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Investigating Climbing as a Spiritual Experience A thesis presented to the faculty of The Patton College of Education of Ohio University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Science in Recreation and Sport Sciences Michael F. Pond May 2013 © 2013 Michael F. Pond. All Rights Reserved. 2 This thesis titled Investigating Climbing as a Spiritual Experience by MICHAEL F. POND has been approved for the Department of Recreation and Sport Pedagogy and The Patton College of Education by Bruce C. Martin Assistant Professor of Recreation and Sport Pedagogy Renée A. Middleton Dean, The Patton College of Education 3 Abstract POND, MICHAEL F., M.S.R.S., May 2013, Recreation Studies Investigating Climbing as a Spiritual Experience (126 pp.) Director of Thesis: Bruce C. Martin This research explores the role that climbing plays in the spirituality of climbers. Twenty semi-structured interviews were conducted following the framework of phenomenology which yielded five major themes. This study identified ways in which climbing was spiritually enriching, climbing’s influence on spiritual development and wellbeing, how climbing led to having spiritual experiences and the outcomes of these experiences, and the ways in which participants created their own spiritual practices and beliefs independently of organized institutions. William James’ criteria for mystical experiences were used as a framework for analyzing spiritual experiences. This study highlights the lack of a theoretical framework that specifically applies spirituality to the context of serious leisure. This research contributes to the bodies of literature regarding spirituality, leisure studies, and literature relating to spirituality within leisure contexts. 4 Dedication This thesis is dedicated to all those who find solace in high places: those whose minds are clearer when the air is a bit thinner and who, when in doubt, go higher. 5 Acknowledgments I would like to thank all those who helped me along the way: the spiritually- minded climbers who provided inspiration for this study, Andy Szolosi and Elizabeth Collins for offering support and invaluable insight, and Bruce Martin, my advisor, who exceeded my expectations throughout my thesis process. Thank you for holding my feet to the fire and for helping me make a product of which I can be proud. 6 Table of Contents Page Abstract………………………………………………………………………………… 3 Dedication……………………………………………………………………………… 4 Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………. 5 Chapter 1: Introduction………………………………………………………………… 8 Setting Component: Nature………………………………………........................... 10 Altered States of Consciousness: Spiritual Outcomes……………………………... 11 Recreation Component: Recreation Activities………………….…..………………12 Spirituality in Popular Climbing Literature…………….……………..………….... 13 Willi Unsoeld: An Archetype of the Spiritual Climber……………………………. 17 Chapter 2: Literature Review…………………………………………………………... 20 Spirituality……………………………………………………………...………….. 20 The Relationship of Spirituality and Religion………………………….………….. 29 The Varieties of Spiritual Experiences…………………………………………….. 35 Research Questions…………………………………………………….………….. 40 Chapter 3: Methods………………………………………………………...………….. 42 Phenomenology……………………………………………………………………. 42 Phenomenology of spirituality…………………………………..……………... 44 Data Collection…………………………………………………………………….. 46 Sample………………………………………………………………….………….. 48 Data Analysis…………………………………………………………...………….. 50 Credibility of the Study……………………………………………………………. 50 Chapter 4: Results…………………………………………………………..………….. 52 Relationship of Experience and Spiritual Development….……………...………… 53 Individualized Spirituality……………………………………………....…………. 54 Climbing as Spiritual Fellowship………………………………………..………… 59 Nature as a Dimension of Spirituality……………………………………………… 64 Varieties of Spiritual Experience in Climbing……..………………….....………… 71 Meditative states..…………………………………………………....………… 72 Techniques for entering meditative states ………………………..…………. 74 Increased focus and presence……………………………………..………….. 77 Outcomes of meditative states……………………………………………….. 80 Meditation outside of climbing…………………………………...………….. 83 Trance-Like states……………………………………………………………... 86 Mystical experiences…………………………………………………………... 88 Religious experiences in climbing……………………………………………... 94 Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusion………………………………………………… 98 Relationship of Experience and Spiritual Development…………………………… 99 Individualized Spirituality……………………………………………..…………... 101 Nature as a Dimension of Spirituality……………………………………………… 103 Varieties of Spiritual Experience While Climbing…………………........................ 105 7 Meditative states……………………………………………………………….. 107 Mystical and religious experiences…………………………………………….. 107 Suggestions for Future Research……..……………………………………………. 108 References……………………………………………………………………………… 111 8 Chapter 1: Introduction Rock climbing, as such, should be accepted with the greatest enthusiasm; yet I feel that certain values should be preserved in our contact with the mountains. While it is rarely a case of the complete ascendancy of acrobatics over esthetics, we should bear in mind that the mountains are more to us than a mere proving ground of strength and alert skill. Rock climbing should be considered a thrilling means to a more important end. (Ansel Adams, quoted in Taylor, 1932, p. 102, italics added) More than once I have felt the mystical connection to the mountain that I learned on Mount Hunter. It is always there, if I am open to it. [The climb] Deprivation taught me about the existence of this mystic path in the mountains. It made me ask myself, ‘How can I be tired while climbing on the mountain when I have become the mountain?’ I have searched within myself, through both passive and active meditation, for the tools to open this ‘door’ whenever I will it. I still search.” (Mark Twight, 2001, p. 147) “I think [climbing] just heightens my awareness of what’s going on in the world, or in the spiritual world, I guess…It’s like going to church. I’m practicing. I’m exercising my body, my mind, and attempting to exercise my soul. It’s kind of like going to prayer for people. It’s kind of like prayer for me. (Evan) While popular literature has touched on the subject, academic literature has yet to thoroughly explore the relationship of climbing and spirituality. There is a small and growing body of academic literature that focuses on spirituality in the broader context of leisure, with qualitative and empirical studies that shed some light on the complexity of the relationship of leisure and spirituality, and call for future study to further the knowledge on the topic (e.g., Heintzman, 2000; Heintzman & Mannell, 1999; Schmidt & Little, 2007; Stringer & McAvoy, 1992). However, currently there are no comprehensive theoretical models that address the nexus of leisure and spirituality that have been confirmed by research. Heintzman (2010a) noted that until recently, the majority of the literature on spirituality and leisure 9 was speculative and conceptual (e.g., Driver et al., 1996; Dustin, 1994; McDonald, 1989; McDonald, Guldin, & Wetherhill, 1988). There are a few theoretical models that address leisure and spirituality (e.g., Fox, 1999; Fredrickson & Anderson, 1999; McDonald, 1989; McDonald, Guldin, & Wetherhill, 1988). These models, however, were developed prior to the recent surge in research on the topic. Heintzman (2010a) reviewed these models and concluded that they are outdated and need to be refined in order to reflect the level of complexity that is being shown by recent research. Heintzman (2010a) conducted a review of the literature on leisure and spirituality, and grouped the studies into the following categories: leisure and spirituality; wilderness and park visitors; wilderness experience and spirituality; adventure education, environmental education, and outdoor education; and residential camping and spirituality. In an effort to clarify the complex factors and characteristics that influence and describe a spiritual experience and its effects, Heintzman (2010a) separated the components of spiritual experiences that occur in the context of leisure into four categories: the antecedent conditions, setting components, recreation components, and spiritual outcomes. Antecedent conditions are people’s characteristics prior to the experience, including “personal history and current circumstances, motivation and attitude, sociodemographic characteristics, and spiritual tradition” (p. 76). Setting components are the qualities of the area in which the experience takes place, including being in nature, being away, and place processes. The recreation components include the type of recreation “activity, free time, solitude, group experience, and facilitation” (p. 79). The 10 combination of the previous components may lead to short- and long-term spiritual outcomes, which may include having a spiritual experience (short-term), improving one’s sense of spiritual well-being (long-term) and undergoing improvements on one’s leisure- spiritual coping (long-term). While a comprehensive list is beyond the scope of this paper, a few components that are prominent in research are discussed below. There is no parsimonious definition of spirituality (Pargament, 1999; Roof, 1993). An aim of this study is to explore the concept of spirituality and its role and meaning within the context of climbing. Spirituality is explored more fully in chapter two, where a functional definition is given that will be used throughout the study. Setting Component: Nature Several
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