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4-1951 Bulletin of the Massachusetts Archaeological Society, Vol. 12, No. 3 Massachusetts Archaeological Society

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This item is available as part of Virtual Commons, the open-access institutional repository of Bridgewater State University, Bridgewater, Massachusetts. BULLETIN OF THE MASSACHUSETTS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

VOL. XII NO.3 APRIL 1951

CONTENTS

A Polynesian Adze from Martha's Vineyard Howard R. sargent ...... 27

Tomahawks of Central New England William S. Fowler ...... 29

An Unusual Burial at Plymouth Charles F. Sherman ...... • . .. 37

Geology and Archaeology: Partnership with Profit Joseph H. Hartshorn...... 41

Bibliography ...... 45

PUBLISHED BY THE MASSACHUSETTS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Douglas S. Byers, Editor, Box 71, Andover, Mas~. William S. Fowler, Secrt'tary, Attleboro Museum, Attleboro, Mass. Winthrop F. Barden, Treasurer, 18 North Main Street. Attleboro, Mass.

PEFlCLICjd.S I '0r. THE Cll:MENT C. M;\.xY~t:LL L1~?ti'''R'1 Sr.',TE COLLEGE BRIDGEWATER, MASSACHUSEm This journal and its contents may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. ©2010 Massachusetts Archaeological Society.

A POLYNESIAN ADZE FROM MARTHA'S VINEYARD Howard R. Sargent

In the interpretation of cultural material from ab­ The adze is made of black aphanitic basalt and is original sites, the archaeologist is occasionally con­ highly polished over its entire surface. No special fronted with the problem of dealing with intrusive ob­ note was made of the specimen until recently when a jects. Usually, however, such intrusive material can similar though somewhat larger adze was found il­ be recognized as having come from a fairly close lustrated in Volume 1 of Moorehead's book, "The neighbor. For that reason the subject of this article Stone Age in North America" (Fig. 246, page 285). requires special attention because it has come not That specimen (Fig. 12) was in a collection in Rhode only from a remote culture area, but also from a to­ Island and presumably came from a site in that area tally distinct region with no historical connections although no mention was made of the locality. The whatsoever. occurrence of two specimens of such an obviously in­ trusive nature in New England Indian collections made The adze (Fig. 11) was in a collection of Indian ar­ the subject seem worthy of special consideration. tifacts purchased by the writer several years ago. The identification of the adze as of Polynesian origin came essentially through comparative studies of adzes known to have come from that region. One such specimen was purchased by the writer in Honolulu. It is very similar in shape (though about

FIGURE 11. Adze from Oak Bluffs, Massachusetts from the collection of Howard R. Sargent. Scale - 2/3.

The collection had been made at the end of the 19th century and was a hodge-podge of specimens from FIGURE 12. Adze after Moorehead from Rhode numerous sites in eastern Massachusetts. The only Island. Scale - 2/3. information available on the adze was that it had been found at Cottage City (now Oak Bluffs), Massa­ twice as long) to the adze under consideration, but it chusetts. Whether or not other intrusive artifacts received less care in its manufacture and apparently have been found at that locality is not known to the was used in the practical tasks of canoe-building and writer, but information from readers concerning any other forms of woodworking. Another adze of about will be appreciated. the same size as the Martha's Vineyard specimen 27 28 MASSACHUSETTS ARCHAEOLOGiCAL SOCIETY: BULLETIN is to be seen in its original ceremonial hafting in the mation is lacking concerning the cultural identity Yale Peabody Museum (such specimens are quite of the site. The most that can be stated with certain­ common in Polynesian exhibits). ty is that the artifact is of PolyneSian manufacture. That it was found in an Indian site seems inherent The presence of the adze in an Indian site seems in the available information and also in the fact that best explained by the trading activities of early whal­ a similar specimen was treated by Moorehead, as ers who sailed to the Pacific from New England. mentioned above. From this it is inferred that the site which produced this specimen was historic, but unfortunately infor- Sargent Museum George's Mills, New Hampshire July 29, 1950 This journal and its contents may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. ©2010 Massachusetts Archaeological Society.

TOMAHAWKS OF CENTRAL NEW ENGLAND William S. Fowler

PREFACE

Archaeological reports dealing with the Northeast d'Alene and Thompson tribes. These peoples made during the past century have said little or nothing general use of round or oval stones wrapped in raw­ about the existence of stone blades whi ch might have hide and attached to handles in various ways. They been used as weapons in time of war. However, re­ also employed an antler or stone spike sunk and se­ cent research has uncovered many stone implements cured with pitch into the upper end of the face of a that seem to belong in this category, and an investiga­ wooden handle as another form of club. 1 tion of them now appears opportune. Historical evi­ dence leaves little doubt that in Colonial days some It is not strange, therefore, to find Algonkians of sort of hand clubs were used as weapons, and it is the Atlantic seaboard using war clubs in Colonial probable that the source of such a war-like trait times and referring to them in their tongue as toma­ reaches back into prehistory. The apparent impor­ hawks although the name is pronounced variously in tance of fighting clubs to aboriginal peoples as re­ their different dialects. The "Handbook of American ported by many historical accounts has inspired this Indians" of the Bureau of American Ethnology gives the report, and it is presented in order that a better un­ derivation of the name as follows: derstanding may be had of the different forms of war clubs, which probably existed in prehistoric central "The name (tomahawk) is applied to a weapon or New England. a group of weapons in common use among the Al­ gonquian tribes of the United States. The early Grateful acknowledgement for the use of speci­ writers in Virginia cite the word from the dia­ mens illustrated in this report goes to Richard W. lects of that region as tommahick, tomahack, Hatch of Deerfield's Memorial Hall, Mrs. John B. tomohake, tamahaac (Strachey, 1612); other ear­ Mason of Haverhill Historical SOCiety, Maurice Rob­ ly forms are tommyhawk and tomhog (Church's bins of Massachusetts Archaeological SOCiety's Mu­ Philip's War, 1716) - A common conception of seum, and to Norris L. Bull, Mrs. Paul F. Robinson, the tomahawk is that it was the nearest aborigi­ Walter S. Rodiman, David H. Straight, and Carl W. nal representative of the European hatchet, al­ Hanson. though the term was early applied to various forms of the club."2 Illustrations are by the author, and represent faithful copies of actual 'specimens with due regard When the Explorers and Colonists arrived in New to all important details. England they found the natives USing clubs of different kinds. Some refer to them as war clubs and others as HISTORICAL EVIDENCE tomahawks. In 1604, Samuel de Champlain sailed down the coast of New England and wrote of his voy­ Clubs of many different shapes have been used ages. He speaks only of a war club made entirely of as weapons in combat from the earliest days of wood that has an oval wooden knob at one end of the man's struggle for existence. No archaeological evi­ handle. He illustrates it by means of a rough sketch dence seems more important than that which has to that is reproduced here for purposes of comparison do with stones of various sizes and shapes, which ap­ (Fig. 13). pear to have been variously hafted and used to pre­ serve human life. Whether they are referred to as Other early commentators have given reports of clubs, battle axes, maces, war clubs, hatchets or what they saw, and their descriptions of war clubs, tomahawks, there are probably few people today who varying somewhat in detail, suggest that there was will deny the existence of some sort of fighting clubs no set pattern for a fighting club among the different in prehistoric ages. tribes. Rogers relates as follows:

Ethnological investigation of western tribes of North "Another instrument of great esteem and impor­ America during the past century has revealed man's tance among them is the tomahawk. This weapon prevailing dependence upon some form of club for is much like a hatchet, having a long stem or combat use. For example, several different kinds of clubs have b~en reported among the Indians of the 1. Boas, 1927, 45th Report pp. 115, 256. Columbia River basin, such as the Okanagon, Coeur 2. Hodge, 1912, Vol. 2, pp. 773-4.

29 30 MASSACHUSETTS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY: BULLETIN

probably Mohawks, who were known to war at times upon the New England natives. He says:

"Tomahauks be staves of two foote and a halfe long and a knob at one end as round and bigge as a football." (This may have been no bigger than a hand ball which has sometimes been re­ ferred to as the Indian football.)5 FIGURE 13. War Club. Exploration and Colonial expansion as a result of After a drawing by Samuel barter put articles of European manufacture into the de Champlain, 1604 hands of the natives. Among the most favored of (Champlain's Voyages - these goods were iron hatchets. In Colonial days they Vol. 2, p. 66). served the Indians not only as wood cutting hatchets, but also were used quite generally as weapons, and became synonymous with tomahawks in the minds of the Colonists. From then on, both names were used interchangeably, and a tomahawk came to be regard­ I ed as a cutting hatchet. Historical evidence suggests that the word hatchet may have had a Canadian French derivation as is pointed out by Henry M. Dexter in II 1867. In his reprint of Church's "Philip's War," 1716, he says that the word "Hatches," as used by I Church, is derived from the French word hache, " I, meaning a little ax. Church says in part:

"41y. That there be 100 large Hatches or light axes made pretty broad. JIB

handle; the head is a round ball or knob of solid Dexter comments that in this sentence Church has wood, well enough calculated to knock men's apparently used the common Canadian name, not a brains out, which on the other side of the stem misprint of hatchets, but plural of the French word terminates in a point where the edge would be, hache. It should be noted that in Church's account, if made a hatchet, which point is set a little hook­ the "100 large Hatches" were speCified large since ing or coming toward the stem; and near the cen­ they were to be used in cutting trees for firewood and ter, where the stem or handle pierces the head, like uses during his northern campaign. Undoubtedly, another point projects forward of a considera­ in Canada, a hache was also synonymous with a ble length, which serves to thrust with like a tomahawk, since the word means a little ax, or in spear or pike pole." S other words a hatchet.

Apparently the wooden knob did not always have From these accounts it may be deduced that a two spikes as described by Rogers, for another writ­ tomahawk could be either a long handled heavy club er gives a slightly different account of it. McCulloh or a short handled light weight implement, probably states: depending to a great extent upon the desires of its owner. Certainly, a weapon of such importance "The tomahawk was most commonly of a stout stick would be subject to some variation in form as might about three feet in length, terminating in a large be dictated by individual whims, and yet be made to knob, wherein a projecting bone or flint was of­ conform to an accepted pattern. That such patterns ten inserted." 4 may have varied as related to time, location or tribe is quite possible from these historical reports, but Evidently a long handled club was sometimes it should be remembered that they are dealing only used as McCulloh states, which suggests a rather with clubs that were in use during the 16th and 17th heavily weighted club that was probably wielded with Centuries. Some reports state in substance that both hands. Another early commentator, reporting with the introduction of metal hatchets, the Indians to business interests in England concerning pros­ found them so useful - probably for cutting wood as pects for settlement in New England, also reports well as for weapons - that they soon discarded those the use of a long handle. In 1634, William Wood formerly made of stone and accepted the new substi­ writes about weapons used by the Mowhackes, tutes whenever they could obtain them.

3. Hodge, 1912, Vol. 2, p. 774. 5. Wood, 1898, p. 62. 4. Hodge, 1912, Vol. 2, p. 775. 6. Church, 1867, pt. 2, p. 100. TOMAHAWKS OF CENTRAL NEW ENGLAND 31

Iron hatchets were generally molded with a hole "---we went quietly on board their vessel. The through the head for insertion of the handle, although son of our murdered sachem staid in the cabin sometimes the blade was made solid. Also, at with Captain Stone, until the captain, having times, smaller blades were probably made by the drank more strong water than was good for him, natives from English iron or copper stock without fell asleep. Our Sachem then took a little hat­ perforation, to be hafted in the same manner as chet from under his robe and knocked him in the stone blades (Fig. 14, #2,3). As evidence of the use head ___ " 7 of iron hatchets for tomahawks, history recounts how in March 1697, Hannah Dustin was made captive Such instances as this tend to show with what im­ and while en route up the Merrimack River with her portance the tomahawk, frequently of small propor­ Indian captors, surprised them one morning as they tions, was held by Indians of Colonial days, and leads slept and killed several with an iron hatchet, which to the belief that similar regard for some kind of she grabbed from the first Indian. She escaped and club had always existed. However, this does not brought back the hatchet with her as proof of her mean to imply that wood cutting axes in general exploit together with ten scalps taken from her vic­ should be included in a classification of war clubs. tims. The hatchet, weighing one pound, is now in While it has been thought by some that axes were used the possession of Dustin descendants (Fig. 14, #1). to fight with on occasion when more suitable weapons were not obtainable, it is probable that this was not The two small metal hatchets (Fig. 14, #2, 3) often the case. Axes usually weigh a pound or more weighing 4 and 5 ounces respectively are from Con­ and are made with an edge that is sharpened by grind­ necticut Valley camp sites, and amply justify the ing or chipping. Evidently, they were intended for cutting something harder than human flesh. As a mat­ ter of fact, a blow from a dull implement will more surely effect sudden death by concussion than will a glancing cut from a sharp blade hastily aimed. Never­ theless, whether or not sharp bladed small stone axes were formerly used as tomahawks, it is certain that sharp edged metal hatchets supplied by the French, Spanish and English were used as such by the natives in Colonial engagements, and appear to have been preferred at that later date.

With all this historical evidence available, it seems paradoxical that such writers as Charles C. Willoughby in his" Antiquities of the New England Indians" avoid inclusion and classification of toma­ hawks. Willoughby merely mentions the existence of a unique monolithic club.8 This specimen is on ex­ hibition in the King Philip Museum at Mount Hope, Rhode Island and is reputed to have been recovered from a New England farm site. It weighs several pounds and seems to simulate a wooden club made from the stub of a small tree with proper root develop­ ment. Why attention is called to this questionable ob- j ect, and nothing is said about other prevailing stone 3 artifacts that have quite obvious affinities to war clubs is difficult to understand.

FIGURE 14. Metal Hatchets. 1, Iron hatchet snatched After completing an extensive investigation of from Indian captor by Hannah Dustin; 2, copper blade, available lithic artifacts from central New England Northampton; 3, iron blade, Hatfield. regions, stone tomahawks seem to fit into five clas­ sifications. From this evidence has been excluded belief that small light weight clubs were being used all specimens, no matter how small, that have ground in Colonial times, as well as heavier ones. That or chipped edged blades with shapes that would pre­ light weight hatchets were often most useful may be clude them from use as tomahawks. Investigation has seen from the following historical account during the been aided by prolonged experimental operations by Pequot war. A Pequot messenger to the English in the author in which many stone blades were hafted 1636 was said by Underhill, a military leader of the with wooden handles, fashioned by the help of aboriginal day, to have recounted how a certain Englishman by the name of Captain Stone had been killed: 7. De Forest, 1851, p. 95. 8. Willoughby, 1935, p. 172. 32 MASSACHUSETTS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY: BULLETIN

stone woodworking tools retrieved from habitation In this group of about 50 specimens are found sites. 9 While there is no way to justify the conclusions blades that resemble metal trade hatches of the Col­ reached except by logical analysis there are too many onial period. They are made of rather thin slabs of specimens involved from each class of clubs not to basalt and have come from Connecticut Valley sites attempt a classification of the evidence. Moreover, located at Ragged Mountain, Agawam, Westfield, the shape of these artifacts is such as to make them Northampton, Hadley, Hatfield and Deerfield. Suita­ seem more suitable for tomahawks than for other ble basalt fragments spalled by erosion from escarp­ kinds of implements. ments in this region were readily available for aboriginal use. In some cases like those illustrated, they are chipped so as to form a tapering or pointed head. Each illustrated specimen weighs about 1/2 pound or less, and common to all of these artifacts is a sharp cutting edge produced by meticulous grind­ ing on both faces. These ground surfaces sometimes extend more than an inch up each face, but to a dim­ inishing degree, Experiment has demonstrated that similar ground results may be obtained by abrasion with another stone, but not from friction in the soil were they to have been used as cultivating hoes as is thought by some. While a few heavier specimens in this class may have been used exclu'sively for axes when weighing a pound or more, it is unlikely that any of these blades were used as cultivating hoes, as has been suggested by Willoughby. 10 There are too many specimens that show unmi,stakable evidence of having been intended for side hafting to consider the hoe hypothesis tenable. 2 A most carefully made blade (Fig. 15 #1) is from Deerfield. It has been hafted for exhibit, and is now on display in the Indian Room, Memorial Hall, Deer­ field. It has almost perfect symmetry with a slight­ ly wider notch on one side than on the other in order to more readily engage the handle. Nearly all blades as shown have a slightly extended heel below the point of contact with the handle, as is also customary with metal hatchets. Because of this and other simi­ larities, it is possible that the invention and develop­ ment of these stone tomahawks may have been in­ spired by earl y European metal trade hatchets in the 16th Century when the supply was not sufficient to meet the native demand. At least, it is self evi­ dent that these ground edged blades were designed for side hafting, and in the case of those of light weight for a relatively short handle. Furthermore, their sharp cutting edge seems intended for cutting some required material - probably wood - while their overall shape conforms to that of metal hat­ chets. Undoubtedly, they played dual roles on war expeditions both as fighting clubs and as woodcutting hatchets. An excavated specimen of these blades from the Ragged Mountain site in the Peoples State Forest, Connecticut, has been assigned to the site's upper zone in which appear clay potsherds. Because of this associated ceramic evidence that is found to belong to the relatively late agricultural period, ground edged stone hatchets probably represent an invention of this later age. This supports the hy­ 5 6 pothetical conclUSion that they are a product of the last cultural stage, possibly the 16th Century. FIGURE 15. Ground Edged Stone Hatchets. 1,2,3,5, 9. Fowler, 1946, pp. 14-20. Deerfield; 4,6, Westfield. 10. Willoughby, 1935, p. 171. TOMAHAWKS OF CENTRAL NEW ENGLAND 33

Confirmation with similar deductions comes from re­ loose in the haft. Probably the handle was then cut covered evidence in the Powder-Mill brook valley at away on the lower side and toward the handle end to Westfield. Here has appeared several of these blades produce a better grip and to effect a more suitable as a part of grave goods from burials, in which also balance. occurred ceramic pots and certain skeletal remains suggestive of a late deposition. Club prongs are usually made from strong durable stones, such as felsite, quartzite, and quartz. They are chipped to a well defined point at one end. Their body is left relatively thick, which produces a chunky effect that would no doubt withstand heavy blows with­ out breakage. It is easy to confuse these artifacts with triangular turtlebacks, or those chipped forms that are thought to represent a preliminary stage in the manufacture of triangular projectile points. However, it will be found on comparison that club prongs have carefully flaked edges which form the point, whereas with turtlebacks chipping is coarser with less apparent regard being paid to prodUCing a specialized shape.

Doubt as to the antiquity of this form of tomahawk is to be found in its absence from excavated evidence associated with cultural periods underlying the ceramic age. Instead, other club forms have ap­ peared with such earlier archaic evidence, which suggests assignment of stone pronged wooden clubs to the later Woodland ceramic period.

Under this heading, clubs appear infrequently that have rounded heads, either single or double bitted. In general, these stone clubs are relatively heavy artifacts weighing from 3/ 4 - 1 1/2 pounds. Heavier clubs like (Fig. 15,#2) probably were hafted with a long handle as reported by William Wood, and may have been wielded with two hands. In most cases, these weapons are well shaped by pecking and are usually made from granite cobbles. Grooves for hafting are always well defined and often the rounded head has been pecked all over to give it some de­ sired shape. These clubs show no evidence of having been used as hammerstones or mauls. 2 Specimen (Fig. 17, #1) in its original haft is FIGURE 16. Stone Pronged Wooden Clubs. 1. Sug­ thought to be of Indian make. It was found in Connec­ gested haft, prong from Hadley; 2, prongs from ticut, and has fortunately been preserved in good Taunton River basin. condition as a part of the Norris L. Bull collection. It is a double ball-headed club of dark colored stone This class of clubs is amply represented by hun­ with rather small proportions. The stone head is at­ dreds of chipped stone prongs, weighing from 1 to 3 tached to a wooden handle by means of gut or rawhide ounces. Several specimens are to be found in almost thongs wound around a deep central groove. To these every private collection throughout the central New is sewed the end of a piece of rawhide covering that England area. Referring back to historical reports is stretched over the handle. This is held together appearing in the first part of this paper, this type of by sewing that extends its entire length. At the han­ club was in general use at least during the first part dle end, the rawhide covering has been left long, ap­ of the 17th Century. A stone prong similar to those parently to provide a loop to pass around the wrist illustrated was sunk into a deep groove made along although only a part of it is now preserved. The the side of a heavy stick near one end and sealed in thread used in sewing the cover is quite fine having with pitch. Bureau of American Ethnology Reports the color and appearance of hemp. The handle is advance a further probability that rawhide was also about fifteen inches long with a slight taper toward used about the prong to help keep it from working the club end. This unusually fine specimen of 34 MASSACHUSETTS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY: BULLETIN

gests a rather late age for this club at least, possibly middle 18th Century.

2. 3

FIGURE 17. Ball-Headed Clubs. 1. Original haft, 4 Connecticut; 2, Greenbush, R. I.; 3, Potowomut, R.I. primitive hafting was found about a foot underground. FIGURE 18. Pronged Tomahawks. 1, Hoccacum; It had been carefully laid away in a small chamber 2, Plymouth; 3, Westfield; 4, Wilbraham steatite completely encased with stones. The skin and quarry. thongs at first appeared ready to fall apart, but when dried and treated with preservative became suffi­ Unlike stone prongs for wooden clubs, this group ciently strong again to hold the artifact in its haft. of pronged tomahawks contains artifacts that exhibit well defined side notches in the middle or top areas of It may be remembered from previous references the blade. These implements were probably attached that clubs of this kind appearing in various forms, to a normal sized handle by means of thongs. The six som e with rawhide stretched over the stone as well specimens of this classification all bear signs of as the handle, were in general use among western having been chipped or pecked into shape with great tribes where they may have originated. This proba­ care. The bit end is shaped to a dull prong symmet­ bility may tend to explain the reason why such clubs rically placed, while the head is usually nondescript are relatively scarce in the Northeast. It may fur­ in form. Their weights range from 4 to 5 ounces, and ther suggest a chronological position for them in they are made of rough stone material such as basalt, the Ceramic period when economic contacts with the basonite, quartzite, quartz or pegmatite. West had probably become more frequent than may have been the case in earlier archaic ages. Of No mention by early commentators is made of course, the fine thread sewing and preservation of such tomahawks, and it is probable that they had gone rawhide covering of the Norris Bull specimen sug- out of use long before the discovery of America. That TOMAHAWKS OF CENTRAL NEW ENGLAND 35 they belong to an earlier age may be postulated from CHIPPED HATCHETS the appearance of a well made specimen (Fig. 18, #4) This kind of tomahawk is frequently encountered in in tailings at the Wilbraham steatite quarry. This most collections and seems to have been a prevailing club is meticulously made with perfect symmetry type during perhaps a long period of cultural develop­ and exhibits better workmanship than is the case ment. Evidence is based on 43 specimens most of which with most quarry picks. It is thought, therefore, to weigh from 3 to 8 ounces, although there are several be a club and not a pick. Furthermore, it is made of which are somewhat heavier. They are usually made basalt and may have been brought to the quarry from of either basalt, fine grained hard granite, felsite, some Connecticut Yalley camp site where this stone basonite, quartz, quartzite or pegmatite. In some re­ is readily procurable. It shows little or no wear as spects, their shape resembles that of ground edged contrasted with most quarry picks. It weighs 5 stone hatchets as well as of metal ones. Trait resem­ ounces, has well defined chipped notching for a side blances are to be found in relatively wide, somewhat haft, and probably represents a tomahawk of the convex edged blades with either pointed or tapering Stone Bowl period that had become lost at the quarry. heads. They usually have small proportions, but with Further research may also place pronged blades in sufficient weight to ensure an efficient short handled the Ceramic-Agricultural period that followed. club. Of particular note is a large well-shaped speci­ men made of red felsite that weighs a pound or more. It forms a part of the Richardson collection, has deep side notches for hafting centrally located, and seems to have the appearance of a club that may have been used as a battle ax. Some clubs from this class, as in ex­ hibits (Fig. 19, #3-5) are made of stones with natural shapes so near to that desired as to have required but little chipping. The cutting edge of all these clubs is left dull, apparently with the idea of killing by concus­ sion and not by incision. Only one specimen from the chipped hatchet eVid~nce was recovered by excavation (Fig. 19, #3), and thiS 3 appeared at the Potter Pond site in Rhode Island in the upper cultural zone, accompanied by cerami~ and agricultural traits. Since accumulated strah­ fied evidence is not yet available, and since surface finds represent nearly all recoveries up to date, it is obviously too early to try to assign chipped hat­ chets to any particular age. However, the Potter Pond excavated specimen as well as surface finds that are frequently encountered associated with material from the Ceramic-Agricultural period sug­ gest coexistence with the last cultural era.

In the Richardson collection are 17 small artifacts, which have the appearance of having been shaped to 4 resemble tomahawks, but which neither have the weight, quality of stone, nor the workmanship to justify their inclusion with mature war clubs. The five illustrated specimens weigh only 1 to 2 ounces a piece, while all others in this group of artifacts are likewise relatively light weight with only a few exceptions. Chipping technique is rudimentary, while shapes simulate those of larger and better made clubs. Stone material from which they are made is confined to rocks of a somewhat friable na­ ture, such as sandstone, shale, schist, unselected granite, and fire hardened clay. Side notches are of small proportions as if to accommodate small sized handles.

When collections are classified, care should be used to differentiate between these small ineffec­ FIGURE 19. Chipped Hatchets. 1,2,4,5, Connecticut tive clubs and those with more mature traits. The Yalley; 3, Potter Pond, R.I.; 6, Taunton; 7, Tiverton, R.I. former should probably be considered as toy clubs 36 MASSACHUSETTS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY: BULLETIN outside of logs when making dugouts:

"Their cannows be made either of Pine-trees, which they burned hollow, - cutting their out­ sides with stone-hatchets." 11

Hence, small stone axes, which in Wood's day were called hatchets, were wood cutting implements. No mention is made by Wood or others of stone toma­ 2 hawks. Nevertheless, history is clear in acknowledg­ ing the existence of certain kinds of clubs that were used as weapons, but only those that were in use when Europeans first arrived. From this it should foilow that people who fought with clubs in the 16th and 17th Centuries, did so probably because it was a well es­ tablished custom handed down as a cherished heritage 3 from earlier days. Hence, it seems probable that stone implements, revealed by archaeology as toma­ hawks did exist in prehistoric days although they have not been specifically identified in the past.

From excavation information that has reached the 5 author's attention, tomahawks first occur in the Stone 4 Bowl age, in which one has appeared with a pronged blade. Pronged tomahawks may have been followed by chipped hatchets that appear in the Ceramic­ FIGURE 20. Toy Clubs. 1, Swansea; 2,5, Portsmouth, Agricultural era. By then, trade contacts with the R. I. 3, Dighton; 4, Assonett. West had become more numerous with some infiltra­ tion of western ideas. Stone ball-headed clubs could have originated from such contacts and might have that may have been made as playthings for children. been used to some extent in the age preceding the In fact, those weighing only an ounce a piece would coming of Columbus. However, when European ex­ have been more suitable, it would seem, for very plorers finally arrived this type of club had apparent­ young rather than for older children. The existence ly gone out of use. To judge from early historical of such toy clubs should prove of considerable inter­ reports, it had been replaced in those days by stone est, since it suggests that they were probably in­ pronged and plain wooden clubs with a wooden knob at spired by a war conditioned society in whatever age the end. With the introduction of European iron hat­ they were made. chets in the 16th Century, probably in small amounts to start with, Connecticut Valley natives developed CONC LUSIONS what appear to be stone imitations made from small thin basalt slabs indigenous to that region. These ThiS investigation has attempted to correlate his­ ground edged stone hatchets apparently served so torical and archaeological evidence. The result pur­ well as substitutes that they became prized posses­ ports to show the existence beyond a reasonable doubt sions and sometimes were buried with the dead. of stone war clubs of various kinds, which were re­ Weather spalled basalt, often in nearly the desired ferred to in historic days as tomahawks by Algon­ shape, probably inspired this invention after the kian peoples of the Atlantic seaboard. Seven differ­ shape had once been set by European hatchets. The ent types have been delineated in this paper with some Colonial period followed with quantities of iron hat­ reference being made to their probable chronological chets of English, French and Spanish make finding position in cultural sequence. However, more work their way into the hands of the Indians. As was uni­ in the field must be done before reliable cultural re­ versally the case with most European trade goods lationships may be established. when supplied in quantity, iron hatchets quickly re­ placed other types of stone and wood tomahawks. In approaching this research, it has been necessary They soon became the recognized war club for those to acknowledge the existence of stone clubs that dis­ natives who lived close enough to be influenced by play traits differing from those ofaxes~ The latter, early Colonial contacts. it would seem, have characteristics that fit them more for cutting wood than for use as war clubs, and Toy clubs simulating various shapes of tomahawks. historical evidence lends support to this belief. In were evidently made as playthings for children, who 1634, William Wood speaks of small stone axes being used for cutting wood, namely that of trimming the 11. Wood, 1897, p. 96. This journal and its contents may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. ©2010 Massachusetts Archaeological Society.

TOMAHAWKS OF CENTRAL NEW ENGLAND 37 probably aped the actions of their elders. Only a few blades were sometimes used. Whatever the weight, ounces separate these toys from maiure war clubs, a weapon of such importance as the tomahawk that which many times seem to have been preferred in could mean life or death by a mere twist of the wrist light weights. However, toy clubs may be identified would undoubtedly have been carefully constructed to by their small proportions, rude manufacture, and meet certain requirements depending upon its end friable stone from which they are usually made. use. For this reason, fighting clubs that were intend­ ed for action in war may have had small proportions While the high frequency of light weight toma­ to permit them to be swung here and there without hawks found in various collections would seem to in­ fatigue, while for ceremonial purposes larger clubs dicate preference for small sized clubs, heavy weight or more elaborate maces might well have been used.

Attleboro Museum Attleboro, Mass. August 7, 1950

BmLIOGRAPHY

Boas, Franz (editor) Hodge, Frederick W. (editor) 1927. Forty-fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of 1912. Handbook of the American Indians North American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institu­ of Mexico, (Bulletin of the Bureau of tion, (Washington, D.C.). American Ethnology, Number 30, pts. 1 and 2, Washington). Church, Thomas 1867. The History of the Great Indian War of McCulloh, J. H., Jr. 1675 and 1676, Commonly called Phillip's 1829. Researches Philosophical and Antiquarian, War, (Boston). Concerning the Aboriginal History of America, (Baltimore). De Forest, John W. 1851. History of the Indians of Connecticut from Willoughby, Charles C. the Earliest Knowp Period to 1850, 1935. Antiquities of the New England Indians, (Hartford). (Cambridge).

Fowler, William S. Wood, William 1946. Stone Age Methods of Woodworking in the 1898. New England Prospects, (Boston). Connecticut Valley, (Bulletin Archeologi­ cal Society of Connecticut, Number 20, New Haven).

AN UNUSUAL BURIAL AT PLYMOUTH Char les F. Sherman

While digging several test pits on the property of Mr. William Armstrong on Nook Road, Plymouth, Mass., three members of the Massasoit Chapter, Messrs Charles Sanderson, Richard Bent and Wil­ liam Whiting, came upon the lower bones of a human skeleton. The test pits was immediately refilled and marked for future attention. On April 3rd, the Chapter Chairman Charles F. Sherman, and Mr. Jesse Brewer repaired to the site prepared to excavate the burial in a proper manner. Control was established by staking a square seven feet on each side so as to include the burial shaft.

At a depth of thirty inches from the present sur­ face the skeleton of a young adult (30 to 35 yrs) was found in a flexed position. The skeleton was orientated in a north-south line, the crania to the north facing west. The upper arms were close to the rib cage with the hands close to the facial bones, the legs had been so flexed that the bones of the feet lay near the pelvis. The upper bones of the skeleton, including FIGURE 21. Photograph of burial. This journal and its contents may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. ©2010 Massachusetts Archaeological Society. 38 MASSACHUSETTS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY: BULLETIN the crania, were in fair to good condition, the smaller the skeleton had been placed in the grave shaft much bones including the vertebrae were in an advanced as one would place the sticks in laying a camp fire, state of disintegration. Dentition was very complete, at a depth of thirty inches from the present surface. the lower incisors being malformed and twisted in Above these were the pelvis, crania, and other large their sockets. bones. All were badly charred by fire, several badly worn teeth, presumed to have come from this skeleton, Three inches to the east of the occipital of the indicate the age of the individual as middle or old adult. first crania were found several lumbar vertebrae of a second skeleton. This burial had been greatly dis­ The fill removed from these grave shafts contained turbed by the digging of a post hole. The mold of this a number of European contact materials, sherds of post was very distinct, about six inches in diameter, glazed pottery, glass and the like. Approximately extending from a point eight inches below the present thirty inches from the graves a trench-like pit, filled surface to a point below the level of the burials. Two with clean white sand, was discovered. From this pit human teeth were found in the fill about the post mold. were recovered several stone projectile ·points, frag­ Twelve inches from the pelvis of burial one, parts ments of clam shell, and several hand forged iron nails. of a third skeleton was discovered. This burial was Charles F. Sherman of the type rare in this section of New England, a partially cremated bundle burial. The long bones of Plymouth, Mass.

POTTERY TYPES OF CENTRAL NEW ENGLAND William S. Fowler

(Read before a Meeting of the Eastern States Archaeological Federation Oct. 14, 1950)

The geographical area referred to in this report Because of this somewhat interrupted homogeneity is that part of central New England that lies in Mas­ of ceramic growth, pottery types probably persisted sachusetts between the Connecticut River Valley and longer in some regions than in others. For this rea­ the sea coast including Nantucket and Martha's Vine­ son, only stylistic changes that are found to be yard, as well as a small extension south into Connec­ Significant factors in pottery development through­ ticut to include South Windsor and the Ragged Moun­ out the area should probably be considered diagnostic. tain site, and a continuation southwest along the coast While design elements are contributing indices, of Rhode Island to embrace the Potter Pond site in throughout a changing habitat of seashore and uplands South Kingston. Since aboriginal culture develop­ they vary somewhat with the environment and fail ments were delimitated by such agents as mountain to provide reliable evidence for chronological barriers, water courses and movements of peoples, groupings. it is not strange to find pottery types overstepping state boundaries. In fact, there is every reason to In 1948 Ripley P. Bullen classified pottery types believe from a limited amount of evidence so far re­ of eastern Massachusetts with particular reference vealed that central New England pottery styles not to evidence from certain Andover sites, (American only reach into northern Connecticut and Rhode Island, Antiquity, Vol. 14, No.1). Subsequently, the Massa­ but extend north into southern parts of New Hampshire chusetts Archaeological Society published its concep­ and Maine as well. By this it is not meant to infer tion of a classification of some Massachusetts pottery, that pottery development throughout this entire area (Massachusetts Archaeological SOCiety, Bulletin, Vol. was homogeneous and without variation. On the con­ 10, No.1). In view of these classifications already trary, much diversification is noticeable, but with it accomplished in some completeness, the question all there are well defined evolutionary trends that may well be raised at this time as to what more can have much Similarity. These lead to the belief that be added. social contacts within this area during the ceramic age were sufficient to diffuse pottery inventive tech­ Aside from any personal views which may disagree niques, although possibly to a diminishing degree on with those formerly presented, two recent excava­ the perimeter at points where outside culture pres­ tions - the Ragged Mountain site in Connecticut and sure was the, strongest. In other words, ceramic in­ the Potter Pond site in Rhode Island - have produced ventive ability is quite evident in New England and new evidence that may now be used in the classifica­ exhibits creations of its own, but when subjected to tion of pottery. Accordingly, an effort has been made outside pressure from other culture centers - prin­ not only to clarify past procedure so that it will con­ cipally from the west and north - is effected stylis­ form to recent discoveries, but new traits have been tically with subsequent changes noted in pottery added with emphasis placed on major rather than development. minor variations as determinants of temporal changes. POTTERY TYPES OF CENTRAL NEW ENGLAND 39

It should be stated here that pottery types from South treated as modifying trends and not as important pe­ Windsor and Ragged Mountain are so similar to riod criteria. Classification and identification of those of the Connecticut Valley of Western Massachu­ pottery types for the regional New England area as setts as to justify inclusion of these sites in this re­ outlined in this paper would seem to fall within four port. Further, it may be stated that Potter Pond well defined evolutionary stages: Early, Intermediate, site exhibits comparable pottery traits to those of Late Prehistoric, and Historic, which now will be Massachusetts shore sites and therefore has also discussed in relation to ceramic traits that appear been included. When taken together, both inland and most diagnostic in each period. coastal pottery types have some traits in common, which are the basis of this report. The Early stage embraces pottery, probably the earliest in New England, which seems to have re­ In the light of Potter Pond evidence, there is no placed steatite stone ware (Ref. Potter Pond site evi­ longer any doubt as to the chronological position of dence). Ceramic pots of this period have conoidal that kind of pottery that is maleated both sides and bases, straight necks with occasionally slight con­ resembles Ritchie's Vinette Iof New York State. striction, roughly rounded rims, thick ware with At this Rhode Island site it occurs at the lowest coarse mineral temper, coiled construction, and ceramic level in crushed shell. This overlies black walls that are maleated both sides with cord-wrapped habitation accumulation heavily laden with fragments paddling. No designs are present, and traits appear of steatite bowls, among which appear relatively to simulate Vinette I pottery. When constricted necks small implements clearly identifiable as steatite occur, they are not without precedent for a steatite working tools comparable to finishing tools from thin walled neck sherd with well defined constriction steatite quarries. A small percentage of steatite has appeared at the Oak lawn steatite quarry in Rhode sherds, most of which have perforations for re- Island. Apparently, stone vessels with constricted pair strapping, occur in the crushed shell in associa­ necks were made on occasion by stone cutters of the tion with early pottery sherds but without steatite preceding stone bowl age. This evidence seems to working tools. This trait association of the two support the belief that a genetic link exists between wares seems to suggest for the crushed shell zone a the stone bowl and ceramic periods. transitional period between steatite and ceramic economies, when with the introduction of pottery, In the Intermediate stage, which probably lasted a stone bowls ceased to be manufactured but continued long time, appears evidence that connotes inventive in use as heirlooms. Between this early ceramic ability with much design variation. This age seems zone and the top of the shell where pottery of Mohawk to have been one in which the conception of pottery influence appears is an intermediate horizon from utilization was the same as at first. However, there which a large majority of all recovered sherds have appears to have developed a determined effort to come. These furnish valuable evidence of the middle produce more beautiful vessel shapes by increasing periods and exhibit contemporaneous designs, sur­ neck constriction and at times by undercutting bases face treatments, body shapes, and base styles. more sharply. Of particular note is the wide use of designs for neck adornment as well as the diversifi­ While these events were taking place in Rhode cation of design elements, partly due perhaps to en­ Island, Ragged Mountain site in northern Connecticut vironmental conditioning of pottery marking equipment. was yielding typological ceramic evidence that has While there is some evidence to suggest the existence contributed somewhat toward the establishment of of an attempt to conform to set designs, it is probable pottery types for central New England regions. Ce­ . that competition between potters produced variation ramic evidence from this site consists of sherds . to a considerable extent. Therefore, when classifying from six small pots, four from the second and two pottery types, attempting to establish design sequence from the third ceramic period. It comes from the seems inadvisable. Nevertheless, in this stage it is upper zone as at Potter Pond, and none occurs in the important to recognize the widespread creative effort lower zone in association with steatite domestic that conditioned potters for the stylistic improvements traits. that were to come. Vessels of the second period have conoidal bases, and either straight or constricted A synthesis of these finds with other available necks usually with flattened rims that are decorated, evidence previously studied suggests four stages of sometimes rounded, and occasionally with projecting pottery development attended by Significant modifica­ lips. Ware is from 1/4 to 3/8" thick, medium to tions in vessel construction, styling and embellish­ coarse mineral or shell temper with coiling some­ ment. These three major indices when taken togeth­ times indicated. Body walls are now and then finished er typify the activities of each respective stage. For smooth both Sides, at other times, interiors are every stage there undoubtedly is an early and late smooth or stick-wiped with exteriors cord-wrapped aspect when potters altered techniques and design paddled. Sometimes both sides are stick-wiped while treatments to conform to new inventions or diffusive necks are usually left smooth under design treatments ideas. Therefore, in this report these aspects are in most cases. Occasionally bodies are shortened by 40 MASSACHUSETTS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY: BULLETIN sharp undercutting below shoulders. However, all except for Deerfield, Westfield and one or two other vessels small and large, so far as is known, have Connecticut Valley sites that lie in the vicinity of two conoidal bases in spite of body shortening. Charac­ well known overland Indian trails to Mohawk territory, teristic designs that customarily adorn the upper other sites have not produced pure Mohawk pottery, part of the neck include the following motifs: rocker­ so far as is known. The stated exceptions with sherds stamp (infrequent); dentate jabs repeated in lines of typical Mohawk pottery may suggest Mohawk occu­ made with a toothed marker to form overall effects; pation for extended intervals at these places. From dentate single horizontal rows, sometimes under a these contacts could have stemmed some of the dif­ row of punctate impressions; push-and-pull horizon­ fused Mohawk influence noted in pottery from adjoin­ tal linears, and four to six line vertical linear trail­ ing regions. Most pots of this last period have col­ ings probably made with a toothed stick that is also lars, some deeply undercut and others with less pro­ employed at times to wipe the inside or outside walls; nounced neck constriction. Imitation of Iroquoian scallop shell horizontal bands, or irregular markings; pottery traits is suggested but with deficiencies of finger nail jabs (infrequent); cord-wrapped-stick workmanship in some particular not ordinarily found overall impressions from coastal sites; single her­ in pure Mohawk ware. Furthermore, native design ringbone dentate horizontal band from Connecticut elements tend to include variations and do not seem Valley sites. to hold to set patterns as do their New York State prototypes. Historic native ware is relatively thin, In the Late Prehistoric stage semi-globular bases apparently not coiled, and with fine mineral or shell are introduced although conoidal bases are still in temper. Pots have globular bases and often are evidence to a diminishing extent. It is at this time capped with collars either narrow or broad with that Owasco design elements from New York State moderately undercut necks, and sometimes with cas­ are discernible at several locations, notably in the tellations. Decorated nodes may have been used by Connecticut River Valley, although they are by no native potters at times, although usually this type means confined to this area. Vessel construction em­ of decoration is absent. Body walls are smooth on braces ware 1/4" thick or less with fine mineral or both sides with decorations covering the collars, al­ shell temper, and apparently without cOiling. Necks though occasionally ornamentation extends on to the are seldom straight, more fx:equently constricted, necks. Decoration is frequently by incision with a sometimes to an extreme degree, with rims rounded stylus, although at times it seems to be made by a or flattened, usually with pr'Jjecting lips and decora­ rough thin edged tool that is repeatedly pressed into tion. At times, dendate stamping is used to form in­ the paste to form lines. Design elements embrace cipient collars by means of pressure. Body walls motifs that are placed below or between two and are smooth inside and usually are maleated outside three line horizontal linears in some cases. They by cord or fabric-wrapped paddling while necks are include chevron and diamond variations, sometimes generally smooth. Design embellishment has the with filled-in incised horizontal lines, also numerous following motifs: incised two line linear "Vs" some­ geometric figures, which often appear in some con­ times with horizontal incised linear bands; incised fusion. Fine examples of native historic pottery in cross-hatch; corded-stick plats running obliquely un­ restorable condition have been recovered not only der or between corded-stick horizontal linear bands; from the Connecticut Valley but also from the closely spaced up-to-lO teeth dentate vertical im­ coastal area of Cape Cod. These vessels exhibit a pressions deeply pressed into the neck to form an in­ high degree of manufacturing skill and closely simu­ cipient collar above, which is also ornamented; and late Mohawk technique. compact dentate herringbone motifs (infrequent). Evidence from the third stage is relatively sparse Massachusetts Society Museum compared with the first two stages. This suggests either limited activity or a short time span before Attleboro, Massachusetts ceramic art flowered out into the fourth and final stage when Mohawk- Iroquoian technique exerted a September 7, 1950 marked influence over the work of New England potters.

In the Historic fourth stage, pottery types show the effect of Mohawk styling and technique. However, This journal and its contents may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. ©2010 Massachusetts Archaeological Society.

GEOLOGY AND ARCHAEOLOGY: PARTNERSHIP WITH PROFIT Joseph H. Hartshorn

This paper has a threefold purpose: (1) to give a such a chronology is through geology and closely al­ brief review of the mutually beneficial relations be­ lied sciences such as geophysics and geochemistry. tween archaeology and geology, (2) to discuss briefly A detailed geologic study of the Pleistocene geology the aids which geology brings to archaeology, and in a given area is basic and essential to fixing the age (3) to mention the role that geology is playing in the of a given cultural horizon. unraveling of the problem at the Titicut site. The study of the stratification, or stratigraphy, of The heart of geology is stratigraphy, the detailed a site is one of the means of control for the relative study of sedimentary deposits, the determination of dating of artifacts. The archaeologist is capable of the natural sedimentary units, their geographic dis­ noting changes in color, textures, and structure of tribution, and their relative ages and relations to the materials exposed in his trench, but from this other formations. The best places to study stratigra­ point on he runs into the fringe area between the geo­ phy are in the trenches cut by earth processes, val­ logical sciences and archaeology. Fossil pollen, fos­ leys, ravines, gorges, Grand Canyons. Here the sil mammals, fossil invertebrates, and charcoal all geologist finds a cross section of the earth's history present problems for the speCialist in these particu­ revealed; here the geologist can study the composi­ lar studies. Indeed, the study of sediments is par­ tion of the rocks, can interpret their mode of deposi­ ticularly the field of the geologist, in particular of tion, and can draw conclusions about the environment that one branch of geology called sedimentary petrog­ of past ages. From anyone place which has been raphy. thoroughly studied in all of its aspects--paleontology, lithology, structure--the geologist can extend his At this point the archaeologist becomes part of an studies to other localities. Eventually, through the interdisciplinary group which aims at one point-­ efforts of many workers over many years, a se­ the environment of the past. The geologist is per­ quence is built up which-can be recognized elsewhere, haps the most generally useful member in this study where rocks of anyone age can be correlated with because his science is founded on most of the other rocks of similar age and their relationships noted. basic SCiences, but many natural science disciplines are necessary. The analogy to archaeology is immediately appar­ ent. The archaeologist, however, like the Pleistocene An example of such an interdisciplinary work geologist, must depend on himself to provide the familiar to all of us was carried out under the direc­ trenches with that peculiarly Pleistocene implement-­ tion of F. Johnson, of the Peabody Foundation for the shovel. Even though the archaeologist's primary Archaeology, in the writing, editing, and publication interest may be in the artifacts present in the site, of the two papers on the Boylston Street Fishweir. he must study carefully the stratifiCation present in It is surprising to note that seventeen workers col­ the walls of his trench. That is to say, he must study laborated on those two reports, not including those the stratigraphy of the site, choosing carefully the who were consulted but did not participate in the writ­ limits between different soil types, noting the com­ ing of the report. These seventeen workers repre­ position and grain size of the soils and underlying sented five major branches of endeavor, geology, deposits, tracing the limits of the various soil units, zoology, botany, chemistry, and archaeology. and attempting to interpret the past archaeological environment. One of the pitfalls of this cooperative type of study has become apparent in the last year or so. If any The prehistoric archaeologist is the one with one technique of dating is too complex for the ordinary which we are mostly concerned here, that is, one worker, then a super-specialist must be called in whose efforts are directed to a study so far back in to render service. If this process is peculiarly tech­ time that the records and traces of ethnology have nical in that it requires a man of high intelligence been erased and all that is left is what a paleontolo­ and learning to operate it successfully, then this one gist would call the "hard parts," the virtually inde­ process is relegated to the part of a servant instead structible tools, and with luck, hearths and fireplaces. of a contributor. There must be a reCiprocal rela­ tionship or the group work will fail. The prehistoric archaeologist has time as his ma­ jor problem--the establishing of a relative or abso­ To be of the greatest value, geologists and ar­ lute chronology. At present the only approach to chaeologists should work together, so that one may

41 42 MASSACHUSETTS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY: BULLETIN check the excesses of the other. If an inferred geo­ tion flows all leave a characteristic imprint on the logical date appears quite unreasonable, or is unsat­ deposit they make. The measurement of length, isfactory to the geologist, then perhaps the typology width, and thickness of a pebble and the calculation known by the archaeologist to exist in neighboring of a ratio from these measurements has provided an regions may help in solving the problem. index which will show whether pebbles are marine, glacial, or fluvial in origin. Orientation of the long But the geologist should beware of depending sole­ axes of the pebbles in a deposit, and the angle of in­ lyon artifacts which appear to be dated and correlat­ clination of the long axes also provide a means of ed. As Dr. Hallam Movius1 has stressed in a recent differentiating between the various agents of sedi­ paper, man's artifacts are the imperishable parts of mentation. a complex culture and are social rather than natural phenomena. Hence a geologist cannot use man's cul­ The methods of study of pebbles as outlined above tural objects as he uses fossils for relative dating are simple, requiring only Simple instruments, but and correlation, for artifacts are not fossils, although the study of sands and smaller grain sizes requires they seem to have much in common with them. special devices, such as optical microscopes, Sieves, balances, etc. Since some period of training in the In a jOint study of a prehistorical site an archaeol­ use of these instruments is necessary, the archaeolo­ ogist should accept the geologist's chronology. If the gist must turn to the geologist or his laboratory as­ geologist is a well-trained man, the archaeologist sistant for help in analysis, after which a geologist cannot consider himself qualified to assess the geolo­ or sedimentologist must aid in the interpretation of gist's results. Having received the age of a culture the derived facts. horizon from the geologist, the archaeologist should use this age as a basis in interpreting his material. There are many avenues of approach to the study This does not say that the geologist is infallible, but of the finer-grained sediments, The mineral com­ merely points up the fact that each is best in his own position of sands gives their provenance or place of profession. derivation. Heavy mineral studies present a further refinement of provenance studies. Granulometry, as The portion which follows will attempt to mention it is termed in Europe, is the study of the distribu­ some of the methods used in geological-archaeologi­ tion of the various grain sizes in the sample. Here cal problems elsewhere, and which are in use in the we call it mechanical analysis and find it useful in local problem, Titicut. the interpretation of the environment of deposition. With statistical indices derived from graphic plots In the Old World geologists and prehistorians have of mechanical analyses we are enabled to compare worked together for a long time. In the New World large suites of samples for a common origin. The not many studies have been published in which there study of quartz grains in the sand will show whether is a cooperative effort between the two diSCiplines, or not the wind played a large part in the formation geology and archaeology. Perhaps the late Kirk of the deposit. Inclusions in quartz and other min­ Bryan of Harvard was the leading exponent and chief erals may playa part in provenance studies in the geological practitioner of the art; others have made future, similar studies, and many of these have been students of Bryan. Leaving the methods used by geology in the study of the environment of deposition of sedimentary de­ In France these cooperative studies have been car­ posits, we turn to the general conditions necessary ried out for a very long time. Most of the chronolog­ for dating an archaeological site. ic information has come from vertebrate paleontolo­ gy, especially the study of mammals. Further paleon­ tologic studies being pressed at the moment which As noted in the Lindenmeier report by Bryan and are of practical interest to the archaeologist include Ray,3 a number of conditions must be met if a cultural Foraminifera, Diatoms, and Paleobotany, especially horizon is to be dated by geologic means: (1) .the cul­ pollen analysis. tural objects must be associated with a definite bed or beds; (2) these beds must be related to some defi­ Pedology, the study of soils, has received much nite geologic event; (3) this event must be related to attention, especially since the study of clays by x-ray other events or be of wide geographic extent: (4) this and thermal analysis has been introduced. event and related events must also be related to some known geologic chronology, Sedimentary petrology has proved of great impor­ tance in France under the leadership of Andre Gail­ These conditions seem to be fulfilled at the Titicut leux.2 His studies include all manner of unconsoli­ Site, for here the culture horizon is associated with dated sediments, from gravels to clays. He finds a white sandy layer which is overlain by a yellow that the wind, glacial ice, rivers, waves, and solifluc- sand divided into two portions on the basis of color. GEOLOGY AND ARCHAEOLOGY: PARTNERSHIP WITH PROFIT 43

The horizon on which the culture rests--the white the hearths which are resting upon the white sand sand-- must be traced to or in some manner correlat­ and are covered by a sterile layer. ed with some local geologic event. This local chap­ ter in the history of the region must be correlated The location and distribution of the material is with some event of a larger nature--the regional such that it indicates to the archaeologists that the glacial history of the area. The ultimate limit to the level on which the hearths were found was once an work at Titicut depends on how far afield the culture exposed surface. F. Johnson believes that the ar­ layer or time equivalents of the culture layer can be chaeologists will be able to show that the lower level traced. Unless the important culture horizon can be is a buried horizon, and that the material from the correlated with larger events in the area, the dating lower level has certain typological peculiarities of the site will be very loose. which set it off from the materials in the upper level.

Tieing in a sequence from a site in New England to The problem submitted to the geologist is three­ a larger sequence involves many assumptions which fold; the identification of the surface, the determina­ are generally assumed to be true, but which are not tion of the process which resulted in the burial of the strictly proven. This refers especially to the as­ surface, and the geologic stage during which the sur­ sumed world wide contemporaneity of glaciation. face was exposed. Most authorities agree that the larger stages of the Pleistocene are essentially synchronous; that is, that From the evidence which has been gathered thus the North American stages Nebraskan, Kansan, Illi­ far, it seems that the means of solving the problem noian and Wisconsin are equal to the European Gunz, are present. The job is gathering the proper and Mindel, Riss, and Wiirm. But man in North America necessary items and interpreting them correctly. appears to fit into the various substages of the Wis­ consin; these substages are more or less dated in The methods which are being employed at the mo­ Europe by varve counts and pollen work, but are not ment are primarily those of glacial geology and sedi­ as well dated in North America. One of the leading mentation. First is field work to gather the facts glacial geologists, Flint, refuses to admit that the and next is laboratory and office work to supplement substages of the Wisconsin in Europe can be proved these facts and to interpret them. The field work in­ to be synchronous with the substages of the Wiscon­ volves the mapping of the various kinds of glacial sin on this side of the Atlantic. However, Bryan and and glacial-fluvial-lacustrine deposits, such as till, Ray have discussed the problem of correlation of the gravel, sand, and clay, and also mapping their mode last substages of the North American and European of deposition or morphological expression, such as glaciations and come to the conclusion that it is pos­ esker, delta, kame, etc. When all the facts have been sible to correlate them. gathered an attempt can be made to synthesize the material and build up a logical sequence of events in Here, in the abstract and the general, is the way the area, which includes the area between Taunton in which geology and archaeology work together to and Middleboro on the south, and between East Bridge­ decipher the prehistory of man. From the abstract water and the west end of the Hockomock Swamp on let us go to the specific to discuss an area in which the north. the above mentioned conditions are nearly fulfilled, where a coalition between the two sciences is at work, The general glacial geology of the area is being Titicut. studied so that the relation of the sequence at the site to the general picture can be determined. A The excavation of materials from the site at Titi­ brief description of the glacial geology around Taun­ cut was as expected at first~ Artifacts were found ton and to the west of the site may be enlightening. in the loam and in the layer known as the yellow soil, The area to the west of the site was chosen for the along with hearths, a house floor, pits, and other evi­ first work because it is generally known that the ice dence of human occupation. This material was nor­ sheet approached from the northwest, hence it was mal and posed no new problems concerning chro­ believed that more vital information concerning the nology. site lay to the west.

The finding of material lower in the glacial se­ There are a few bedrock outcrops in the area. quence was quite unexpected. Arrowpoints, bits of These outcrops are of a dark gray conglomerate or charcoal, and hearths were found sparsely distributed sandstone, the sandstone containing pebble bands on or very near the surface of the white sand. This which help to determine its structural attitude. It is material was separated from that in the upper level believed that the bedrock may be holding up some of by a sterile layer from 6-20" thick. There was no the hills.of till in the area. There is one quarry indication of any interruption of the overlying layers where till has been removed from the surface of the and it is impossible to hold that the artifacts are not bedrock; on this bare surface are found striations, in situ. Probably the most conclusive evidence is large grooves left by the ice in its southward journey. 44 MASSACHUSETTS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY: BULLETIN

The direction of the grooves is roughly northwest-­ mostly of gravel and sand. In general aspect it re­ southeast, or in alignment with the esker·s and drum­ sembles a railway embankment. It is more or less lins which are found in the area. agreed by geologists that eskers are the deposits of glacial streams confined by a wall of ice in tunnels The glacial deposits in the area have been classi­ and left as ridges when the ice disappears. The most fied as follows: direct deposits from the ice, ice common mode of origin is in tunnels formed at the contact deposits, fluvial deposits, and eolian deposits base of the glaCier, during a late phase in the de­ and associated features. glaCiation when the ice is relatively thin and nearly stagnant. Since they are formed by streams it is not The direct glacial deposits are those which were surprising to find that the eskers, which represent laid down by the ice itself. The only deposit of this the bed load, have a stream pattern with tributary kind is till. Till is an unsorted sediment, consisting streams running into a major stream trending paral­ of an extremely heterogeneous mixture of particle lel to the direction of ice movement. In the area sizes ranging from clay to boulders as large as a studied thus far there are three chains of eskers. small cottage, its composition reflecting all the The most easterly chain studied is the one which cul­ rocks which the ice has passed over in the area to minates in the ridge to the west of the Titicut site. the north, with the nearest rocks contributing the There appears to be a curious relationship between most material. The till grades into material which the eskers and the land immediately to the west of has been washed by running water in the process of each esker. The sandy sediments west of each esker deposition, and thence into fluvial deposits. The chain appear to be banked up against the esker in a gradation is gradual from till untouched by meltwater peculiar fashion, so that whereas the west side of the to the gravels which are laid down in the streams esker may be only ten feet above the surrounding running from the melting ice. In the middle of the land, the east side of the esker may be from ten to gradational series there is an area where it is diffi­ thirty feet high. cult if not impossible to know what to call the mate­ rial. The till of the Taunton region is mostly blue Kames are mounds or hillocks of sand and gravel, gray to gray, sandy, and somewhat coarse, with an stratified material, sometimes deformed, which ap­ apparent dearth of clay size materials except where pear to be produced by the debouching of streams the till is laid down close to present day outcrops of into standing bodies of water appearing between bedrock. The till then appears blue-black and clayey. stagnant and broken ice blocks. They mostly occur as isolated hills. There seems to be two distinct lines The till occurs in four types of features. It ap­ of kames present, one just south and one just north pears in drumlins or drumloidal hills which are of the town of Taunton, running northeast-southwest­ similar in composition and origin to the hill appear­ The largest hill of the kind is Prospect Hill, 210 ing all through the Boston Basin. These are elongate feet high, which overlooks Lake Sabbatia and is com­ hills, probably with a bedrock core, their long axes posed of sand and gravel all the way to the top. The are oriented in the same direction as the striations crest of Prospect Hill gives us a minimum figure for mentioned above. The second feature in which till the height of the ice sheet at this point. appears is in the long low hills which appear to have been covered with water laid material deposited aft­ There is one outstanding and perfectly formed er the hill. An example of this is the small eleva­ delta, on the east side of Pine Swamp, just north of tion which starts where Route 138 rises out of the Taunton. It has a very steep slope on the back or Hockomock at the Raynham Dog Track. There is north Side, an ice contact slope, and a lobate front 0 ground moraine between the drumlins and in the with fore set beds dipping about 25 • An ice block southwestern part of the area, west of Taunton. seems to have been standing for a long time in the This till is covered by a sandy material thought to be area now occupied by the Pine Swamp, and a lake a windblown deposit. The last and most unusual oc­ whose surface was about 80 feet above present sea currence of the till is in several sand and gravel level and whose area is at present unknown must have pits south and east of Taunton, where the till can be occupied the area to the south and east. One of the found over lying bedded sand deposits. eskers described above approaches the delta from the rear but does not reach it; it is possible that this The next major group of deposits includes the ice is the stream which formed the delta. contact sediments. These sediments were laid down next to or under the ice, not compressed by it, but In support of the statement that the feature is formed by the agency of running water. During for­ really a delta are the lake beds found in the lowland mation of ice contact deposits the sediments have ice in front of it. The town of Raynham installed a water walls on one or more sides. supply system and the pipe ditches showed many cross sections of the lake bottom. It is composed of One of the interesting types of ice contact deposit a clayey-silty material with overlying coarse and is the esker, a long narrow winding ridge consisting fine sand. GEOLOGY AND ARCHAEOLOGY: PARTNERSHIP WITH PROFlT 45

To the south of the lake bottom some varved The ventifacts are found in the loess-like mate­ clays are found. There clays have annually recur­ rial, in the till, and in the sands of the site Itself. ring layers of coarse and fine material and require None of the ventifacts collected show the beautiful fresh water for their formation. They may be the faceting which is characteristic of some of the Cape southward extension of the lake. These clays are Cod ventifacts, but many show the peculiar cello­ also overlain by sands which have southward dipping phane-like polish given by wind blasting, others espe­ bedding. There are other laminated clays underly­ cially the coarse-grained pink granites, show excel­ ing the area to the east, and these can be traced up lent differential etching in which the hard glassy quartz the Taunton River to the Titicut site itself. stands well above the softer feldl>par which has been more readily removed by the wind-borne dust. The fluvial deposits are indicated by the gravels and sands which show distinct signs of current bed­ At the site itself much information has been col­ ding, and these overlap into the kames mentioned lected, both by the members of the Massachusetts above. When all available information about size of Archaeological Society who have regularly carried materials and distribution of the gravels and sand out excavating there and by the geologists. However, has been collected in the field, then the laboratory most of the material is not yet synthesized, and until work begins and profiles of the kames and gravel out­ it is most of the information is valueless. Samples crops are drawn so that stream grades may be recon­ of the material have been taken and analysed for structed and the path of the ancient glacial streams grain size and various statistical methods used in made known. These maps of the ancient stream pat­ their study. The study of the glacial materials is far terns are then employed in an attempt to decipher from finished. Even the relation of the sequence at the history of the region. the site to the general glaCial sequence is unknown.

The wind-blown deposits and ventifacts of the re­ A few things are known, however. With no knowl­ gion indicate the last events prior to recent incision edge of the typology or prehistory of New England, of the present day streams. and ignorant of the date when the first human beings are supposed to have come into the area, I find my­ In the classic definition loess is a nonstratified, self without prejudice in attempting to put a geological loose, porous, sedimentary deposit consisting domi­ date on the site. From the data so far collected, and nantly of particles of silt size. It is derived by the especially from some facts gathered at the site I am wind from the outwash plains in front of glaciers. led to think that the site will prove to have been in­ The wind picks up the material after the daily floods habited at a very early date. I am sure that the have gone down and spread the dust over the land­ climate at the time of occupation was different from scape in the direction of the effective prevailing that of the present, or was closely followed by a radi­ wind. In the Taunton area the loess-like material cal change in climate. The one set of facts which is modified by several agencies. According to the makes this a plausible statement is the presence of few analyses made the material is mostly sand and large and undoubted ventifacts in the upper horizons very little silt. This means that the source of the of the terrace at Titicut, lying on the culture hori­ material was very close by, and that the mode of re­ zon. This must indicate a much colder and drier treat of the ice was such as to preclude long trans­ climate than that which exists in the area today, for port and sorting of the material. Moreover, the wind­ at present no stones are being cut, no sand is being borne material has been mixed with the glacial blown about. The people who inhabited Titicut must fluvial material beneath and the silt size proportion­ have lived there prior to or contemporaneous with ally diluted. Wind-carved pebbles, the ventifacts, are a foul and bitter climate. The last episode during found in this wind-borne material. which this occurred is at least many thousands of years ago.

BmLIOGRAPHY

1. Movius, Hallam L., Jr., (1949) "Old-World 3. Bryan, Kirk, and Ray, L. L. (1940) "Geologic Palaeolithic Archaeology," Bulletin of the Geo­ Antiquity of the Lindenmeier Site in Colorado," logical SOCiety of America, Vol. 60, pp. 1443-1456. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 99, no. 2. 2. Cailleux, Andre, (1946) "Application de la petro­ 4. This paragraph and the three following are extract­ graphie sedimentaire aux recherches prehistor­ ed from a letter to the author from Frederick iques," extrait de la Societe Prehistorique Fran­ Johnson of Peabody Museum, Andover, 1948. caise, no 5-6. 1946, 10 pp. •

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