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The Circadian Visual System, 2005 BRAIN RESEARCH REVIEWS 51 (2006) 1– 60 available at www.sciencedirect.com www.elsevier.com/locate/brainresrev Review The circadian visual system, 2005 L.P. Morina,⁎, C.N. Allenb aDepartment of Psychiatry and Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA bDepartment of Physiology and Pharmacology and Centre for Research on Occupational and Environmental Toxicology, Oregon Health and Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, OR 97239, USA ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Article history: The primary mammalian circadian clock resides in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), a Accepted 9 August 2005 recipient of dense retinohypothalamic innervation. In its most basic form, the circadian Available online 5 December 2005 rhythm system is part of the greater visual system. A secondary component of the circadian visual system is the retinorecipient intergeniculate leaflet (IGL) which has connections to Keywords: many parts of the brain, including efferents converging on targets of the SCN. The IGL also Circadian provides a major input to the SCN, with a third major SCN afferent projection arriving from Suprachiasmatic the median raphe nucleus. The last decade has seen a blossoming of research into the SCN anatomy and function of the visual, geniculohypothalamic and midbrain serotonergic Intergeniculate leaflet systems modulating circadian rhythmicity in a variety of species. There has also been a IGL substantial and simultaneous elaboration of knowledge about the intrinsic structure of the SCN. Many of the developments have been driven by molecular biological investigation of the circadian clock and the molecular tools are enabling novel understanding of regional function within the SCN. The present discussion is an extension of the material covered by the 1994 review, “The Circadian Visual System.” © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. ⁎ Corresponding author. Fax: +1 631 444 7534. E-mail address: [email protected] (L.P. Morin). 0165-0173/$ – see front matter © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2005.08.003 2 BRAIN RESEARCH REVIEWS 51 (2006) 1– 60 Abbreviations: 5-HT, serotonin CALB, calbindin CALR, calretinin CCK, cholecystokinin ENK, enkephalin GABA, gamma amino butyric acid GRP, gastrin releasing hormone IGL, intergeniculate leaflet NPY, neuropeptide Y NT, neurotensin PACAP, pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide SCN, suprachiasmatic nucleus SP, substance P SS, somatostatin VIP, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide VP, vasopressin Contents 1. Introduction and caveats .................................................... 3 2. Psychophysicsofthecircadianrhythmsystem......................................... 4 3. Organization of the suprachiasmatic nucleus ......................................... 5 3.1. Nomenclature ...................................................... 5 3.2. Distribution of cell phenotypes ............................................. 5 3.3. Intra-SCN connections .................................................. 8 4. Retinal photoreceptors and projections ............................................ 8 4.1. Melanopsin ganglion cell characteristics ........................................ 8 4.2. Retinal ganglion cell projections and bifurcation ................................... 9 4.3. Classical and ganglion cell photoreceptor contribution to regulation of circadian rhythms, masking, the pupillary light reflex and melatonin suppression ....................................... 11 4.3.1. Circadian rhythms .............................................. 11 4.3.2. Masking, pupillary light reflex and melatonin suppression.......................... 11 5. Neuromodulators of the retinohypothalamic tract ..................................... 12 5.1. Glutamate ....................................................... 12 5.2. N-Acetylaspartyl glutamate .............................................. 12 5.3. Glutamate receptors .................................................. 13 5.4. Nitric oxide and RHT signal transduction ...................................... 13 5.5. PACAP.......................................................... 14 5.6. Substance P....................................................... 15 6. SCN structure–function relationships ............................................ 17 6.1. Function of cellular neuromodulators in the SCN .................................. 18 6.1.1. GABA...................................................... 18 6.1.2. VIP and VIP/PACAP receptors. ........................................ 18 6.1.3. Calbindin and the central subnucleus of the hamster SCN ........................ 19 6.1.4. Bombesin and gastrin releasing peptide................................... 21 6.1.5. Neuromedin U and neuromedin S ...................................... 21 6.1.6. Vasopressin .................................................. 21 6.1.7. Diurnality–nocturnality ............................................ 22 6.2. Acetylcholine ...................................................... 22 6.3. Neurophysiology of the SCN action potential rhythm................................ 23 6.4. Inter-SCN differences in gene expression ...................................... 25 6.5. Regional expression of Fos .............................................. 25 6.5.1. Hamster .................................................... 25 6.5.2. Rat ....................................................... 25 6.6. Regional clock gene expression ............................................ 26 BRAIN RESEARCH REVIEWS 51 (2006) 1– 60 3 6.6.1. Mouse...................................................... 26 6.6.2. Rat ....................................................... 27 6.6.3. Hamster .................................................... 27 6.7. Stimulus induction of gene expression ........................................ 28 6.7.1. Photic stimuli ................................................. 28 6.7.2. Nonphotic stimuli ............................................... 28 6.7.3. Inconsistencies between phase response and gene expression ...................... 29 6.8. Polysialic acid and SCN function ........................................... 30 7. SCN connectivity ........................................................ 31 7.1. Humoral factors..................................................... 31 7.2. Efferent anatomy .................................................... 31 7.3. Afferent anatomy .................................................... 32 8. Intergeniculate leaflet ..................................................... 34 8.1. Nomenclature ...................................................... 34 8.2. Development ...................................................... 34 8.3. Anatomy......................................................... 34 8.3.1. Geniculohypothalamic tract.......................................... 34 8.3.2. Connectivity and relationship to sleep, visuomotor and vestibular systems ............... 34 8.4. Function ......................................................... 35 8.4.1. Neurophysiology ................................................ 35 8.4.2. Nonphotic regulation of rhythmicity ..................................... 36 8.4.3. Photic regulation of rhythmicity ....................................... 37 9. Serotonin and midbrain raphe contribution to circadian rhythm regulation ....................... 38 9.1. Effects of serotonin-specific neurotoxins ....................................... 38 9.2. Serotonin receptor function .............................................. 38 9.3. Regulation and consequences of serotonin release ................................. 39 9.4. Serotonergic potentiation of light-induced phase shifts ............................... 40 10. Failure to re-entrain ...................................................... 41 11. Masking............................................................. 42 12. The future ........................................................... 43 Acknowledgments .......................................................... 43 References............................................................... 43 1. Introduction and caveats The purpose of the current review is to continue the theme of the original, but to do so with minimal redundan- There have been a large number of new developments with cy. The focus of the current presentation will be on respect to knowledge about the anatomy and physiology of necessary modifications to the perspective presented 10 circadian rhythm regulation since publication of our 1994 years ago, and to the substantial additions to the general review, “The Circadian Visual System” (Morin, 1994). As is body of knowledge relating to the circadian visual system. nearly always the case with such projects, many of the The title of the 1994 review, “The Circadian Visual System,” developments were well underway, and in some instances remains of some import. We believe it is worth emphasizing completed, prior to the actual publication of that review. Most that, taken as a whole, the research topic under consider- notably, much of the presentation in the 1994 review ation is “circadian,” is “visual” and certainly is a “system.” concerning the serotonergic system was incomplete or That is an aspect of the research topic of importance that wrong and understanding of the issues changed substantially should not be underestimated. soon after publication of the review. Other issues emerged as We do not intend to cover all facets of circadian rhythm
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