often came from a family that attended religious services less frequently. How would these people fit into the concept of spirituality?

Peter Van Ness (1996), a professor of religion who specializes in the study of non- religious or secular spirituality, offers a solution by defining spirituality as “the quest for attaining an optimal relationship between what one truly is and everything that is” (p. 5).

This definition removes any notion of higher power or religious structure and allows for an individualized spirituality, but implies that there is there is a greater truth, both in one’s self and in the world around.

In The Idea of the Holy (1923/1950), Rudolf Otto wrote of two types of spirituality, what he called the rational and non-rational. In the rational, there is a conceivable object of belief: a deity, for example, that one can pray to, that has will, 25

emotion, reason, purpose, supreme power, and/or selfhood and so on, that amounts to more or less an analogy of personhood. Most importantly, Otto wrote: “Now all these attributes constitute clear and definite concepts: they can be grasped by the intellect; they can be analysed by thought; they even admit of definition” (p. 1, italics in original). In our image, we create our Gods; the rational is the pillar of theism. Thus, the divine object can be called rational, and the belief structure that is considered a rational religion. In contrast, there is the non-rational, which is nothing more than a force. Otto characterized the non-rational element of the divine as, “The feeling which remains when the concept fails” (p. xxi, italics in original). Where the rational is built around concept, the non- rational is the feeling itself with nothing to structure it. The modern concept of spirituality, without religion, fits Otto’s idea of the non-rational experience of the divine.

Those who are spiritual but not religious reject religion (the rational) in favor of a less- structured, more feeling-based spirituality. One eschews the rational constructs of a god or gods with will, purpose, etc. in favor of a firsthand pursuit of the non-rational firsthand feeling upon which their spirituality is built.

Consider a primitive religion that is hardly distinguishable from the sociocultural

(King, 2005). Some primitive religions have abundant ritual and customs but are quite scarce in belief systems, where emotional realities carry more weight than statable ideas.

Consider also Eastern religions, which place so much emphasis on attaining inner states of realization that rite and doctrine become secondary. This is especially so in Zen

Buddhism and Hindu bhakti, which go as far as to assert that tradition and doctrine are 26

valueless hindrances. In bhakti, it seems that everything can – and does – receive religious significance. In Zen, one focuses on living here and now. Zen characteristically favors experiencing and living over explanations, philosophizing, and dogma (Nagatomo,

2010). When one becomes well-practiced in Zen, she lives in complete freedom and spontaneity. One reason that makes Zen so difficult to incorporate into most concepts of spirituality is that it is a fundamentally different way of viewing one’s self and the world.

Some have called Zen an “anti-philosophy,” which aims at the perfection of personhood

(p. 1). If philosophy is the kingdom of reason, an intellectual effort to ponder and solve the great riddles of life, Zen contends that “Reason in its discursive use is incapable of knowing and understanding…what life is, for example what human beings are and what their relation to nature is” (p. 7). For this reason, Zen practitioners seek freedom in pure experience, that which is not limited or labeled with thought, with a unity between the sacred and the profane, the spiritual and material (Watts, 1960/1973). Alan Watts

(1960/1973) described this state of mind, saying: “This—the immediate, everyday, and present experience—is IT, the entire and ultimate point for the existence of a universe (p.

1, italics in original). Even this discourse aims askew at the heart of Zen, for the heart of

Zen cannot be expressed in words, it just is. As Zen master Gensha said: “If you understand, things are such as they are; if you do not understand, things are such as they are” (quoted in Watts, 1960/1973, p. 13). So how will this study define spirituality in a manner so as to include such a range of beliefs like that of Zen Buddhism and Hindu bhakti, as well as those of theistic traditions? The answer may come if we take a nod 27

from Zen and focus less on pinpointing what spirituality is to what spirituality does – the firsthand experience of spirituality.

Not all Western attempts at elucidating spirituality have been definition-based. In the mid-eighteenth century, there was a philosophical movement away from the definitional toward the intuitive and visceral (King, 2005). In this approach the spiritual/religious experience itself is paramount to an attempt at using words to describe the experience. Friedrich Schleiermacher (1799/1958) defined “true religion” as “a sense and taste for the infinite” (p. 39). Though he wrote through a Christian lens,

Schleiermacher’s definition aims inward, toward the subjective feelings of encountering

“the infinite.” In this way, he looked not only inward, but outward, toward the inherent

“awareness of the infinite” (p. ix ), that which is beyond the scope of human awareness or reality, but one can almost taste it. This is what spirituality reflects. This explanation seems truer to what spirituality feels like than what a definition can explain. This kind of subjective definition can be more applicable to all kinds of spiritualities (especially

Eastern and primitive religions) than other definitions (King, 2005). One is reminded of the parable of the three blind men and an elephant. Each man, holding a different part of the elephant, guesses incorrectly at the nature of the elephant, feeling only a part of it without an awareness of the whole. Theorizing about spirituality and religion can have the same effect: if one focuses too intently on capturing the one essence of religion, he may do so at the neglect of another. William James (1902) wrote: “The very fact that there are so many and so different [religions] from one another is enough to prove that 28

the word ‘religion’ cannot stand for any single principle or essence, but is rather a collective name” (p. 28). James went on to acknowledge that even if we examine the affective nature of religion, there is still the challenge of a unified concept, even, of spirituality/religion:

In the psychologies and in the philosophies of religion, we find the authors attempting to specify just what entity it is. One man allies it to the feeling of dependence; one makes it a derivative from fear; others connect it with the sexual life; others still identify it with the feeling of the infinite; and so on. Such different ways of conceiving it ought of themselves to arouse doubt as to whether it possibly can be one specific thing. (1902, p. 28)

Acknowledging the challenge (the impossibility, even) of a unified concept of religion/spirituality, James focused instead on the religious experience. That feeling, the deeper feeling of spirituality is so central to the human experience that it may be safe to say that everyone – or nearly everyone – has felt it. In an attempt to capture that essence,

James provided a concise, elegant definition of religion using experiential parameters:

Religion, therefore, as I now ask you arbitrarily to take it, shall mean for us the feelings, acts, and experiences of individual men in their solitude, so far as they apprehend themselves to stand in relation to whatever they may consider the divine. Since the relation may be either moral, physical, or ritual, it is evident that out of religion in the sense in which we take it, theologies, philosophies, and ecclesiastical organizations may secondarily grow. In these lectures, however, as I have already said, the immediate personal experiences will amply fill our time, and we shall hardly consider theology or ecclesiasticism at all. (p. 31)

The word “divine” sparks a bit of contention. What is the divine, and must it be in a definition of spirituality? Can there be spirituality without the divine? James provided an explanation:

The word ‘divine,’ as employed therein, shall mean for us not merely the primal and enveloping and real, for that meaning if taken without restriction might well 29

prove too broad. The divine shall mean for us only such a primal reality as the individual feels impelled to respond to solemnly and gravely, and neither by a curse nor a jest. (p. 32)

James shifted the focus from what the divine is (primal reality) to the reaction that the divine sparks within one’s self. Looking at both sides, the human and the divine, gives an excellent metaphor for spirituality. It is a reflection. There is no spirituality (or divine) without someone to look to it. In this way, one looks in the mirror and the mirror looks back. Spirituality is as much a reflection of an individual and humanity as a whole as it is a static, faraway concept. James added:

Such a definition as this would in a way be defensible. Religion, whatever it is, is a man's total reaction upon life, so why not say that any total reaction upon life is a religion? Total reactions are different from casual reactions, and total attitudes are different from usual or professional attitudes. (p. 33, italics added)

This kind of total reaction to life captures an essence of spirituality – the contact with the feeling of something greater than one’s self, whether that is a God, ultimate reality, or a more perfected self that one strives to attain. The current study will use an inclusive definition that aims at capturing that feeling, the essence of spirituality, the breath that gives life its meaning. This study will use William James’s framework for defining and exploring spirituality insofar as a definition is needed. This “definition” is as much a modus operandi for moving onward in the investigation of climbing as a spiritual experience as it is a definition. This study’s frameworks and conceptual bases are also based on James’s definition of the divine.

The Relationship of Spirituality and Religion

Religion is a mostly Western concept (King, 2005), coming from the Latin word religio, which denoted ritual precision (Religion, 2006). In fact, in ancient Rome, being religious or having religion meant performing ritual acts, such as making sacrifices or conferring with oracles, with much less importance placed on belief. Religio’s antonym, superstitio, was not aberrant belief, but rather aberrant activity: a ritual performed incorrectly according to the Roman standards. In Rome, there was consistent emphasis on religious acts over beliefs. While the concept of religion has of course evolved since the

Roman era, its roots illustrate the emphasis on structure, practice, and organization.

Currently, spirituality and religion are generally seen as distinct from one another.

Where religion used to pertain to both individual and institutional elements, recently spirituality has taken over the individual elements, leaving religion as a narrower term pertaining to formally structured institutions (Hill et al., 2000). Spirituality’s realm is the personal: it is an inward focus, personal and individualized, whereas religion’s is social: there is an organization, prescribed actions (e.g., rituals, rites, prayers, etc.), other individuals, and non-sacred feelings and emotions that are involved with the search of spirituality (e.g. feelings of belonging, community, hope) (Hill et al., 2000).

Until recently, there was not a drastic difference between the terms religion and spirituality; the difference between the two was more semantic than anything, or seen as two sides of the same coin (MacDonald, 2005; Fuller, 2001). This has been changing. In the U.S., there has been a general societal shift away from religion toward spirituality 31

(Turner, Lukoff, Barnhouse & Lu, 1995). Several sources of disillusionment of religion have been noted, including the rise of secularism and a trend away from seeing religion as the only source of enlightenment (Turner, Lukoff, Barnhouse & Lu, 1995), as well as increasing trends toward deinstitutionalization, individualization, and globalization

(Pargament, 1999). Roof (1993) wrote that Americans’ interest in spirituality (as distinct from religion) has seen an increase in the last thirty five years, and that religious institutions in America have begun to include traditionally “spiritual” definitions and concepts.

Despite the distinctions just drawn, the academic community and the public have yet to reach consensus on the precise meanings of spirituality and religion and distinction between the two. Alternatively, considering historical roots, there has been a recent departure from consensus toward more disparate definitions of both concepts. Theoretical and empirical studies highlight, if nothing else, the lack of consensus among academics and the general public. There is currently no overarching or unanimously agreed upon definition of either term (Borchert, 2006; Fuller, 2001; Griffin, 1999; Heintzman, 2010b;

Koenig, 2008, MacDonald, 2005; Schneiders, 2003). While the diversity with which we see these two constructs may enrich our understanding and reflect an evolution in the meanings of spirituality and religion, the lack of consensus has negative implications for research (Zinnbauer et al., 1997). If there are no standard definitions for spirituality and religion, it is unclear what one means when using either term. It also negatively affects communication between different fields of research and confounds communication of 32

research to the public. With this in mind, recent research has made progress toward creating clear and consistent delineations of the two concepts.

Academia has paid significant attention to the differences between spirituality and religion. There are several conceptual articles that theorize (e.g., Pargament, 1999;

Schmidt & Little, 2007; Schneiders, 2003; Wright, 1984) and several studies that empirically investigate (e.g., Fuller, 2001; Schlehofer, 2008; Zinnbauer et al., 1997) the concepts of religion and spirituality. This field of research is extensive but not complete; it continues to develop in turn as societal views evolve. Schneiders (2003) provides three models for the relationship between spirituality and religion. First, that the two are separate, with no necessary connection. This may be the position of those who respect others’ religions but who find nothing in it for themselves, or those who find that correct and faithful religious practice is sufficient “without any spiritual trimmings” (p. 164).

Second, that spirituality and religion are rivals: they have an inverse relationship with each other. In this model, the more spiritual one is, the less religious one will be. This is the position, Schneiders writes, of those raised in a religion who later repudiate their faith and who find religion to be empty, or the devout whose dependence on religious authority is undermined by independent spirituality that does not defer to clerical authority. Last, that spirituality and religion are partners: they are separate and at times in tension, but are two dimensions of the same enterprise. Much like body and spirit, they may be in tension at times but are mutually essential. This may be the view of the religious who view spirituality and religion as working hand-in-hand in their lives. 33

There is a popular modern sentiment that not only view spirituality and religion as separate, but put them in tension with each other. Some individuals view spirituality as freeing while viewing religion as limiting. Schlehofer, Omoto, & Adelman (2008) note that connotations of religion tend to be “narrow and institutional” while spirituality tends to be “personal and subjective” (p. 563). Wuthnow (2001) found that some participants described spirituality and religion as pitted against one another. One individual reflected that “Religion is structure, an institution. It limits you. Spirituality is something you are”

(Wuthnow, 2001, p. 306). Similarly, a middle-aged man in the same study elaborated,

“Religion represents the institutionalized essence of spirituality, and the nature of the process is that as it becomes institutionalized it becomes encrusted with traditions and inflexibility, and eventually becomes polluted with egotism and power” (p. 306). These examples are from participants who were more spiritual than religious, and took issue with religion. Heintzman (2010b) found a tension from the religious toward what they might think of as an overly-inclusive definition of spirituality. Some Christians reported that they felt that a definition of spirituality must include Christ, and that “worshipping trees, birds, & dirt” (Weathersbee, 1997, as quoted in Heintzman, 2010b) was an illegitimate view of spirituality.

Schneiders (2003) noted that while religion seems to remain a permanent fixture in American culture, its influence on individual or societal life is in “serious trouble” (p.

163). Meanwhile spirituality is in high profile, enjoying prominence and growth. “In short,” she contended, “If religion is in trouble, spirituality is in ascendency” (p. 163). 34

Indeed, many studies have reported a classification of being spiritual but not religious

(e.g. Heintzman, 2010a; Marler & Hadaway, 2002; Schneiders, 2003; Wuthnow, 2001;

Zinnbauer et al., 1997). Part of the difficulty in classifying and collecting data on the precise religious or spiritual beliefs in America is that beliefs fall on a spectrum. In

Spiritual but not Religious: Understanding Unchurched America, Robert C. Fuller (2001) suggested three types of beliefs among modern “unchurched” Americans. First are secular humanists, those who do not believe in religion and are indifferent to it, which likely make up about 8 to 15 percent of the population2. Second, there are those whose relationship with religion is ambiguous, who may attend religious services irregularly and/or espouse traditions or beliefs from several religions. Most important, these individuals do not deeply believe in the religion that they occasionally visit; about ten percent of the population (half of which may belong to the following group). Last, up to

21 percent of all Americans fall into the “spiritual but not religious,” group, who are spiritual but do not affiliate with a religion. There is a range of sentiment in this category, from those who are mostly secular and have only “mild spiritual impulses” to those who are “deeply interested in pursuing spiritual growth” (p. 4). The latter are the people that

Roof (1993) called “highly active seekers,” who, while unchurched, are more concerned with spiritual development than most churchgoers, according to Roof. They view their lives as spiritual journeys, expect to make spiritual breakthroughs on their own, feel a

2To compare, in Europe, most educated persons declare themselves secular. Less than ten percent of

Europe’s population regularly attends religious services (Fuller, 2001). 35

tension between their personal beliefs and religion, perhaps see their spiritual life as a

“journey,” and often belong to a certain demographic (educated, white-collar, liberal, independent, and were raised in a household that did not attend church regularly) (Fuller,

2001). While individuals who are spiritual but not religious may use practices common in religions (e.g., meditating, fasting, use of symbols, incense, crystals, etc.), these individuals categorically reject religion (Schneiders, 2003). A common theme among individuals who are spiritual but not religious is the emphasis on first-hand experience through which one gains valuable spiritual perspective. Indeed, a common thread among all spiritualities and religions is the spiritual experience itself.

Religious experience is what James (1902) characterized as an “overbelief,” an intellectual elaboration of experience itself (Spickard, 1999). Therefore, a religious experience is ineffable inasmuch it can only be conveyed in words up to a certain point. It must be lived to be understood completely; it cannot be relived or transferred to another person. In a religious context, the experience comes first (as raw material) and religious ideas come afterward (the product) in an attempt to explain or contextualize the experience. These experiences are a driving force behind spirituality and religion, being the lived raw material for belief. They can align within established religion; for example, a Hindu mystic may have a spiritual experience that reinforces his beliefs. James (1902) stresses, however, that the experience happens first and the interpretation later; the individual fits the experience within his own religious or spiritual parameters.

The Varieties of Spiritual Experiences

Philosophers and theologians have characterized spiritual experiences with various theoretic frameworks (e.g., James, 1902; Otto, 1923; Wach, 1944, Wilber, 1977).

There is a range of what can be interpreted as a spiritual experience, but it involves the direct experiencing of the divine (James, 1902; Otto, 1923; Wach, 1944), combined with an altered state of consciousness where one experiences a state of mind that is different from everyday consciousness (James, 1902). This is what sets this kind of experience apart from the everyday. Thus, not just any experience that is spiritually fulfilling can be characterized as a “spiritual experience.” For example, seeing a lovely meadow may conjure feelings of beauty and connection with nature, and even make one feel closer to the divine, but the experience may or may not involve direct experiencing of the divine, and has no altered state of consciousness, and so would not qualify as a spiritual experience. Even Buddhists seek altered states of consciousness, escaping the everyday

“monkey mind” in their journey toward enlightenment. Watts (1960/1973) stated:

This—the immediate, everyday, and present experience—is IT, the entire and ultimate point for the existence of a universe. But the recognition that the two are one comes to pass in an elusive, though relatively common, state of consciousness which has fascinated me above all else since I was seventeen years old” (p. 1, italics in original).

It must be noted, however, that the altered state of consciousness that is referred to here is the direct experiencing of reality – exactly how the world is, right now, nothing else.

Though in quality it may be different to other altered states (see James, 1902, p. 373-

420), the Zen moment is analogous in that is a departure from everyday consciousness. In 37

short, a spiritual experience is the firsthand encounter with the sacred3 combined with an altered state of consciousness.

There are different levels of spiritual experience, varying in length, intensity, quality, and so on. Despite the differences, there are striking similarities which make this type of experience analogous across the range of religions and spiritualities. One framework through which to analyze spiritual experiences is given in William James’

(1902) lecture on mysticism. James established a set of criteria for mystical experiences, which Otto (1923) characterized as the “Annihilation of self, and then, as its complement, of the transcendent as the sole and entire reality” (p. 21). James (1902) wrote that the mystic is invulnerable insofar that an outsider cannot impede or nullify the belief and experience that the mystic has had. Likewise, the mystic has no authority over anyone else to force belief of the mystic or his experience. James offered four criteria of mystical states: ineffability, a noetic quality, transiency, and passivity. The former two are emphasized more than the latter two, which are usually, but not necessarily found.

First, the most prominent element of a mystical state is ineffability, that it defies expression. The mystical state must be lived, must be experienced. Words, while helpful for description, will fall short of capturing the experience as a whole. James wrote that these states are “more like states of feeling than like states of intellect” (p. 371). No one can impart the experience to another. Like love, one cannot understand it until one experiences it. Second, the mystic is able to dive into depths of knowledge and meaning

3 The specific concept of sacred of course refers to one’s own, subjective definition of the term. See above. 38

beyond the reach of intellect alone. Thus, a noetic quality emerges. Noetic is defined as

“of, relating to, or based on the intellect” (Miriam-Webster’s Online Dictionary). Though it may remain unarticulated, during mystical experiences one gains insights into greater depths of truth than in everyday life. Third, a transient quality emerges. Mystical states are finite and cannot be sustained for long. It may last for a few minutes to “at most an hour or two” (James, 1902, p. 373). And once the experience has passed, the experience can only be imperfectly reproduced in memory. Finally, there is the characteristic of passivity. Though a mystical state may be conjured with a practice of some sort (e.g., meditation, repetition of a mantra, etc.), the mystical state happens to the mystic – the mystic is not in full control. The mystic feels as if she were “grasped and held by a superior power” (p. 372). In addition, mystical states are not “merely interruptive:” there is some sort of recollection afterward, and a sense of its importance. One who speaks in tongues, for example, who has no recollection whatsoever of the event, is not a mystic, according to James4 (p. 373). The mystic remains himself during the experience, and recalls it afterward, often even with “copious eloquence” (Otto, 1923/1950). James himself had a mystical experience while in the mountains:

The sky swept itself clear of every trace of cloud or vapor, the wind entirely ceased, so that the fire-smoke rose straight up to heaven . . . The moon rose and hung above the scene before midnight, leaving only a few of the larger stars

4 While James does not consider speaking in tongues or being slain by the spirit to be mystical experiences, they are nonetheless considered to be spiritual experiences. For a discussion on this topic, see Spickard

(1999). 39

visible, and I got into a state of spiritual alertness of the most vital description . . . the influences of Nature, the wholesomeness of the people round me…all fermented within me until it became a regular Walpurgis Nacht5. . . it seemed as if the Gods of all the nature-mythologies were holding an indescribable meeting in my breast with the moral Gods of the inner life. The two kinds of Gods have nothing in common--the Edinburgh lectures6 made quite a hitch ahead. (Lewis, 1991, p. 501)

James’ account serves as an example of how a natural setting can act as a catalyst for a spiritual experience: the beauty of the mountain night brought about a state of “spiritual alertness” that led to that “indescribable meeting” inside himself. James also alluded to experiencing the divine (“the Gods of all the nature-mythologies” and “the moral Gods”) with an altered state of consciousness (“spiritual alertness”) that typify a mystical experience. There is no mold for a spiritual experience; each experience is unique and ultimately transcends the limits of our understanding. James’ account serves as a brief example of how a spiritual experience can be triggered and what it can be like in the moment, and his criteria for mystical states provide a framework through which these states will be analyzed in this study.

It is important to recognize that in James’ time, the term “spiritual” was not unique from “religious” as it is in today’s vernacular. In this light, he used the term

“mystical” to refer to spiritual experiences that were not interpreted through a religious

5 The Walpurgis Nacht is the night where witches are said to ride to a rendezvous on the night of the feast of Saint Walburga.

6 The Edinburgh lectures are the lectures that would later become the Varieties of Religious Experience

(1902). 40

tradition. What James labeled as mystical experiences might well be called spiritual experiences today, at least in as far as we think of individualized spirituality. If James’ notion of a mystical experience is interpreted through a religious tradition, then it would be a religious rather than spiritual experience. There is no parsimonious definition of spirituality.

Research Questions

There are several references to spirituality in popular climbing literature. Most often, spirituality is not directly confronted and the reader is left with an impression of the author’s spiritualities rather than a concrete idea. Contemporary climbers like Willi

Unsoeld, Steve House, and Mark Twight offer insight into the possibilities of a relationship between climbing and spirituality. Despite the reticence of popular literature to directly address spirituality within a climbing context, there is a line of academic research that studies spirituality in leisure contexts. Several leisure activities that are spiritually enriching have been identified, but few studies have examined the role of serious leisure in participants’ lives, and no study of which the researcher is aware has researched climbing and spirituality. In the literature review, a functional definition of spirituality was established using the experiential-based framework of William James.

The nuances of the relationship between spirituality and religion were discussed. Finally, a discussion of spiritual experiences included several characteristics of spiritual experiences with an emphasis on mysticism. The purpose of this study is to investigate 41

climbing as a spiritual experience, with an emphasis placed on the role that climbing plays in participants’ spiritual lives.

The following research questions are used to guide this study:

1. In what ways is climbing spiritual for the participants in this study?

2. In what ways does climbing enrich the lives of the participants in this study from

a spiritual standpoint?

3. How does climbing influence the overall spirituality of participants?

Chapter 3: Methods

At present there is no research of which the researcher is aware that addresses spirituality within the context of climbing. As a result, there is no established theoretical framework specific to spirituality and climbing on which this study can be based.

Consequently, this study was conducted using grounded theory techniques (Strauss &

Corbin, 1990). Rather than begin with a hypothesis that the researcher sought to prove or disprove, this research allowed the data from the interview participants to serve as the basis from which to draw conclusions.

This study has placed a strong emphasis on the participants’ experience – how spirituality manifests itself in the participants’ lives. The literature review offered an experiential approach to understanding spirituality and religion, and the discussion of spiritual experiences highlighted several characteristics of spiritual experiences. A goal of this study was to more deeply understand the experience of spirituality within the context of climbing as well as how it affects one’s life and overall spiritual wellbeing. Consequently, a phenomenological approach seemed to be the most appropriate in exploring spirituality among the climbers in this study.

Phenomenology

Broadly defined, phenomenology is the study of structures of consciousness as experienced first-hand by an individual (Smith, 2011). Smith (2011) wrote that phenomenology was essentially practiced for centuries before it became a formal philosophical discipline: when Hindu and Buddhist practitioners reflected on states of 43

consciousness found in daily life and meditative states; when Descartes, Hume, and Kant classified states of thought, perception, and imagination; when Brentano characterized various mental phenomena; and when James wrote about mental activity in a stream of consciousness (Smith, 2011, para. 36). Despite this long history, Husserl is commonly recognized as the founder and most influential philosopher in this philosophical school of thought. The phenomenology movement began among the “Munich Circle” of German philosophers in the early 20th century and included such thinkers as Geiger, Pfander,

Reinach, Scheler, Heidegger, and Becker (Allen, 2005). Phenomenology soon spread to

France where it was influenced by Sartre , Marcel, Merleau-Ponty and others, and there was an attempt to integrate elements of existentialism. Before World War I, it spread to

Japan, Russia, and Spain and became incorporated into the field of psychiatry (Embree,

1997). It has since spread globally and continues to develop. It has become one of the major disciplines of philosophy and has been applied in numerous other disciplines, including religion, education, music, literature, theater, ecology, ethnology, medicine, law, and others.

Phenomenology studies the structure of one’s firsthand experience. The experiences could range from “thought, perception, memory, imagination, emotion, desire, and volition to body awareness, embodied action, and social activity” (Smith,

2011, para. 8). There is an element to consciousness that Husserl called “intentionality,” the property of consciousness that is of or about something – consciousness is directed toward something tangible in the world. If one walks through the forest, the trees, rocks, 44

smells, and sounds are all the objects of consciousness. Human consciousness, however, is directed toward things through the mind, through thought and emotion. Mental constructs such as concepts, ideas, thoughts, images, emotions, and the like are the lens through which one experiences the forest. Consciousness is more than simply seeing and hearing the forest; consciousness is directed toward the forest by way of the mind which gives meaning and intention, has content, and so on. It is this mental lens that gives substance to experience. Consciousness is not simply a movie of the forest. It is more akin to a movie with a rolling commentary of one’s various thoughts, emotional responses, and other affective conditions happening simultaneously with the film. This is the crux of phenomenology – the experiencing that is distinct from the action or object that is done, seen, heard, or felt. Phenomenology explores the depth and different aspects of the experience as a way of interpreting reality and consciousness. It should be emphasized as well that consciousness also includes thought without as much “input” as the forest example, such as imagination or memory.

Phenomenology of Spirituality

Traditional philosophy of spirituality tends to be a normative enterprise, contemplating the truth or viability of spiritual claims, such as the existence of God

(Westphal, 1998). It lends itself to having two sides to the argument: on the one hand, the belief in God, with its logical support, descriptions of the experience of the divine, and, so on; and on the other hand, disbelief in God with logic and evidence to the contrary.

Both sides offer justification for their own side and refute the other; thus the discussion 45

turns from what is true to what is most rational. Westphal (1998) wrote: “If God’s existence cannot be decisively proved or disproved, is it rational to believe in God? But this, too, is a normative question” (p. 2). On the other hand, a phenomenological approach to spirituality sets aside the issues of truth and rationality of beliefs, and instead seeks to provide a descriptive analysis of the nearly-universal phenomenon of spirituality.

Phenomenology of spirituality is thus often interpreted as a departure from the normative and is one of the major approaches within religious and spiritual studies (Allen, 2005).

The central focus therefore turns from justification of spirituality and beliefs to asking the question, “What is spirituality?” in an attempt to characterize it. Since spirituality is as much practice as belief, a phenomenological approach focuses on the lived experience of spirituality. By seeking the essence of the phenomenon of spirituality, the phenomenology of spirituality also tends to be more inclusive of religious and spiritual traditions. Normative philosophy of spirituality tends to focus on issues revolving around Judeo-Christian monotheism whereas phenomenology of spirituality allows for greater inclusion of non-Western, indigenous, and other types of spiritualities that are fundamentally different than Abrahamic monotheism (Westphal, 1998, p. 2).

Thus, phenomenology of spirituality tends to characterize religions differently than the traditional. For example, the traditional categories of Christianity, Judaism, Islam,

Hinduism, and so on can be replaced by other categories that cut across traditions, such as Eliade’s (1954) distinction of cosmos and history, James’ (1902) distinction between one-born from twice-born, and Bergson’s (1932) distinction of static/closed from 46

dynamic/open (Westphal, 1998, p. 2), which have a different way of looking at and therefore comparing and contrasting, different spiritual belief systems.

This study takes a phenomenological approach to spirituality in the attempt to understand the spirituality of climbers and to characterize the spiritual experience that occurs in a climbing context.

Data Collection

To explore climbing as a spiritual experience, a qualitative research approach based on the principles of phenomenology was used. Characterized as a “naturalistic and interpretive” methodology, phenomenology represents the study of one’s relationship to the elements in his or her life. (Schmidt & Little, 2007, p. 227). Researchers use phenomenology to seek the meaning, structure, and essence of one’s experience of a certain phenomenon (Groenewald, 2004), which in this case was spirituality in a climbing context. This approach is particularly effective in bringing out people’s experiences and beliefs through their own lenses, and thus can be a useful tool for forming new theories and challenging assumptions (Lester, 1999). Phenomenology has a specific focus on understanding the world from the perspective of the participant and seeks to eliminate the influence of the researcher during the interview process (Schmidt & Little, 2007).

True phenomenological interviews are unstructured; they rely on developing rapport with participants to enable a free-flowing, open discussion. This study followed this approach by conducting an open dialog between researcher and participant, but had certain questions that were asked in every interview to ensure consistency among 47

interviews. Each interview began with the question, “Is climbing a spiritual experience for you?” Following an affirmative response,7 the participant was asked how climbing was spiritual. This led to an open dialog between researcher and participant. The participants introduced ideas in their responses, to which the researcher asked clarifying and investigative questions. Unless the topic was covered without asking, all participants were asked the following three questions:

1. Can you describe your general spirituality and how climbing fits into that?

2. Have you ever had a spiritual epiphany while climbing?

3. Does climbing contribute to your spiritual development (if so, how)?

Discussion tended to flow naturally, with the participant introducing ideas and the researcher asking clarifying and investigative questions. There was a range of how talkative the participants were during interviews. Some only needed occasional questioning from the researcher to elicit their thoughts (and did so at length) where others gave short answers and required more questioning to gain their full perspective. The interviews progressed until the participant reached a point of ineffability. The researcher then asked if the participant had anything further to add, after which the interviews ended.

Three pilot interviews were conducted to assess and improve the interview techniques and questions. A total of 20 interviews were conducted over a period of five

7 There were no negative responses to this question. Only people that view climbing as somehow spiritual were asked to participate in this study. Any interviews with negative response would have been discarded. 48

weeks. All interviews were done via phone or Skype. Though an effort was made to conduct all interviews on video, only three interviews were conducted in this manner; the remaining seventeen were audio (phone) only. All interviews were audio recorded using the researcher’s computer. The interviews ranged in duration from twelve to seventy minutes, averaging 35 minutes in length.

Sample

The sample for this study consists of twenty climbers who view climbing as spiritual. Participants were recruited using convenience sampling techniques (Patton,

1990). The researcher is a climber and mountain guide, and through word-of-mouth was able to make contact with three climbers that expressed interest in participating. The remaining 17 participants were recruited by fliers. One saw a paper flier in a university’s outdoor program bulletin board and 16 responded to an online flier that was posted on one of four climbing forum websites. The same flier was posted on Cascade Climbers

(cascadeclimbers.com), Mountain Project (mountainproject.com), North East Ice

(neice.com), and the American Alpine Institute Blog (alpineinstitute.blogspot.com). The first three websites are online forums that focus on climbing and the AAI Blog is an informational blog from a commercial guiding company. Cascade Climbers yielded two participants, Mountain Project yielded four participants, North East Ice yielded no participants, and the AAI Blog yielded ten participants. The different websites were used to access climbers from different geographic regions and climbing backgrounds. Potential participants emailed the researcher and interviews were scheduled and conducted. The 49

researcher clarified, in every email exchange, that only climbers that saw climbing as somehow spiritual were eligible for participation. One person was rejected on these grounds, who said that he did not see climbing as spiritual.

Demographic information was gathered at the end of each interview. Participants ranged in age from 19 to 63. The average age was 35, median age 27. There were 17 males and 3 females. There was a range of climbing experience from 1.5 years to 47 years, with an average of 13 years of climbing. There were seven types of climbing considered: bouldering, sport (rock), traditional (“trad” rock), ice, mountaineering (non- technical mountain climbing), alpine (technical mountain climbing), and big wall climbing. Participants ranged in experience from one to all seven types of climbing.

Three had engaged in only one type and three had engaged in all seven. All participants had at least some college education, five had bachelor’s degrees, seven had master’s degrees, five were current college students, and one was a current graduate student. There was a considerable range of occupations, ranging from student (six participants); outdoor or climbing guide, leader, or instructor (four participants); to one each of scientist, doctor, farmer, writer, business-person, stay-at-home parent, government employee, handyman, outdoor educator, and ski industry employee. Many participants reported having more than one occupation. Ten of the participants were or have been employed in the outdoor industry (e.g., climbing guide, outdoor educator, or a student in a college outdoors program). Other than one Australian, all other participants were Americans, living among twelve states. All participants have been given pseudonyms to keep their identities 50

confidential. Participants’ pseudonyms are Adam, Brad, Charlie, Dave, Evan, Frank,

George, Harry, Ian, Karl, Laura, Ned, Patricia, and Tina.

Data Analysis

Out of a total of twenty interviews conducted, fourteen were transcribed, at which point saturation was reached. The fourteen interviews were selectively transcribed, with the non-relevant sections omitted, yielding a total of 74 pages of transcriptions. Once the transcription process was complete, an inductive approach to data analysis was used

(Lincoln & Guba, 1985), with open coding used to identify prominent concepts and themes. Then, axial coding of the transcriptions (Strauss & Corbin, 1990) was conducted to identify relationships in the themes among interviews. After the core themes were identified, the researcher engaged in selective coding to streamline the themes that had arisen. Initially, eleven themes were identified, which were reduced to five themes using these techniques.

Credibility of the Study

Because the researcher is a member of the population that he was studying, there was a potential for bias that had to be acknowledged and overcome. There were several tactics that were employed to ensure the credibility, dependability, and confirmability of this study. First, several tactics were used to ensure honesty among participants (Shenton,

2003). Participants were self-selected and were given the chance to opt out of the study at any time. This was in an effort to ensure that only those who are genuinely interested in participating take part. Also, the researcher attempted to develop a rapport with the 51

participant before the interviews began, in an effort to make the participant comfortable and open to share his or her feelings about such a personal topic as spirituality. Second, multiple participants allow for triangulation of data (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Multiple participants’ accounts were compared to give a rich perspective of the greater picture.

Third, the researcher asked neutral questions so as to not lead the participant toward any specific answers (Miyata & Kai, 2009). For example, several participants asked the researcher to define “spiritual” either before or during their interviews. To avoid introducing a bias, the researcher responded by asking the participants to define spirituality for themselves using their own words. Fourth, the data analysis is transparent

(Miyata & Kai, 2009). Last, the researcher maintained a “reflective commentary”

(Shenton, 2003), part of which the researcher dedicated toward identifying emerging patterns and themes during the data collection process. This “progressive subjectivity”

(Lincoln & Guba, 1985) allowed the researcher to reflect on both the content of the interviews and the approach used; some of the study’s findings were identified during this process. Provided with the above research methods, these measures ensure the credibility of this study.

Chapter 4: Results

Most participants reported that climbing was the exclusive or most powerful means in their lives for yielding spiritual outcomes. Some participants also reported climbing to be formative to their spiritual beliefs and practices, and that it served as a means through which they explored and formed their spirituality. Certain participants indicated that climbing was the most spiritually powerful activity in which they engaged.

Five major themes were identified in the relationship between climbing and spirituality. Interview data suggested a relationship between participants’ spiritual development with “experience,” which includes the variables age, the length of time climbing, overall climbing experience and life experience. Out of the total of fourteen interviews that were transcribed and analyzed, seven participants were found to have developed their own spirituality independent from any formal religion or spirituality.

Dubbed an “individualized spirituality,” these beliefs were reported to be heavily influenced by personal experiences. Participants with individualized spiritualities indicated that climbing played an instrumental role in their sense of spirituality.

Climbing was reported by nine participants as a means by which they connected with others: a means of spiritual fellowship. Nature was also identified by all but one participant as being a major component of their sense of spirituality. Finally, climbing led to a range of spiritual and religious experiences, including meditation, trance-like states, mystical experiences, and religious experiences. These themes are organized in ascending prominence, beginning with the least prominent and finishing with the most prominent. 53

Relationship of Experience and Spiritual Development

The interview data, while limited, seems to suggest a relationship between the development of participants’ spiritual beliefs with their age, the length of time they have been climbing, overall climbing experience and life experience. The variables of age, the length of time climbing, climbing experience and life experience were found to be directly related and, for the sake of brevity, will be referred to as “experience.” The exact relationship among these four variables is unclear. Every young climber was also relatively inexperienced in climbing, for example, while all but one of the more mature participants had also been climbing for many years. Participants fell into a range of climbing experience, from 1.5 years to 46 years. There is insufficient evidence to delineate certain stages of spiritual development in relation to experience. Rather, a general trend was observed.

The younger, less experienced climbers tended to be in their spiritual adolescence, especially among those who have an individualized spirituality. It seemed to be a period in which these climbers were groping for a sense of spirituality, a period characterized by a sense of turmoil, a challenge of old ideas, an influx of new ideas, formation of beliefs, and experimentation. All of the participants that fell into this category found climbing to be spiritual. In general, these participants’ ideas were limited in depth and sophistication when compared with more experienced participants.

There was a middle group, who were further along on their spiritual path, having found spiritual beliefs and practices that seem to resonate in their lives. These participants 54

have a good idea of how climbing (and possibly other practices) fits into their greater spirituality. They answered questions more deeply and eloquently than the younger group, and in general seem to have a better handle of their spirituality, their place in the world, and the role that climbing plays in all of that. That said, they are still forming new ideas and have not settled into the secure maturity that was found in the most experienced participants.

Those with decades of climbing experience (and decades of life experience – these participants were all over 50) tended to have very secure and sophisticated concepts of their spirituality. After exploring for most of their adult life, they have found their path and have been navigating it for years. They were very clear about their spiritual beliefs and the role that climbing plays in their overall spirituality. These participants have had several spiritual experiences and talk eloquently about these experiences and the impact that these experiences have had. It was clear that these participants are further along the spiritual path than the younger, less experienced participants, and their thoughts on spirituality reflected their level of spiritual development.

Individualized Spirituality

Several participants developed their own spirituality independent of formal spiritual traditions. Their perspectives are primarily informed by personal experience, much of which was found while climbing. Seven participants, Charlie, Dave, Evan,

Frank, George, Ian, and Tina, have what will be referred to as an “individualized spirituality,” which is characterized as a spirituality (including beliefs, practices, and 55

spiritual experiences), that is unique to the individual. Some left the religion they were raised in to explore their spirituality on their own. Some of these participants have drawn from several spiritual traditions while others eschewed all spiritual traditions’ teachings and have relied only on personal experience to inform their beliefs. All have individually and independently developed their spiritualities.

Dave developed his own spirituality based exclusively on his firsthand experiences. He summarized his spirituality by saying: “It’s more a religion of ‘us’ than a religion of a deity.” He does not believe in anything supernatural – no God, no greater power, or forces of any kind– yet he has experienced altered states of consciousness while climbing that challenged and expanded his concept of spirituality:

I classify myself as an atheist, but I also know from those experiences, that [my spirituality is] something in between. It’s not just [that] our reality is what we perceive it normally. There’s some other levels there. And so although I’m a fairly militant atheist, I allow that there’s something between there, between sort of nothing and full religion.

The “other levels” that Dave referred to are deeper levels of consciousness that he has at times experienced during long, arduous alpine climbs. His firsthand experiences have informed his spirituality, which he said includes these deeper levels of consciousness.

Evan emphasized that he is currently looking for what works for him in the world.

After leaving the religion in which he was raised, Evan has been searching for meaning to find his own spiritual path. He summarized his story:

I’m like in the search of something. I grew up Catholic, but I never really felt strongly connected to the Church. I’ve always believed there was a God, but the idea of what that means has changed. I grew up, like the Church forces an image of this big guy with a white beard up there, and through climbing and doing other 56

practices, like I’ve done yoga, but this, like, through my experience in the natural world, I’ve just like kind of been playing with the idea of forces. Like, uh, there’s this good energy and this bad energy in the world. They play with each other, they interact with each other. They just, I don’t know, I’m sure there are names for what religion it is, but like I feel like it’s a mix of sort of I don’t even know. Like, I’m definitely not too sure about religion, but I’m searching. I’m a searcher.

Evan found that Catholicism does not work for him and was looking for what does. Evan, at 19 years old, was just beginning down his adult spiritual path. One participant that stood out as having a much more mature outlook and developed individualized spirituality is Frank. At 62, he was decades older than Evan. He was also raised Christian, and also left the church to explore other spiritual traditions. He later took elements from several spiritual traditions to form his own spiritual beliefs and practices:

Well, I was raised Catholic. And back in that day, everything they said in the Mass, that was true. It was not a really good experience for me. And so when I was old enough, I “left the church,” as they say, and wandered about aimlessly spiritually for a while. That was an age [the 1960s] when this sort of stuff was in vogue anyways. But I took it to heart, and I read a lot of things, this and that. Friends that were like minded, we’d talk about that kind of stuff. It’s kind of like my own personal kind of religious feelings these days is not with any kind of institutionalized “church,” but more of a personal religious thinking that I have. And Hinduism, Buddhism, the Eastern religions, to me made sense in a lot of ways. I know they’re pretty whacked out and crazy, you know, the Bahavadgita, the Upanishads or something like that, the Tibetan Book of the Dead, or something, that’s crazy stuff. But the basic stuff was the root of what they talked about. But I actually consider myself Christian, too. Because by revisiting the Bible with some of this background, a lot of things rang true, to me anyways, that most religions, really have the roots that are basically the same. We just use different names and terminology or whatever. But basically there’s a lot of roads that lead to the same place, is the way I look at it. That’s where I am on the religion side of things. And it’s probably a little selfish, because our church is sort of community-held, and do some good stuff. But that’s just the road I took. That’s how that is.

Frank adopted certain elements from several different spiritual traditions and combined that with his own firsthand experiences (e.g., mystical experiences while climbing) to form his own view, his own independent spirituality.

A crucial component in all of these participants’ accounts was the importance that climbing played in their spirituality. Climbing has been a spiritual practice and means to have spiritual experiences, both of which have served to inform the participants’ perspectives and are formative for their sense of spirituality. In the three examples from above, climbing has served to expand these participants’ spiritual beliefs, have provided new experiences that challenge their existing spirituality and have led to significant spiritual growth. Dave underscored the basis of his spirituality and the role that climbing has had, saying, “Climbing, because it can take you to some extreme places physically and mentally, it kind of pushes you to those other states.” Those “other states” are the deeper levels of consciousness that are the foundation to Dave’s spirituality. He continued:

I guess [climbing] reinforced in me that there’s a lot of mental or physiological stuff inside us that we don’t understand. And there’s different levels of it and we don’t access it much of the time. It’s only when we’re pushed through physical and mental hardship.

Notably, he has only been able to experience deeper levels of consciousness while climbing. These experiences led Dave to expand his sense of spirituality to include what he learned firsthand while climbing.

Evan also explained the role that climbing has played in his spirituality. He said that “The whole spiritual aspect has made me look inside, and have the real inner me 58

come out.” Climbing has been a catalyst for great spiritual growth for Evan. He reflected on learning about many spiritual traditions and not finding anything that resonated with him. He said, “I wish I could like just start a religion.” But, in a sense, he has started his own religion. Evan said that climbing is:

…like going to church. I’m practicing. I’m exercising my body, my mind, and attempting to exercise my soul. It’s kind of like going to prayer for people. It’s kind of like prayer for me, I guess. And prayer’s kind of like wishing good things for other people, or hoping people get better. And that’s still to get there in practice. You need to exercise mind, body, and spirit. And I guess that’s [climbing’s] influence.

Climbing has given Evan a means for self-discovery on a spiritual level, and has allowed him to create a sense of spirituality based on personal experience. Evan had an informed perspective of who he was and where he was going, though he admitted to being in his spiritual adolescence, with a lifetime of spiritual growth ahead of him.

Frank, who recalled being much like Evan in his youth, reflected on his spiritual journey and the role that climbing played in his journey. His spirituality was heavily informed by climbing. When asked how climbing fit into his general spirituality, Frank responded:

It fits in very well. (laughs). From what I’ve said so far, I’ve referred to meditating and yoga and Hinduism and Buddhism, things like that. Daoism. It’s probably more of a sincere prayer when I go climbing that it would be if I were to just pray inside or go to church or something. I feel a lot more connected to the divine doing that, than going to church… my climbing is my prayer. As far as four walls of a church go, that’s a little confining…And I’m very aware of being grateful and thankful for things when I’m out climbing. Just out in the wilderness in general, besides just climbing. But that’s just kind of turned into a lifestyle for me.

These participants’ accounts exemplify the individualized spiritualities that were reported by six participants. These individuals eschewed established religions and spiritualities to create a spirituality that resonated for them on an individual level. While all these participants’ views were heavily informed by personal experience (much while climbing), Frank for example drew from other spiritual traditions while Dave’s perspective was informed completely independent of outside influences. Evan seemed to be just beginning his spiritual path and had not yet solidified his sense of spirituality. A common thread among all these participants’ accounts is the role that climbing plays in their individualized spiritualities. Climbing has held a central role in giving the participants a spiritual practice that provides them a means to experience and deepen their spirituality.

Climbing as Spiritual Fellowship

“It’s actually one of the most genuine ways I know to connect with people.” (Adam)

Climbing alone is very rare. Most often, climbing parties consist of two or three

(sometimes more) climbers who must meet challenges together. Together, they experience the ups and downs of climbing – trial, danger, fear, summits, descents, success, failure – all elements are felt by the team members. Nine participants suggested that the bonds formed among climbing partners have not only personal significance, but also carry profound spiritual implications. Adam eloquently summarized the concept of the proverbial “bond of the rope:” 60

With climbing, when you tie into a rope with somebody, there’s a connection there. There’s just a physical connection there, you can look at it from that point. And when you take that person and you experience struggles with them…you go through that shared struggle with them. There’s a bond that’s created between you two over that. It could be the first time you’ve climbed with them, it could be the hundredth time. That bond exists every time you go through with that. And then you get into the realm of epics, starting to climb with people and having major things happening and sharing those truly emotional and potentially spiritually damaging moments, where you’re like, “Oh, man”…there’s danger here. And it’s not always life and death…but your outcome is questionable. You share that with somebody, there’s a connection. And you can choose to look at that as a positive or a negative thing… For me I look at those experiences, and, like, that’s what connects me to that person. We have this shared experience. We all want shared experiences, we all want shared understanding.

Adam brought up several themes that are present in the climbing literature that were also reported by the participants in this study, namely, that the rope that connects climbers on a physical level also functions as a metaphor for personal and spiritual connections; that struggles and successes are undertaken together as a team and lead to greater connection; and that an “epic,” when the climbing team fights for their safety or lives, can be a source of incredible growth of the relationship among partners. These interpersonal connections were reported to have spiritual implications. Put succinctly, Adam summarized the spiritual importance that the rope held for him, saying: “Their life is in your hands. You have control of their life. And, that’s an insane connection that I think, in our life these days, we just don’t open ourselves up to people that way.” Climbing offered Adam a unique opportunity for interpersonal bonding that he reported to be absent from the rest of his life. 61

A major part of Brad’s spirituality was connection. He emphasized the importance of feeling connected on many different levels:

To me, spirituality is connection. That’s what it means. And so there’s a lot of different ways to connect and a lot of things to connect with. And so for me it’s really easy to connect with nature, with myself, with the bigger picture of things. And then for me, when climbing, I enjoy connecting with people through activity.

Brad emphasized the ease and power with which climbing connects himself to others.

Also, he has found that speaking too much can lead to having less focus and feeling less centered, two qualities that he finds to be less spiritually fulfilling. Climbing has allowed

Brad to access a level of connection where he can communicate with his partners without even speaking. He said:

Though I do enjoy talking and stuff like that, too, I enjoy activity much more, like shared experience. And for me, climbing with a partner…I feel really connected with a partner when we don’t have to talk that much yet we’re communicating a lot. Like we know what each other is thinking, we know what each other needs, we know what’s next. Yeah, so there doesn’t have to be a lot of words. It’s like a mutual understanding and connection in that way.

This bond of communication that Brad spoke about was also addressed by Ian, who said:

I go climb because I get to connect with other people that think the same exact way that I do, you know? And that’s always an awesome feeling, when you’d be like, of “I got to that climb and I just looked out,” and before you can even tell them about the feeling, they’ll just be like, “Oh, I totally know.” It’s just that feeling of, “I’m not alone in my sort of thoughts and that’s just nice.”

Climbing has also helped Ian, an atheist who is prone to being intolerant of theists, to be more understanding of other’s beliefs. He was able to empathize with others based on their shared experiences of climbing, which allowed him to be more understanding of their beliefs. 62

Participants tended to portray climbing as being uniquely powerful in its ability to create a deep, lasting bond among partners. Dave spoke about the level of connection that he gets with his climbing partners that is much deeper than what he feels doing other activities:

And I suppose those experiences of joy and when you’re with other people that you enjoy being with. Going out and climbing with friends, and having a good experience with friends, which is different than going down to the pub with friends. Going out and sharing something hard. There’s like a bond there.

Dave has found hardship to be especially powerful on a spiritual level. He reported that enduring an extremely long climb allowed him to access deeper levels of consciousness, which was a major facet of his spirituality. “Going out and sharing something hard” was, for Dave, a significant opportunity to share something that he said was quite spiritually fulfilling.

The previous contexts of interpersonal spiritual connection were among peers, which is only one context that participants identified as being powerful. Another context that was reported as being powerful is that of a leadership role, such as when teaching or guiding. Karen and Brad mentioned climbing as a means to connect with their students or clients when leading climbing trips in a professional capacity. Brad extolled the benefits of being able to bond with the people on the trips he leads, saying:

I really enjoy the ability to connect with anybody on any level, whether they want to talk about business or politics, or money, or sports, or their partner, or family life, or whatever it is they want to talk about, like being able to connect with another human being on the level of what it means to be a human being in this life, in this world, with the challenges that that brings, and the joys that it brings. And then being able to do that over the day of climbing or being outside in nature. 63

I feel connected to, even though I spend so much time in nature, in the backcountry, I do feel connected to what’s going on through my clients, I think.

Several participants also mentioned the value of climbing as a means to teach spiritual lessons to others. Karl worked as an instructor in a Christian outdoor education company.

Laura learned how to climb in a Christian college’s outdoor program, where they used climbing as a metaphor for faith and promoted fellowship while climbing. Patricia worked as an educator for a Christian outdoor education organization. Participants reported how using climbing in these contexts allowed them to teach spiritual lessons and to facilitate spiritually enriching experiences for the participants. Laura recalled how she wrote a poem about climbing and her Christian faith. She said that the two concepts were

“Very strong metaphor[s] for each other. I could tie them into each other really well, just in sitting down and thinking about it.” Karl described how he used climbing in a similar manner when he worked as a facilitator in a Christian organization. He said that for him,

“As far as a career and as far as group dynamics go, the most valuable aspect of a high adventure experience is that it causes people to look outside of themselves and focus, yeah, outside of themselves” toward more spiritual ends. Karl taught for a Christian outdoor education organization. When asked about bringing in spirituality to an experiential education context, he said:

I think the potential there is huge, having worked in an organization that does that. Also having seen the limitations of experiential education that doesn’t take that into account. I think that the wilderness is just dripping with spiritual implications, even spiritual implications for someone that is not a Christian. Just the potential there is huge for people to come to a realization that there is something more outside themselves that they can’t explain and can’t even deal with, really. So I think the two go hand in hand just perfectly well. And I think we 64

see that in scripture, as God reveals himself in his Creation. Also just experientially, seeing the spiritual transformation I’ve seen in people in the wilderness, I know it works.

Karl has found climbing in the wilderness to be an extremely powerful way to teach others in about Christian spirituality. In these ways, participants found that climbing was a valuable means to spiritually connect with others with the goal of seeking spiritual outcomes and lessons. An interesting note is that the only participants in the group that reported using climbing or the outdoors as a means of spreading or teaching their spiritual beliefs were Christians. None of the participants who classified themselves as Buddhists, who have an individualized spirituality, or who saw themselves as spiritual but not religious reported the desire to spread or teach their beliefs to others.

Tina raised an interesting dichotomy of the team and self. When climbing, the team functions together as a unit. Yet, each individual ultimately must climb the route on his or her own. No one can climb for another. She said, “You know, definitely when you’re in a team, teamwork is ultra important, but at the same time, this is a situation where I’ve seen the biggest dichotomy of teamwork and self-centered experience.”

Especially on a high altitude expedition, which is Tina’s primary frame of reference for this comment, there can often be conflict among team members. Interestingly, this conflict was not mentioned by other participants or in any technical climbing context.

Nature as a Dimension of Spirituality

All but one participant spoke to receiving spiritual benefits from spending time in nature, though each participant’s perspective was nuanced and individualized, with 65

several aspects in the relationship between nature and spirituality. The beauty of the natural world is a major element to many participants’ sense of spirituality. All of these participants reported stronger spiritual outcomes from climbing outdoors compared with climbing indoors. Many reported feeling personally and spiritually at ease, at peace, and/or at home in nature. Some participants also shared the perspective of feeling like they were connecting more deeply with their human nature in the outdoors, where humans “belong.” Nature also seemed to play different roles for the Christian participants compared with participants with Buddhists or those whose spirituality had Eastern influences. Finally, it was found that nature can act as a catalyst for having spiritual experiences.

Every participant in this study reported regularly spent time outdoors, and climbing outdoors specifically; no participant in this study climbed exclusively indoors.8

A few volunteered that while they enjoyed climbing indoors, they received few spiritual outcomes from climbing indoors, that it was more a means to train and develop climbing technique. Evan, the only participant who reported any spiritual elements to climbing indoors, said that indoor climbing paled in comparison to outdoor climbing in terms of spiritual outcomes. He said, “Climbing inside has its moments. But mostly it’s, just to relate it to lifting weights…I feel like I’m preparing my body instead of my mind. It’s

8 Potential participants volunteered to participate for the study. There were no indoor-only climbers that volunteered for this study, though they would have been welcomed to participate. This is perhaps a result of the recruitment methods, flyers that were posted in forums that were oriented toward climbing outdoors. 66

still a spiritual experience, [I’m] just not really in-tune with myself that much.” No other participant reported spiritual outcomes to indoor climbing. Dave, for example, said that he has only had spiritual experiences outdoors, and believes that it is impossible for him to have spiritual experiences indoors, regardless of the activity. Dave’s spirituality is based on intense physical activity, combined with the stresses of the mountains, especially environmental stresses and exhaustion that results from an extremely long effort, like a twenty-plus-hour alpine climb or isolated South Pole expedition. This kind of activity would be nearly impossible indoors, and would lack the environmental stimuli and dangers that, combined, have yielded spiritual experiences for Dave.

In fact, most participants reported that they feel more at ease personally and spiritually in nature. Harry spoke about how being in nature (Creation), communing with

God (the Creator), is like being home for him. Likewise, Adam expressed how he feels called to the mountains, where he is spiritually fulfilled, because it is “Where we’re from.

We’re from this earth.” Brad expressed how he is less at peace in “town” where there is a constant hum of energy; going to nature relieves this stress and Brad feels much more relaxed and focused. Ned expressed a similar view, and spoke about how he is most at peace in nature. When he is sitting in his office, for example, Ned said that:

It has a certain energy. I’m sure scientists would say it’s radiation or something. But when you’re outdoors, it isn’t. In my world, it’s not artificial. It isn’t created by anything except some wind that started in Hawaii and ended up in Mt. Hood. And you know, so it creates a cleaner sense of healthy and just allows me to get closer to my inner being, being outdoors. (italics added).

Charlie expressed that nature is a welcome reprieve from modern civilization, where humans do not belong. He said:

You know today I feel like we live in an industrialized – not industrialized, but commercial – society. And getting back to grass roots really where we came from, getting outdoors really connects you back to where we’re supposed to be as people. I don’t feel like we’re supposed to be in front of computers and watching television all day. You know, we’re meant to be outside enjoying and exploring the world.

For Charlie, being outside is going “…to something healthier, you could say, more what we’re supposed to be living like. It just feels more right than living in a house and living on your computer all day. It’s kind of animalistic.” Patricia participants reported feeling spiritually at-ease in nature. She said, “I’ve found that when people are outside, I think it’s a lot easier to think spiritual thoughts when you’re away from the business of life when you’re not outside.”

When explaining what about nature is so powerful, most participants mentioned the beauty of the natural world and the spiritual benefits that ensue from spending time out in nature. Frank emphasized the splendor that he experiences while being out in nature, especially places that are unique to climbing. He revels in the awesome beauty of the unique “vertical world,” saying:

But by virtue of its nature – climbing – some of the environments you find yourself in, like on El Cap. Wow! What an environment! (laughs) A vertical world. Man that is so awesome! Out in the desert on a desert spire, or an ice climb up in Rocky Mountain National Park up in the alpine… It’s awe-inspiring. In a way it’s a mystical experience. It’s like, wow! You know? (laughs) Look where I’ve gotten myself here. It’s crazy. This is totally fun!

Harry shared that sentiment, and spoke about how close to home he feels when he spends time outdoors. A devout Christian, Harry sees his time spent outdoors as a way to spend time with God. He said:

In fact that was one of my – a large part about why I spent so many years guiding and instructing, was the awareness that nature is – the natural environment – is our closest connection to the Creator. And it’s where we see evidence of what the Creator has done, not what evidence of what we’ve done… I mean, you go to the mountains. An alpine meadow is not something that was put together by a human being. A glacier, a rock face, is not something put together by a human being. It’s evidence of something beyond human. That’s an opportunity to connect, then. You say, okay, who’s the artist? Hello?

Harry emphasized how he feels at peace and at home in nature. While raising his children, Harry was unable to go into the backcountry for a long time. When he did finally get out on an extended canoeing trip with his wife, he recalled how he felt: “The third day out, I remember sitting on the riverbank and thinking, ‘Holy shit, I’m home!’ It was a homecoming that was unexpected. It was like, ‘Oh yeah, I’m home. Hi Sweetie!’”

Harry has a personal relationship with God. He sees “God as person, not a person,” as he described it, where man was created in God’s image with similar characteristics to God.

In that way, one can have a personal relationship with God, though God is not a person.

He described it as being similar to having a close personal relationship with a lover. He recalled the feelings that he experienced when reconnecting with God, affectionately using the word “Sweetie” for God. Similarly, he recalled a particularly long climb in

Alaska, where he had hours-long belays while his climbing partner ascended above:

I guess what’s bizarre is that I remember those hanging belays were the best part of the climb for me, just sitting there and doing nothing. And looking around at 69

these glaciated needles and peaks around me, and like, wow! Here I am. I’m home! It’s like a candlelight dinner with the One.

Karl, also a Christian, also saw nature as Creation, but had less of a personal relationship with God in Creation. Instead, Karl saw nature as a reminder of what God’s Creation is, and His presence in the world at large, saying:

So, for me, any time I go into the wilderness is to experience the Creator of that wilderness. And climbing in particular…because it brings you into such close contact with the rocks, with Creation, allowing you to be confronted with that physical creation and to see more clearly the spiritual aspects of that.

He continued, emphasizing the spiritual benefits of getting out into nature, in addition to attending Church:

It’s written in the scripture that has God revealed himself through Creation to his people. And that’s largely forgotten and it’s not experienced by most of today’s population because people are in cities so much and are not paying attention to wilderness. So actually getting out and seeing God’s testimony in the world is a unique experience that you don’t get in a church. You get some things in a church which are good, but you don’t get the experience of the wilderness, which I think God has meant us to experience. It is why, it is part of why he made all of his physical Creation.

Karl concluded this line of thought by telling about the spiritual outcomes of what he gets from spending time in Creation: “I think experiences like that in the wilderness are a necessary aspect to spreading the gospel. And so, many experiences in the wilderness had moved me to that.” Karl had a clear logic to his relationship with climbing, spirituality and nature. Climbing is a means to spend time in nature.9 Nature is God’s Creation.

9 Karl also noted other spiritual and personal benefits of climbing, such as personal challenge and group dynamics, which are discussed later. 70

Spending time in Creation will enhance one’s relationship with the Creator, and is a necessary aspect to spreading the gospel to others.

Karl has worked in spiritually-based outdoor education. At the time of the interview, he was studying experiential education, with the goal of facilitating spiritual growth among participants in outdoor settings. Patricia likewise was an outdoor education student. At the time of her interview, she was working as a facilitator for a

Christian experiential education organization that shares a lot of educational philosophy with Outward Bound, only with a Christian bent. She spoke about her experiences, saying:

I’ve found that people’s time spent in the wilderness specifically focused on their faith, in addition to wilderness pursuits, it usually really beneficial, and a pretty powerful way to get right to the heart of the matter. Part of our [organization’s philosophy is based on] recognizing that Jesus went into the wilderness for 40 days. I just think it’s really cool to kind of strip everything else away and be in this setting and talk about spiritual things. It’s not like we go out there and figure out all the answers, because we never will. I mean, I have a lot of questions that I don’t necessarily have the answers to, but um, I love being in that setting, talking about what we can be certain of, and often encourage each other to pursue a relationship with God in a more real way.

There is a clear and deliberate emphasis from these two Christians to use the concept of

Creation as a means to connect more deeply with God and to spread the gospel to others.

This can be interestingly contrasted with the viewpoint of the Buddhists in the group,

Brad and Ned, and two participants, Frank and Charlie, who have adopted elements of

Eastern spiritual philosophy into their spiritual beliefs. These four participants tended to emphasize a deep personal and spiritual relationship with nature, but portrayed it as an end in and of itself (or as a source of spiritual significance) but did not report viewing 71

nature as a means to access God or a higher power. For example, Brad, a Buddhist, described the roles that nature plays, saying that nature is a catalyst for spiritual experiences; an environment for entering into a meditative mindset; and a place to engage in activities (e.g., climbing and hiking) that leave him feeling more open, having whittled down an outer layer of himself, a sort of resistance. Brad summarized his spirituality and the role nature played, saying:

For Brad, nature is something to connect with, a part of “the bigger picture of things,” but is one element of several to connect with in his spiritual life. Other significant elements in his spirituality include connecting with other people and himself, and, perhaps most important, entering into a meditative state, which Brad identified as central to his spirituality.

Varieties of Spiritual Experiences While Climbing

Participants reported a range of spiritual experiences, from the subtle to the intense, from meditative to trance to mystical and religious. At the more subtle end, there were meditative states that were characterized by focus, relaxation, calmness, awareness, without a loss of awareness of place, time, or the task at hand. There were also trance-like states that were reported, characterized by moving continuously with decreased awareness of surroundings or external conditions. The most intense spiritual experiences that were reported were mystical and religious experiences, which ranged from directly 72

experiencing God to an out-of-body experience, dissolution of boundaries, and an experience of rebirth. Overall, participants were loquacious and displayed characteristic

“copious eloquence” (Otto, 1922) in their descriptions of these states, and were effusive of the spiritual and personal benefits of these states, as well as the impact that these states have had on their spiritualities and the rest of their lives.

Meditative states.

“I don’t know if anyone else would consider [climbing] spiritual, but for me it is, because it is just like pure meditation, which I consider spiritual.” ( Evan)

Almost all of the participants in this study reported climbing as being somehow meditative. Only two participants, Karl and Patricia, did not report entering into meditative states while climbing. Only two participants, Brad and Ned, both Buddhists, engage in meditation practices outside of climbing; all other participants experienced meditation exclusively while climbing. In this way, the rest of the participants reported that climbing is unique in its ability to lead to meditative states. Meditation was characterized by a state of calm, relaxed, focus, where one maintains an acute awareness of the self, the environment, and the task at hand. In this light, the meditative states that participants reported most closely resemble that of Zen Buddhist meditation.

There was a variety of language that was used to describe meditative states. While some participants actually used the terms meditation or Zen state, others used terms such as yoga, being in the zone, flow, being focused, or being aware. There were widespread similarities across all participants’ accounts of this state of mind. While some participants seemed to be more experienced in meditation or more familiar with these states (such as 73

Brad and Harry, who were formally trained in meditation techniques), the state of consciousness appeared similar among all participants. This led to the conclusion that it was a similar state of mind that was experienced among all the participants. In this paper, the terms “meditation” or “meditative state” will be used interchangeably to describe this mental state.

Meditation has been a major part of Brad’s spiritual practice. While he regularly practiced traditional Buddhist sitting meditation, he also reported bringing meditation into every activity that he does. Some activities, he said, are quite difficult to bring meditation into, such as multitasking, being on the computer, driving around town, and being in any loud, busy environment. Brad said that it was much easier to bring meditation into climbing and mountaineering compared with other activities. In fact, his

Buddhist teachers “heavily recommended” that Brad continue climbing and spending time in nature, “‘Cause both my teachers feel the power in nature, and spending lots and lots of time in nature.” He said:

When I’m in a town, even though when I’m in the town for a while, I forget that it’s there, but there’s this hum of energy and sound that when you go into nature is not there. So it’s more quiet and so I think it’s more easy to see what’s going on really in your mind – in my body and my mind – when things are more quiet. And when there’s more busy-ness going on, when there’s loud music, for example, I can’t even tell that my mind is thinking or that there are thoughts going on, but as soon as I step into a quiet environment, then it’s very obvious that there’s a lot of stuff going on in my mind and my body. So for me it’s an opportunity to, nature provides an opportunity to tune into what’s happening, and turn only for me, and to deal with what’s there.

For Brad, being in nature was a major factor that contributed to being able to enter a meditative state. Other participants also mentioned what factors were present that led to experience a meditative state while climbing.

Techniques for entering meditative states. One technique that was reported to bring about a meditative state was the use of physical repetition. Harry, who was trained in contemplative prayer (a Christian form of meditation), described this type of approach by saying:

But I think how it works, it’s a little bit about meditation…I think part of it is just that it’s a physical repetition, the way a mantra is a verbal repetition. And you don’t have to think…I guess it’s a way of suspending thinking and living in the moment. And that’s really what contemplation is. You get rid of the noise in life and apprehend what is present. And that’s where a person meets God is in the present. There’s no past or future. Eternity is now.

Harry was specifically speaking to the monastic tradition of contemplative prayer, which he studied while a student at an Abbey. While the specific technique to bring about meditation that Harry described had a Christian focus, there were widespread similarities with other participants accounts of reaching meditation via physical repetition. Similarly,

Dave summarized his experience reaching what he called a Zen state while climbing:

It sounds so simple as to be ridiculous, but there seems to be some repetitive physical activity that gets you into that kind of state where you can empty your head. It’s hard to say whether it’s enjoyable to be in it, because you’re not really thinking about it. But I guess when you come out of it, when you think, oh, that was really good. Yeah I think it definitely can give you a sense of peace, which a lot of people are searching for.

For Harry and Dave, the physical repetition of climbing provided a way for them to clear their minds of thought. Both reported consciously and deliberately setting themselves up 75

to bring about a meditative state, though both noted that it could not be forced. The core experience seems to be similar between both individuals.

Brad, well-trained in the classic Buddhist sitting and walking meditations, is very experienced in bringing meditation into climbing. Depending on the style of climbing

(i.e., snow climbs vs. rock climbs), He uses different techniques to become meditative.

He said:

So, in rock climbing and mountaineering there’s different practices that I use to concentrate my mind. So, mountaineering especially if I’m doing snow slogs or like basically slogging-type10 routes, a lot of times I’m concentrating on my breath. So like I align my breath with my movements, usually my footwork, my feet and my legs. And then when thoughts come in about whatever, I usually notice if they’re there and let them go, and then come back to the sensation of my breath when I’m hiking. And then I do the same thing when I’m rock climbing. So when I’m rock climbing it actually seems to be more natural. But I don’t do it with my breath, I do it more with my handholds, the sensations of the handholds, the movement and what I need to do to get to the top of the climb. So when thoughts start coming in about, self-defeating thoughts like, “Oh God, I don’t know if I can do this move,” or “Who’s watching me?” or whatever kinds of unhelpful thoughts are coming in, you know, I quickly notice them and come back to concentrating on what I’m doing.

The difference in meditation techniques is most likely due to the different nature of these styles of climbing. Low-angle snow climbing tends to be repetitive, monotonous, even; it resembles hiking on snow more than “climbing.” In this style of climbing, there is little focus on the individual moves. Instead, the climbers are faced with the challenge of endurance, route finding, and dealing with weather conditions. While climbing steeper

10 “Snow slogs” are long, non-technical snow climbs. These tend to be very continuous snow climbing at a similar (low) angle for many hours. 76

terrain, such as rock or ice climbing, climbers typically cover far less distance and are instead faced with much greater technical difficulties. The moves themselves become the difficult part, compounded with challenges of protection (the climber keeping herself safe), fall potential, and rope work. Brad’s account reflects the challenges of each style, from snow climbing where he focuses on repetitive body movement and clears his head of extraneous thoughts, to rock climbing where he focuses on the varied individual moves and tries to minimize self-defeating thoughts about falling and safety. Other climbers reported similar techniques to enter into meditation while climbing. Ian, a rock climber, expressed how he deals with the fear and danger: “You can’t just slack off, you know?

Because you’re going to fall, you have to fully concentrate, and fully dedicate your mind and your body to the entire journey.” Ian feels almost forced to enter a meditative state, due to the inherent risks of climbing. Should he lose focus and fall, it could be quite serious. Sometimes, though, participants reported that sometimes they had difficulties entering into a meditative state while climbing. Evan said that he experienced meditative states:

Never on the first climb, definitely. I feel like the first time you do it, it’s always really scary. And, um, I try to achieve it like every day, at least once a day while climbing. So far, I’m always outside. You definitely can’t get it in the gym. It’s kind of, like, you need that fear factor to just totally do it. I can’t really put a time on it, but it’s whenever there’s a climb that’s like at your limit, at my limit.

Evan mentioned several elements that contribute to his meditative state. Conditions that are conducive for entering into meditation include being outside (something he emphasized later in the interview), some – but not too much – fear, and the challenge of 77

climbing at his limit. Other participants noted the importance of challenge and overcoming fear for bringing about meditation while climbing. Dave and Brad shared the perspective that too much fear and stressful climbing tended to be barriers toward reaching meditative states. Stresses that limited Brad’s ability to bring meditation into climbing included poor rock quality, difficult conditions (e.g., whiteout, difficult route finding), and difficult “on-sight” climbing.11 Adam recounted the process that he does to mentally prepare himself before a climb, especially when the climbing ahead looks stressful. He prays to connect with God and center himself mentally, both of which tended to allow him to more easily enter a meditative state. He said:

And I don’t mean to say that every time I climb a pitch of rock I’m in some meditative state, by any means. But on like big climbs and stuff I pray before to center myself because I get so much more out of the experience, both in performance and enjoyment.

Contributing factors that led to meditative states while climbing included physical repetition, concentration on movement and/or breathing, being outside, and the necessity due to danger while climbing. Factors that served as barriers for entering into meditative states included stressful climbing conditions, too much fear, and very difficult climbing.

Increased focus and presence. The most salient element that was found in every participant’s account of meditative states was experiencing an increased sense of relaxation, focus, and awareness in the present moment. All participants that reported

11 To climb a route “on-sight” means that the climber has never seen the route before climbing it. The lack of familiarity tends to be a significant added challenge. 78

reaching meditative states while climbing reported a decreased mental dialog, extraneous thoughts, and worries, instead feeling calmness and clear-headed focus. Notably, this mental state occurs while maintaining one’s awareness of the situation at hand, which is understandably important in a climbing environment. Only two participants reported experiencing a trance-like state where there was little awareness of their surroundings.

These two participants, Dave and Evan, only allowed themselves to enter these states in very controlled conditions where awareness of hazards was not needed. Trance-like states are discussed in the next section.

The similarities among the participants’ accounts are striking. Every participant that reported meditation while climbing used words like focused, clear-headed, aware, relaxed, calm, energized, and so on. Laura said: “W hen we are climbing, [you are] kind of freeing your mind of everything else and just being present where you are in the moment.” Similarly, George reflected on his time as a beginner climber, saying: “I started finding that when I would do routes, I would stop thinking about everything else. And it just was all about the movement, being present and being there.”

Charlie conveyed the calmness that he has found while climbing that has moved to the rest of his life. He said: “You know, my relaxed state would really be it. Like I said, if I don’t have climbing, I’m not a very relaxed person. And it relaxes me, is really my big thing.” Frank is often able to overcome fear during climbs. He said: “I’ve gotten myself plenty scared on climbs. But it still puts me in a calm state more than anything. 79

You know? It just it’s pretty much my own personal way of meditating and yoga.” Laura, similarly, reported:

And also just when we are climbing, kind of freeing your mind of everything else and just being present where you are in the moment. . . . No matter what else is going on in your life, you can just, the only thing you’re focused on is the next move, the next hold. So it just, behind all that focus, you don’t have space to think about anything else. Just you and the rock.

Adam, a Christian, described a similar state but shifted the interpretation of the experience and the mental state toward his relationship with God. He said:

It just feels like I’m super present. I’m ultimately nowhere else but here. And this is where God wants me right now. This is where he wants my mind, soul, and body. I’m very present. And that’s a very centering feeling. It’s very grounding...It removes all that outside stuff.

Charlie does not subscribe to any particular religion and instead draws from Eastern religions and considers himself to be spiritual but not religious. Charlie went into detail of the meditative experience itself and reflected on its meaning, saying:

When you get into the zone, when you’re climbing, nothing else around you matters. You don’t realize what’s happening. You feel, you feel as though you’ve become a part of something greater than yourself. And when you’re standing there, you’re small compared to the rest of the world. That’s how I feel…. In the moment I’m not really thinking about anything. That’s one thing I really like about climbing is throughout the day, I’m thinking about something constantly. And when I’m climbing I can just let my mind go quiet. I know what I have to do and it’s pure instinct. Um, you know, I have to plug this next cam or clip this next bolt. And to me it’s just pure instinct when I’m up on the wall. I don’t have to think about anything. There’s no pressures of the day…There’s nobody wanting you to do something for them. It’s pure relaxation up there. If you can imagine sitting on a chair on a beach, it’s the same feeling for me.

Charlie described the experience, but he also detailed how he does not “zone out.”

Instead, he is present, focused on the task at hand, never losing touch with reality.

Similarly, Evan expressed the same sentiment:

Well, if [the meditation in climbing is] done right, it’s really not anything. It’s like, you have to know what’s going on at some points, and it’s like you’re just moving against the rock. I’ve heard of some people talk about just cruising. Like they don’t even know what’s going on. Kind of, just going through the moves. And uh, I think that’s one thing for other people. I’ve never been like, “Holy shit” and snap back into reality when I’m climbing. I’ve always been totally aware of what’s going on. For me it’s just like being in the zone. Doing each move with like pure, like, everything. Putting all your effort into each move, and doing every move just right. And you crank on just the right amount. It’s just like, pure…pure perfection to your own degree, what you can push yourself at.

The climbing environment is complex, with several human-based and objective hazards.

Dave said, for example: “If you go climbing, there could be rockfall and wind and snow, and things like that,” not to mention the rope work, route finding, personal management, and other tasks that climbing involves. If one were to lose focus and enter into a state of conscious more akin to trance than meditation, she runs the risk of ignoring a potentially serious hazard. Only in very specific cases can a climber “zone out” without being cognizant of her surroundings. Trance-like states, where one loses awareness of her surroundings, will be addressed in the next section.

Outcomes of meditative states. Several participants also shared their reflections about the meaning, effects, benefits, and other outcomes from reaching meditative states while climbing. Most immediately in the experience, meditation can aid in climbing a specific route more effectively. Ned said that when he reached meditation on snow climbs, the climb became significantly easier. He said: “When you’re on some slog…you 81

better get in some kind of Zen mode. Cause pretty soon you get tired of counting your rosary beads to 100 or something. So for me it’s never work.” Evan recounted how meditative climbing helps him to succeed and avoid accidents:

You need to try to reach meditation or just be in the zone…You need to get in it, otherwise you’re not going to succeed and you’re going to get hurt. The consequences can get pretty high and that’s what’s good about it. [Climbing] forces you to at least try.

Other participants shared similar outlooks, that a meditative mindset helped them to focus on the climb at hand, allowing them to be able to climb better. Participants also reported several other, deeper, effects of meditation that go beyond being able to climb well.

Many participants reported that when they were engaged in meditative climbing, that positive feelings, whether mental or physical, entered and were quite memorable.

Dave described how “When the physical and the mental come together and execute perfectly, it’s an all-over sort of joyous peaceful kind of experience. There’s some kind of balance there.” Evan recounted how he felt “pure perfection” when he was in a meditative state while climbing:

For me it’s just like being in the zone. Doing each move with like pure, like, everything. Putting all your effort into each move, and doing every move just right. And you crank on just the right amount. It’s just like, pure…pure perfection to your own degree, what you can push yourself at.

Meditation is a central practice in Buddhism. Brad, a Buddhist, felt that bringing meditation into climbing added a level of significance and enhanced the spiritual experience. His Buddhist teachers “heavily encouraged” him to pursue climbing as a meditative practice. He recalled that: “My time learning to meditate had major impact on 82

the degree to which climbing has become spiritual experience for me. A spiritual activity and practice.” He continued:

But climbing specifically, for me, I use [meditation] as a way to get deeper into that spiritual experience or to kind of enhance that spiritual experience through the concentration of it and the absorption. Kind of becoming absorbed in the experience. I’ve found that senses are more awakened and more heightened when there’s less stuff going on around me.

Brad introduced two spiritual outcomes. He noted an increase of the spiritual experience and his senses were heightened. Ned, also a Buddhist, reported using climbing as a meditation and a vehicle to wish well upon others. He described one climb that was particularly powerful, saying:

Every step I took, it was all about staying focused in my practice and, you know, dedicating those steps to some other higher purpose other than me just getting to the top of some mountain. So I think it comes down to this: the physical energy, a mountain, for me, mountain climbing does, it puts that energy out into the universe. And whether or not, it’s not important to me that [anyone in particular] grabs it. The most important thing to me is that it’s out there and available to people, to someone, if they choose to do that. And I know that’s kind of ethereal in terms of the concept of the spirituality and what I’m all about. But that’s how I’m going to end my life on this planet. You know, I think the physical energy and the emotional energy you put out there all comes down to, you know, leaving something that goes beyond the physical being.

Ned used his climbing as a way to put positive energy into the world. This made climbing, for Ned, a powerful spiritual practice. Ned reported that he similarly puts out positive energy during his daily morning meditations and during other activities, such as bicycling. In this way, Ned reflected how climbing was not unique in its ability to trigger meditative states; he was able to meditate without climbing. Ned reported, however, that climbing overall was a very powerful spiritual practice. 83

Dave reported that having spiritual experiences while climbing had a major impact on his spirituality. Before his first spiritual experience, Dave was an atheist who did not believe in anything deeper than what meets the eye. Though he described himself as an atheist, he could have been called a materialist during this period in his life. He said, though, that “Having those kinds of [spiritual] experiences opened my mind to those other sort of states [of consciousness]” that became the foundation of his spirituality.

Experiencing meditative states while climbing (and other states, namely, hallucinations and trance-like states) gave him firsthand experience to what he describes as “Deeper levels of consciousness” which are now a fundamental element in his spirituality.

Notably, Dave’s perspective was firmly rooted in personal experience; his beliefs expanded to include the levels of consciousness that he experienced while climbing, but does not include beliefs from other spiritual traditions. At the time of his interview, Dave considered himself on a spiritual path and said that he would seek out spiritual experiences and those deeper states of consciousness in the future. He said he was open to what they bring.

Meditation outside of climbing. Interestingly, only three participants, Brad,

Harry, and Ned, reported being able to engage in some form of traditional meditation.

They engaged in their respective traditional Buddhist and Christian meditational practices. All the other participants that had reported experiencing meditative states could only experience those states while climbing. Frank, for example, said:

I can’t sit at home and try and meditate. Yoga. I do some yoga. But as far as meditating, unfortunately, like a lot of us, we have our responsibilities and jobs to 84

go to. Things to deal with… As it turns out I’m busier and have more things cluttering up my brain than ever. I guess I need to find a release form the world with my climbing.

Similarly, Ben said:

I probably could if I tried, but I don’t know, I’m just a kid. Like I have a terrible work ethic, I’ve never really attempted like… Like during climbing it totally forces you to block everything out, or else you’ll do it in a [you don’t and you???] fall, or something terrible is going to happen. So that’s what great about climbing, is like you need to focus, otherwise. You need to try to reach meditation or just be in the zone, some people say. You need to get in it, otherwise you’re not going to succeed and you’re going to get hurt. The consequences can get pretty high and that’s what’s good about it, it forces you to at least try. ... I definitely never really tried to meditate…like really sit down and try to clear my head of everything else but what’s going on now.

Most participants shared Ben’s sentiment, that they were unable to reach a meditative state other than while climbing. For the participants of this study, there seems to be something unique about climbing in its ability to bring about meditative states. Ben said that climbing forces him to enter the meditative state by blocking everything else out because of the consequences. Should he fail at meditating (or experience the opposite of meditation, anxiety and panic), he could compromise his safety, perhaps taking a dangerous fall.

Dave noted the importance of physicality to his meditation, and how other activities were lacking in their ability to conjure meditative states. When asked if he could experience meditative states in other, non-climbing activities, he responded:

Not really. For me it’s needed some kind of physical trigger. I guess the only other…sometimes when I’ve been writing, and when you’re really kind of in the zone. And you’re writing really well, that’s kind of the same, but by its nature writing requires a little more thinking, so your brain is still ticking on that kind of normal level to write… [so] it’s not the same. If it doesn’t have that physical 85

element, I think it has to include some kind of physical…not just trigger, but accompaniment to the mental aspect. A sort of come-together.

Ian described how the mental challenges in addition to the physical challenges of climbing are what make climbing so powerful for him. He said:

I think climbing does it more than anything else ……So then whenever you get to the top that feeling is so much more powerful than say, I mean, I like, for example, riding my bike or something like that. I love riding my bike. I can ride a hundred miles and at the end, I’m just like, I’m just really tired. Like, I don’t have that feeling of, I don’t know how, I’m just somewhere else now. It doesn’t feel as much as if I’ve taken a journey and put my entire body into something like climbing does for me. And I’m sure that you know cycling does that for other people. Climbing just feels so much more involved, I guess. Cause you can’t turn your mind off when you’re climbing. I can turn my brain off when I’m riding my bike, you know, cause it’s just, okay, I don’t have to think about anything. It’s just pedal, pedal, pedal, pedal, pedal. But climbing it’s like, okay, I have to do this move then go up her, then I’ve got to clip, then I’ve got to place this gear. And you know, all that sort of stuff.

Ian said that no other activity can get quite the same results as climbing, that everything else falls short. Interestingly, several participants said that they have found other activities to be spiritual, but only four participants (Brad, Harry, Ned, and Charlie) mentioned other activities that were meditative for them. Charlie said that he initially found hockey to be meditative before he started climbing. Brad, Harry and Ned engage in meditation regularly outside of climbing in their respective traditions. It seems that, for the participants in this study, that climbing is a special activity, one that challenges an individual physically and mentally, and is mostly unique in its ability to trigger meditation. The meditative outcome of climbing was often reported to be powerful 86

among participants, and has led to several positive outcomes in the lives of the participants, albeit they are only able to meditate while climbing.

Summarizing his thoughts on having spiritual experiences while climbing, Frank, a participant that has had several spiritual experiences and has found climbing to be meditative, said:

See, I tend to go along the lines of Hinduism and Buddhism kind of thinking. They talk about detachment from the world and having good, intrinsic connection to the world, and experience one’s true self, so to speak. And I feel more myself, like a human being, when I’m doing that. You can’t carry baggage with you climbing. You shouldn’t, anyways. You have to deal with the task at hand. And that, I think, uh, has been really cool, you know? Cause that facilitates that kind of state by what you’re engaged in.

In short, Frank said that while he has “Not seen God…out there in the woods,” he has

“Had some pretty cool stuff happen.”

Trance-like states. Two participants, Dave and Evan, reported entering into what will be referred to as trance-like states, where one loses awareness of the present. Evan, for example, reported entering such a state when top-rope rock climbing. On top-rope, there are very few hazards compared with other styles of climbing, such as leading. At times when top-roping, Evan reported allowing himself to lapse in his awareness of the immediate surroundings. He said: “And sometimes it just happens. Like I’ll just realize, like, whoa. I’ll even forget where I was and stuff.” That was all Ben reported about these states, and emphasized the rarity with which it occurs, mostly because when climbing he

(almost always) must maintain a focused awareness. 87

Trance states are deliberately triggered in many spiritual traditions by some sort of repetition (e.g., prayer beads, chanting, walking). Dave said that he has entered into extended periods of trance when on expeditions to the South Pole. The main factor in the

South Pole expeditions is the lack of stimuli (and subsequent hazard) on the continental icecap. Dave said:

In Antarctica, particularly, it’s an almost a complete void. And when you’re down there near the pole, it’s absolutely flat. It’s totally white, but [with] blue sky. So there’s very little visual stimuli. So I think it’s an easy way to, uh, to get yourself into that state, that zone, because there’s nothing to interrupt it.

In addition to the lack of environmental stimuli, the physical repetition is extreme. Dave continued, describing the mental state that ensued:

Because it’s so incredibly repetitive – you literally do nothing but stepping [with] the weight of the sled – step, step, step. You must take millions of steps. Because the first pole trip I did was 1100 kilometers, it’s like 700 miles of exactly the same thing. So it becomes like a meditation triggered by that physicality…And with sort of nothing but your mind, nothing for your mind to do. And with the best days, pulling the sled in Antarctica, you get into the empty-headed zone. And you don’t feel the sled. The sled weighs like 100 kilos behind you, every second of that trip. But on a good day, you get into that zone and you don’t feel the sled. The sled doesn’t exist. You’re not thinking about the weight, you’re not thinking about the work. You’re just going along in this world, your own world. And that’s a really cool experience.

He further described the mental state that he reached:

You’d know that the ideal state is when you’re not really thinking about it. Like a Zen, empty headed sort of thing, and you’re just doing it. And you’re not thinking about it. And you’re not thinking that you’ve got an empty head, you’re not thinking at all. And that’s a great state to be in. And it’s very peaceful. And I suppose I take, when I used to rock climb more, you do get a lot of joy and a sense of calm from doing those activities.

Dave later contrasted this type of experience with the kind of climbing that he does in the mountains:

You know, Antarctica is a relatively safe place to climb. Where I know that being in the Karakoram12 or something like that you don’t really want to zone out because there’s rockfall and all sorts of stuff. I think you need a certain amount of regularity and monotony. And a lot of climbing is not like that. It’s varied and interesting. And you have to keep thinking. And so you never get into that zone because you don’t have the monotonous regularity.

It is notable that a South Pole expedition is not bona fide “climbing” as much as it is an extended hiking expedition. There is little vertical gain; there is no summit to attain, just a specific location on a flat icecap. It is important to recognize that Dave would never allow himself to enter this type of mental state while on a proper climb due to the hazards, varied movement and terrain, and changing conditions. While he has not experienced this type of state while actually climbing, Dave’s account is illuminating of trance-like states, and offers a fascinating contrast of mental state to that which was reported from other participants in a climbing context.

Mystical experiences.

“And I think that what I have gotten out of [climbing] is on par with, uh, not so much religious or spiritual, maybe more mystical type.” (Frank)

There were five participants in the study that reported having mystical experiences. Brad, Frank, Harry, Karl and Ned told their most powerful spiritual experiences that they had while climbing. Two participants, Frank and Harry, actually referred to their experiences using the terms “mystical experiences” or “mysticism.” Most

12 The Karakoram is a major mountain range in Asia. 89

of these participants’ accounts are at once loquacious and eloquent, yet have the characteristic ineffability regarding the core of the experience that often characterizes accounts mystical experiences.

Frank, who has an individualized spirituality, described several experiences that he described as mystical. One happened when he was climbing in Yosemite, on El

Capitan. He said:

One time I had a kind of crazy experience, where the sun was coming up, and we’d bivied13. It seemed like the sun was coming up fast, and I could just feel myself with the earth, rotate toward the sun. And there was a little breeze that added to the effect. At the time I could really feel the earth moving with me on it.

He assured that his experience “Didn’t involve anything over or under the counter or anything, it was just being out there” on the wall that triggered this mystical experience.

It was powerful for Frank, and was illustrative of the kind of spiritual power that he felt in the mountains. He felt a deep connection with the mountains, and climbing is the primary means for him to experience this bond. Changing of awareness is a common thread among the mystical experiences that Frank recounted. He described another experience he had while rock climbing, where he took a very long fall and had an out-of- body experience:

I took pretty long ride, about a hundred-footer one time…And, uh, within an instant, I’m observing myself, outside myself, observing the full thing happening. It’s quite interesting. And so I went past the bad [gear], pulled, I don’t know, about five, six or so pins. And I watched them pop. And everything was in slow motion. I’m sure it only took five or six seconds, very slow. And I knew there was a drilled angle that was good. And uh, I knew that it would hold me. At least I

13 A bivouac, or “bivy,” means to spend the night out in the field (or cliff), usually with limited supplies. 90

was confident that it would. And it did. And I went past it, and it was so weird, I calculated a time when I should be getting to the end of the rope and it should be tensioning me. And it didn’t happen. And I went, “hmm.” (Laughs.) And I finally came to rest about two feet above the ground with my belayer beneath me. And we were so scared all we could do was laugh hysterically for about a minute straight. It caught me and I cheated death. (Laughs.) But that experience is pretty interesting. No fear or anything. Just a, I don’t know, I was kind of looking over my right shoulder, watching things going on, it was pretty great. [During] shorter falls I’ve taken that has not happened. It’s really because, I don’t know, because as soon as I came off I was observing the whole thing. Shorter falls on other stuff happened in my head. That was sort of a mystical experience, I would say.

Frank, in this experience, underwent a change of consciousness, being able to see himself from afar, in an out-of-body experience. Other falls “happened in [his] head,” whereas in this experience, Frank left his body. When asked if he learned anything from this experience, he responded:

Yeah. Any time you avert the chop, it makes you rethink things a bit. It made me less cocky. (Laughs.) That was one problem that got me into the situation to begin with: putting the pins in, and tying them off, and thinking that it was all good. Uh, but, so that changed that. And it wasn’t quite that instant, necessarily, it was, like I said, I was climbing for a long time, and sooner or later you expect all that… I hope for the better. I appreciate things more, just the fact to go out climbing, especially at my age now. I’m very grateful for that. I hope I can continue, ‘til they put me in a wheelchair or something.

Frank later reflected on the impact that these types of spiritual experiences has had on his spirituality as a whole:

It’s a very subjective thing, very difficult to look at from outside. I guess. Well, I guess it depends a lot on how you look at this experience is, and my feelings about it. And to me it’s a disconnect from the world. Actually puts me more in touch with the world at large. The larger world around me. And it’s liberating in that respect, in that I can more better understand myself and the world around me. Kind of make sense of it all.

The spiritual experiences that Frank has had have greatly influenced his view of the world and his sense of spirituality. Frank’s spiritual beliefs drew from several spiritual traditions, primarily Eastern traditions and Christianity. He created his own personal spiritual beliefs, rooted in the practice of climbing. Frank reported feeling the most spiritual in the outdoors, and experiences the outdoors through climbing. He summarized the impact that climbing has had on his spirituality:

And I think that what I have gotten out of it is on par with, uh, not so much religious or spiritual, maybe more mystical type. See, I tend to go along the lines of Hinduism and Buddhism kind of thinking. They talk about detachment from the world and having good, intrinsic connection to the world, and experience one’s true self, so to speak. And I feel more myself, like a human being, when I’m doing that.

And Frank reported getting that feeling while climbing. When asked how climbing specifically fits into his spirituality, he said:

It fits in very well! (Laughs). From what I’ve said so far, I’ve referred to meditating and yoga and Hinduism and Buddhism thing like that. Daoism. It’s probably more of a sincere prayer when I go climbing that it would be if I were to just pray inside or go to church or something. I feel a lot more connected to the divine doing that, than going to church. I go to church with relatives who like to go to church, things like that. And that’s all fine with me, but I just, I guess my life, my climbing is my prayer. As far as four walls of a church go, that’s a little confining. And that’s just me talking. And I’m very aware of being grateful and thankful for things, when I’m out climbing. Just out in the wilderness in general, besides just climbing. But that’s just kind of turned into a lifestyle for me.

Frank’s thoughts are illustrative of the dynamic between spiritual experiences and one’s greater spirituality. These spiritual experiences have had a profound impact on Frank: they are powerful experiences in the present, and provide fodder for deep reflection afterward, which shaped spiritual belief and practice. The spiritual experience does not 92

occur in a vacuum. There is significant reflection and growth as a result. Frank said that climbing provided for “A neat relationship with an inanimate object and nature. It kind of makes sense.”

It is important to emphasize that Frank did not interpret his spiritual experiences through any particular religious tradition. While his experiences greatly influenced his sense of spirituality, he did not interpret his experiences through a religious lens. This can be contrasted with the experiences of Karl and Harry. While they had experiences that could be considered on the same level of intensity as those of Frank, Karl and Harry interpreted these experiences through their Christian tradition.

Karl recounted what he described as “experiencing God” while climbing in

Yosemite:

One instance comes to mind when I was climbing in Yosemite. And just seeing. We kind of topped out, it was between upper and middle Yosemite Falls. And just seeing the whole valley laid out before me was definitely a beautiful experience, and at that point I definitely felt like I was experiencing God, though not in an audible word or anything like that.

While the reader may be left hungry for more details in his short account, Karl’s perspective is quite valuable. He spoke of directly experiencing God. The feeling of experiencing a force greater than one’s self was interpreted as the Christian God. The spiritual outcomes that Karl gained from that experience were also interpreted through a

Christian perspective. Karl spoke of the insights he gained from that experience:

I think I learned and was convicted that, not just through that experience, but through all my outdoor experiences as a whole, is that people in America especially need to be drawn into the wilderness to have that kind of experience. And that’s in addition to the teaching and the word of God. I think experiences 93

like that in the wilderness are a necessary aspect to spreading the gospel. And so, many experiences in the wilderness had moved me to that.

This experience solidified Karl’s spiritual beliefs and kindled his passion for spreading the Christian word with others. The crux of the difference in perspective between Frank and Karl is that interpreting a spiritual experience through a religious lens makes it a religious experience – is perfectly shown in Karl’s concluding statement. He said:

Well, I think it’s important for people to look beyond an emotional experience, which will often get turned into spiritual experience, for good reason. And not take that as valuable in and of itself, but to look for the reasons beyond that, and find the source of that. Because purely physical things, I don’t think, can produce a spiritual experience. They kind of write off the experience as coincidental. Where I think it’s actually meant to point them toward something greater. So that’s my two cents’ worth.

Karl emphasized the importance of interpreting an “emotional experience” by looking

“for the reasons beyond that, and find the source of that.” The source, of course, would be Christ. Karl believes that “purely physical things,” or, things that are not Holy, cannot

“produce a spiritual experience.” He cautions others against writing off “the experience as coincidental, where I think it’s actually meant to point them toward something greater,” namely, God. Karl urges others to interpret their spiritual experiences in the light of Christianity, so they can be pointed toward “the source of that:” God.

The difference is Karl’s interpretation of the experience through a religious lens.

This is the critical element in the distinction between a mystical (or spiritual ) experience and a religious experience. The raw experience may be similar in all these accounts, but it is the interpretation that gives the experience its religious or non-religious nature.

Religious experiences in climbing. A participant that offers a nuanced perspective of religious experiences in a climbing context is Harry, a formally trained

Christian who has had several religious experiences while climbing in the mountains.

Harry’s perspective and beliefs are influenced by both his Christian training and by his firsthand experiences. In this way, he interpreted his experiences through a Christian lens, similar to Karl.

Harry experienced what he called a “dissolution of boundaries” while waiting out a storm in a snow cave after a major ascent. Harry did not know if he and his partner were going to make it through the storm or not. He decided:

We’ll just sit here [in our bivouac site] and wait and see what happens. And if [the storm] clears up, we’ll live. And if it doesn’t, we won’t. The interesting thing about that day…and this is remembered I can’t really call the experience back to being present for me…What I experienced I would call a dissolution of boundaries. Personal boundaries kind of just dissolve. And the only way I can describe it is that I became the storm. You know in drug culture and hippie culture, the words mind expanding or consciousness expanding, those phrases have always seemed flaky to me and I hesitate to use them. But they’re really the only way to describe the experience…I was no longer confined to the part of me that’s inside my skin. It’s a weird thing to try to describe, because being the storm was like, okay, whether what’s inside my skin dies or not, doesn’t make any difference. Whether that continues is totally irrelevant, (laughs) because I’m already outside it. It’s included. You know, it’s not like I’m outside it and not inside it, I’m both… I’m what’s in the skin is in the center, but there’s no outside boundary.

The storm eventually did clear and Harry and his partner made it through the storm to safety. But the “dissolution of boundaries” experience had a major impact on Harry’s spirituality. He said that that experience “informs the rest of my life.” He continued:

For instance, it offers a whole new perspective on pain and – I’ve discussed this with a number of other close councilors, mentors – And basically I guess the 95

distinction I wish to throw out [is] the huge, the difference between pain and suffering. ‘Cause pain doesn’t have to be unpleasant. You have probably heard somebody laugh about “Oh, how it hurt so good.” Pain itself is not an evil. But how we experience it in suffering, is. Part of the difference is suffering occurs when we don’t accept pain, when we resist it. When we decide that it shouldn’t be. In the Judeo-Christian myth of original sin, that’s what original sin is. Original sin is the knowledge of god and evil. It’s not evil itself, it’s the knowledge of good and evil. And one way of reading that myth is that, you know, evil begins because we created it. It’s a human creation…Evil is the insult to God by deciding that, “You know, God, you made a mistake. Some of what you created isn’t good”… [People] invented evil by deciding that part of God’s Creation isn’t good. Evil is a lie. And that makes it no less real. But that’s its nature is that it’s a lie, and that it’s an insult to the Creator.

Harry’s perspective on life and his spiritual beliefs are informed by both his firsthand experiences and by Christian doctrine. Harry had extensive training in Christian theology

(he has a degree in religious studies and trained at an Abby) and he framed his experiences through the lens of his Christian belief. The final experience that Harry described is one he had of rebirth after a near-death experience:

The last experience…two years ago I was climbing with my son…All of what I am telling you has been described to me. I have a total blank for a couple of weeks there. We were within a pitch or so of the summit ridge when we got caught in a lightening storm. There was a party on [the adjacent peak] that witnessed the event. What they described is an avalanche that was triggered by a lightning strike. And I got swept from my belay stance and washed me down the couloir…between 1000 and 1500 feet. They figured I was dead. They ran down to check us out, but mostly they thought they had to be there for the guy still up on the couloir… The part of that accident that I want to describe is coming back over in [the hospital] where they shipped me to be rebuilt. I remember, I have a very clear memory of beginning. Of like being born. Being born as an infant, we’re not mentally equipped to remember it. Our brains aren’t developed enough. Plus we don’t have the software and enough experience to interpret, to draw meaning from the sensory data…But in my late fifties, yeah, I can remember very clearly. And this I can bring pretty much forward. I can remember beginning. It’s not the same as waking up. Because waking up is a continuance…and this wasn’t the same 96

thing…At first, nothing. I can’t remember the nothing, because there was nobody to remember it. I was not. Okay? And the only reason that I’m certain I was not is because I can clearly remember beginning. There was nothing and then – I am! And coming back from all that, you know. And that was a pretty amazing experience…

Harry concluded his thoughts on this experience by emphasizing the role that the religious experiences have had on him:

All of these experiences inform my current experience. Make it richer…I have found the practice of mountaineering is a spiritual practice. It is immensely enriching. That’s not to say it’s more enriching than any other spiritual practice. It’s the practice that I am called to. And whatever another person is called to, that’s what that person has to practice. If they’re disciplined in the practice, they’re probably going to enjoy similar benefits. But I think that there are as many spiritual practices as there are people. I think that God’s big enough to meet each of us on our own terms, to take us to where we are, to bring us to him. But to meet us where we are…[God says,] “This is where we meet, and you come with me.”

Spiritual experiences appear to play a major role in the spiritual lives of participants, though the specific roles that the experiences have on the individual can vary, especially in the interpretation of the experience. The mystical experiences that Karl and Harry had reinforced their spiritual beliefs, and especially in Harry’s case, led to significant insight. But both participants interpreted their experiences through their religious beliefs (Christianity), and their beliefs were reinforced, not undermined, by their spiritual experiences. Frank, in contrast, found that his spiritual experiences in the outdoors led him away from the “four walls of a church” and what he described as the confines of Christianity. Instead, his experiences informed his individualized spirituality that draws from several religions, including Christianity and those of the East. Of course not every individual’s spiritual experiences will lead them away from a religion – that is 97

only Frank’s individual story. The important distinction is between what is considered a mystical or spiritual experience and what is interpreted to be a religious experience. It is possible that the experience itself is similar in both scenarios; the interpretation is what differentiates between the mystical and the religious.

Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusion

The purpose of this study was to explore the role that climbing plays in the spirituality of climbers. Climbers who self-selected and identified that climbing was spiritual for them were recruited for participation. The following research questions were used to guide this study:

1. In what ways is climbing spiritual for the participants in this study?

2. In what ways does climbing enrich the lives of the participants in this study

from a spiritual standpoint?

3. How does climbing influence the overall spirituality of participants?

Twenty semi-structured interviews were conducted following the framework of phenomenology, fourteen of which were transcribed for analysis. Salient themes were identified and presented. In this chapter, these themes are discussed and analyzed, contributions to academic literature are noted, and areas for future research are suggested.

This study contributes to the bodies of literature regarding spirituality, leisure studies, and the small but growing body of literature relating to spirituality within leisure contexts. This study identified ways in which a serious leisure activity was spiritually enriching for participants. The ways in which a serious leisure activity contributed to participants’ spiritual development and spiritual wellbeing were identified. This study explored the nuances in how participating in a specific activity can lead to having spiritual experiences. The spiritual outcomes of these experiences were identified. This study also explored the ways in which particular participants created and developed their 99

own spiritual beliefs and practices independent of organized spiritual traditions and institutions. Finally, this study contributes to the body of literature relating to altered states of consciousness and spiritual experiences, specifically the states of meditation, trance, and mystical states.

Heintzman (2003, 2010a ) proposed that existing models of spirituality within leisure contexts (e.g., Driver et al., 1996; Dustin, 1994; McDonald, 1989; McDonald,

Guldin, & Wetherhill, 1988) are speculative and conceptual and do not reflect the complexity of the relationship between spirituality and leisure that recent research has suggested. This study supports Heintzman’s assertion, as no theoretical model or framework exists, to the knowledge of the researcher, that applies to the relationship between spirituality and climbing. James’ (1902) framework of mysticism was apt and effective in as far as analyzing spiritual experiences that occurred within a climbing context, but was found to be insufficient for analyzing the entirety of the nexus of spirituality and climbing. As such, the results chapter of this study identified several prominent themes that arose from the interview data without engaging in extensive analysis based on a theoretical model. New conceptual frameworks are needed to support future research that addresses leisure and spirituality; this study may provide some insight into the relationship of serious leisure and spirituality that future models may reflect.

Relationship of Experience and Spiritual Development

There was a relationship that was identified between sophistication of participants’ spiritual beliefs with their age, the length of time climbing, climbing 100

experience and life experience. The latter four variables, labeled “experience” for the sake of brevity, were found to be directly related in all but one case, though the specific relationship among these variables and the specific role or roles that each variable plays is unknown. It is also unknown if other variables that were not identified play a role in this relationship. Future research is needed to study each variable’s relationship with individuals’ spiritual development.

A possible exception to this relationship between spiritual development and experience may lie among those who were raised in a religion and who later maintained their religious beliefs throughout their lives. For example, Karl, Laura and Patricia were raised Christian and continue to be active members in their churches. Like the other, less experienced participants of all spiritual beliefs, the perspectives of Karl, Laura and

Patricia tended to reflect a lack of spiritual sophistication. However, they belonged to an established spiritual tradition which provides a framework for spiritual development.

Participants who identified having an individualized spirituality, in contrast, have no tradition to follow: no teachings, no spiritual leaders, and no formal guidance on their spiritual paths. Those with an individualized spirituality draw primarily from personal experiences. They must develop their spiritual beliefs and practices on their own, on an individual level. Those who belong to an established spiritual tradition have more resources to guide them on their spiritual path throughout their lives and thus may have greater spiritual development per experience compared with those who have an individualized spirituality. This notion is speculative, as there were not enough 101

participants in this study to provide sufficient supporting evidence. Further research is of course needed to support and expand upon these findings regarding the relationship between experience and spiritual development

There are significant limitations to the findings relating to the relationship between spiritual development and experience. Further research is needed to shed more light on this phenomenon. Most important, it was not a goal of this study to measure this particular relationship. Future research should directly study this relationship to validate this study’s findings and to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the relationship.

There are several variables that should be examined, including participants’ age, the length of time climbing, overall climbing experience and life experience. In this study, these four variables were compared to the sophistication (also called development) of participants’ spiritual beliefs. Research is needed to clarify the role or roles (if any) that each of these variables has, and to find any other variables that may have an influence on this relationship.

Individualized Spirituality

The findings of this study support previous spirituality research that shows a recent trend toward more individualized concepts of spirituality and the concept of being spiritual but not religious. Several studies have reported the classification of being spiritual but not religious (e.g. Heintzman, 2010a; Marler & Hadaway, 2002; Schneiders,

2003; Wuthnow, 2001; Zinnbauer et al., 1997). Dave, Evan, Ian, and Tina identified as being spiritual but not religious, and showed many characteristics that were identified by 102

Zinnbauer et al (1997) and Roof (1993), including mysticism, New Age beliefs and practices, and individualism. It is unclear if participants in this study came from families that attended religious services less frequently, a characteristic that both Zinnbauer et al.

(1997) and Roof (1993) reported finding. Participants in this study were asked to describe their spiritual and religious backgrounds but were not asked about this specific datum.

Fuller (2001) suggested three types of beliefs among modern “unchurched”

Americans: secular humanists, those with ambiguous relationships with religion (who may attend services sporadically and/or espouse beliefs from several religions), and the spiritual but not religious. In the present study, no participant identified as being a secular humanist. There were, however, participants that fell into the other two categories.

Charlie, Frank, and George could be characterized as having an ambiguous relationship with religion, while Dave, Evan, Ian, and Tina all identified as being spiritual but not religious. Fuller (2001) suggested that there is a range of spiritual sentiment in the spiritual but not religious category, from “mild spiritual impulses” to those who are

“deeply interested in pursuing spiritual growth” (p. 4). This trend was confirmed by this study. Ian and Dave described themselves as atheists but had a sense of spirituality, said they would actively continue on their spiritual path, and could be characterized as having more “mild spiritual impulses.” Evan could be placed on the other end of the spectrum, as he was deeply interested in his spirituality and pursuing spiritual growth. Roof (1993) also called the spiritual but not religious “highly active seekers” who, he claimed, are more concerned with spiritual development than most churchgoers. While no comparison 103

based on this study can be made to churchgoers overall, the spiritual but not religious participants were not notably more concerned with their spiritual development than the churchgoing participants in this study. Fuller (2001) also suggested that individuals who are spiritual but not religious tend to expect to make spiritual breakthroughs on their own, feel a tension between their personal beliefs and religion, see their spiritual life as a

“journey,” and often belong to a certain demographic (educated, white-collar, liberal, independent, and were raised in a household that did not attend church regularly).

Though these particular demographic traits are not known of the participants in this study, the first three characteristics were represented throughout the participants that reported having an individualized spirituality.

The results of this study do not support Fuller’s (2001) use of the term

“ambiguous” to describe individuals who may attend services sporadically and/or espouse beliefs from several religions. Frank, for example, had an intricate but very clear concept of his spirituality and his relationship with religion. Perhaps a more apt word may be substituted for “ambiguous.” Alternatively, Fuller’s (2001) model may be refined to reflect a more nuanced understanding of this group of “unchurched” individuals.

Nature as a Dimension of Spirituality

Several studies have identified nature as an important element in participants’ spiritualities and a contributing factor in spiritual experiences (e.g., Heintzman, 2000;

Livengood, 2009; Marsh, 2008; Narayanan, 2009; Schmidt & Little, 2007; White &

Hendee, 2000). Almost every participant in this study spoke to receiving spiritual benefits 104

from spending time in nature. All participants that compared climbing indoors to outdoors reported stronger spiritual outcomes from climbing outdoors. Many reported feeling personally and spiritually at ease, at peace, or at home in nature. These findings are consistent with existing literature that has examined the relationship between nature and spirituality. Heintzman (2000) reported that wilderness setting was conducive to spiritual well-being. Narayanan (2009) found the desert to be a sacred place. Participants from this study identified a strong spiritual connection with nature. Christians in this study tended to portray nature as Creation, a sacred place. This finding rings similar to

Livengood’s (2009) findings, that New Paradigm Christians connected with God and

God’s Creation in nature. Schmidt and Little (2007) found that nature acted as a catalyst for spiritual experiences, where recreation done in a natural setting was conducive to bringing about spiritual experiences for participants. The results from this study are consistent with Schmidt and Little’s (2007) findings, as there was strong evidence for the link between nature and spiritual experiences, with many participants claiming that they could not have spiritual experiences outside of nature. Overall, nature appeared to be a very strong element in the participants’ sense of spirituality, which supports the existing literature that identifies nature as a spiritual component. The exact role that nature plays in the spirituality of climbers is unclear. Future research may study nature’s role in the spiritual lives of climbers.

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Varieties of Spiritual Experience While Climbing

In lieu of a theoretical framework that applies specifically to spirituality within serious leisure or climbing contexts, this study used William James’ (1902) framework provided in his lecture on mysticism. Though it does not encompass the entire nexus of spirituality and climbing, James’ framework applies to the spiritual experiences that occur in a climbing context and appears to be applicable to several types of spiritual experiences, including the religious, mystical, meditative, and trance-like states that were found in this study.

James (1902) wr ote that the mystic is invulnerable insofar that an outsider cannot impede or nullify the experience that the mystic has had. Likewise, the mystic has no authority over anyone else to force belief of the mystic or his experience. This notion was reflected in the participants’ accounts of their spiritual experiences. Several participants emphasized that climbing was their means of accessing their spirituality and that these experiences and resulting beliefs were individual, not to be generalized to others.

James offered four criteria of mystical states: ineffability, a noetic quality, transiency, and passivity. The former two are emphasized more than the latter two, which are usually, but not necessarily found. These four characteristics were found in participants’ accounts of their spiritual experiences. Participants were ineffable in as far as they were unable to convey the core of their experiences to the researcher. James wrote that these states are “more like states of feeling than like states of intellect” (p. 371). This was evident in the interview data, as many participants recounted the experiences they 106

had, often referring to the feeling that they experienced more than anything else. For example, Frank’s experience on El Capitan where he felt the earth rotating is impossible to capture using words alone. This type of state must be lived, must be experienced.

Similarly, participants’ accounts of spiritual experiences reflected a noetic quality.

Harry’s mystical experiences informed his spirituality and the rest of his life. Dave’s meditative and trance-like states served to expand his spirituality to include deeper levels of consciousness. Karl’s religious experiences while climbing solidified his beliefs and kindled his passion to spreading the Christian word to others. Many participants shared similar perspectives on how spiritual experience(s) informed them, leading to significant impacts on their lives. James’ criteria of transiency was also supported by the data. The researcher did not specifically ask participants how long their spiritual experiences lasted, but their accounts reflected a transient quality. Most experiences seemed to last for a few minutes. Even the meditative or trance-like states that participants reported experiencing were ultimately transient. Finally, the passive characteristic was supported by this study; no participant reported being able to force him or herself into a spiritual experience.

Rather, the experience happened to them. Many participants reported being able to bring about a meditative state, often by focusing on a particular action (e.g., Brad focused on his breathing and the climbing movement while climbing on snow). It seems that meditative states can be triggered deliberately, but ultimately the individual is passive in as far as they are unable to control the state.

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Meditative states. The participants’ accounts of reaching meditative states while climbing share the similar core characteristics of having clear, calm mental state with an acute awareness of the present moment while engaged in the task at hand. When analyzed in this light, these mental states are most similar to Zen Buddhist meditation, where one seeks full engagement in the present. One seeks to free himself from his “monkey mind,” the continuous mental stream of dialog that is nearly ever-present. The Zen Buddhist practices meditation, both in seated, silent zazen meditation and in active meditation. Zen practitioners seek freedom in pure experience, that which is not limited or labeled with thought (Watts, 1960/1973). There are various activities through which Zen practitioners carry meditation, be it cutting onions, walking, or archery. Interview data from this study suggests that climbers are effectively practicing of a sort of Zen meditation in an effort to calm the mind and focus on a given activity.

Of course there is much to the Zen tradition, though this is a fascinating similarity. The results from this study are limited, of course. A future study may research the ways in which climbers seek meditation and the ways in which climbing is meditative. Such a study could compare what climbers experience with traditional means of meditation.

Mystical and religious experiences. The distinction was drawn between mystical and religious experiences. An experience interpreted through the lens of a religious tradition was considered a religious experience whereas an experience that was not interpreted through any particular religious tradition was considered to be mystical. It is 108

important to consider that the term “mystical” was borrowed from James’ (1902) characterizations of what today would likely be called “spiritual” experiences. In James’ era, there was no vernacular equivalent of the contemporary term “spiritual,” and so an experience that was not interpreted within the lens of a religion was dubbed “mystical.”

This study used James’ term “mystical” to describe these experiences, for the purposes of consistency throughout the paper and to use the established, albeit flawed term that James used. Part of the difficulty in naming these experiences is due to the lack of a parsimonious definition of spirituality. Thus, “spiritual experience” is an ambiguous term. Furthermore, precise parameters for the nature and types of spiritual experiences are not established. In this study, for example, the label “spiritual experiences” is considered the broad category which includes meditative, trance-like, mystical, and religious experiences. Labeling what this study called mystical experiences as spiritual would create confusion, and the converse would be limiting, especially considering the aim of the study, which is to investigate climbing as a spiritual experience. There is a need for better definitions of these types of experiences.

Suggestions for Future Research

This study adds to the existing body of literature that relates to spirituality, recreation, leisure and serious leisure. The researcher is not aware of any study that researches spirituality in a climbing context; this study may be the first on this topic.

There are several studies that have researched spirituality and/or religion in recreation contexts (e.g., Beck, 1987; Fox, 1997, 1999; Fredrickson & Anderson, 1999; Foster, 109

2012; Heintzman, 2000, 2003, 2006, 2007, 2010b, 2010a; Heintzman & Mannell, 2001,

2003; Marsh, 2007, 2008; McDonald & Schreyer, 1991; Morse, 2011), fewer that research spirituality in serious leisure contexts (e.g., Beck, 2987; Marsh, 207, 2008;

Sanford, 2007; Smith, 2002; Tremblay, 2010) and no study that researches spirituality in a climbing context. There is significant opportunity for future research on this topic.

This study focused on the spirituality and spiritual experiences of the participants.

Future studies can research the relationship of climbing and religion (rather than spirituality), and the nexus of spirituality and religion among climbers. Similarly, this study welcomed participants from any spirituality, as long as they saw climbing as somehow spiritual. Further research can focus on samples with certain spiritual or religious beliefs.

Much more can be learned about the different kinds of spiritual experiences and mental states that participants reported having while climbing. This study identified three types of spiritual experiences, namely, meditative experiences, trance-like states, and mystical states. Further research is needed to increase the overall understanding and roles of these mental states and spiritual experiences and how they relate to established research on altered states of consciousness and spiritual experiences.

The sample in this study is not representative of the overall population of climbers. Due to this study using convenience sampling techniques and relying on potential participants to self-select, little is known about the spiritual beliefs across the 110

overall population of climbers. Future research can study the general spiritual beliefs across the population of climbers.

This study analyzed the most prominent themes that were identified in the interview data. Minor themes that were identified that could be the topic of future research include fear; danger; exhaustion; specific types of climbing; feeling a spiritual calling to climb; and solo climbing. Future studies can research variables such as age, sex, experience, spiritual background, religious background, location, and type of climbing that is done. Most significant, there is a need for future research to develop a framework for spirituality within serious leisure or climbing contexts to which a study like this can be applied.

111

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