Single and Double Sexual Standards in , Estonia, and St. Petersburg

Elina Haavio-Mannila The University of , Finland Osmo Kontula The Family Federation of Finland

The sexual revolution and fight for began in the West during the 1960s but did not reach the Soviet Union until the late 1980s. Using survey data from nationally representative samples from Finland in 1971, 1992, and 1999 and from two former Soviet areas, Estonia in 2000 and St. Petersburg in 1996, we investigated the following: (a) differences across decades and countries in acceptance of the sexual double standard (SDS) in attitudes toward marital infidelity and women's initiating sex; and (b) the relationship between the SDS and sexual satisfaction. Results show that Finland in the 1990s was more egalitarian than Finland in 1971, St. Petersburg in 1996, or Estonia in 2000. Egalitarian sexual attitudes were positively related to sexual satisfaction.

SEXUAL STANDARDS similar men and women are in sexual response and func- tioning (Irvine, 1990). Centuries of written history of Western societies document The advent of more individualistic values and more that women and men have been treated differently in sex- equal standards for men and women is related to socioeco- ual matters (Tannahill, 1981). Usually, women but not men nomic developments. Individualism and relaxation of the have been pressured to remain virgins until marriage and requirement of virginity in brides correlate with high to abstain from sexual activities after divorce or the deaths Gross National Product (GNP; Hofstede, 1998). Growing of their spouses. This inequality in sexual standards for affluence provides women with more educational opportu- men and women is referred to as a sexual double standard. nities. start circulating more freely, and they have A sexual double standard is a dual set of moral standards more opportunities to meet boys. Increasing affluence also for males and females, usually with stricter standards gives people more living space and privacy. Medical care applied to females, especially for premarital virginity and and information improve, including information on con- for what is considered acceptable sexual behavior traception. Young people get more opportunities for sexu- (Francoeur, Perper, Scherzer, Sellmer, & Cornog, 1991). al exploration, and sexual norms adapt to this situation. Williams (1987) suggested that, historically, these dif- ferent sexual standards originated from women's value to THE SEXUAL REVOLUTION IN THE WEST men as property and objects of exchange. To preserve their value, it was viewed as essential that girls and women pre- Increasing affluence, along with secularization and urban- serve their virginity before marriage. Monitoring of vir- ization in industrialized Western countries in the 1960s, ginity and chastity served to protect young women from gave rise to a sexual revolution. This revolution drew unwanted pregnancies, to ensure that they married men attention to the sexual activity and satisfaction of women, from their own social class or clan, and to preserve family lead to increased sexual knowledge, and introduced mod- honor (Siann, 1994). ern sexual values. These included the right of women to In the 19th century the sexual differences between obtain pleasure from sex (Barbach, 1975). women and men became a legitimate subject of scientific In welfare states such as Finland, where the government inquiry. This perspective is typified by researchers like provides an array of services for its population and inequal- Havelock Ellis, who considered female sexuality to be ity of income is low by international comparison, a coun- weaker, less fulfilling, and more passive than male sexu- try's growing GNP can provide benefits for the whole pop- ality. In contrast, modern sexology since the Kinsey era ulation. Finland's basic institutions have supported sex edu- has stressed the ideology of gender similarity. Scientists, cation in the schools, gender equality in laws and norms, most notably Masters and Johnson, have emphasized how discussions of sexual issues in the media, highly trained family planning services, and easy access to sexual health services. In such a society, many barriers to sexual satisfac- The data collection for this study was financed by the Finnish Ministry of Social Affairs and Health, the Academy of Finland, and privately by Elina tion are eliminated. Kontula and Kosonen (1994, 1996) sug- Haavio-Mannila (in Estonia). No commercial or interest groups provided finan- gested that the lively discussion of sexuality and gender cial support for the studies. issues in the Finnish media since the 1960s contributed to Address correspondence to Elina Haavio-Mannila, Department of Sociology, University of Helsinki, Unioninkatu 35, P.O. Box 18, Fin-00014 Helsinki, the increase in women's sexual satisfaction in the 1970s and Finland; e-mail: [email protected]. to the increasingly similar sexual expectations of men and

The Journal of Sex Research Volume 40, Number 1, February 2003: pp. 36-49 36 Haavio-Mannila and Kontula 37

women in Finland as reported in sex surveys (Kontula & ninity and masculinity and to improve interactions Haavio-Mannila, 1995). between men and women. Demographers and pedagogues One achievement of the sexual revolution was the insti- devised pronatalist "sex role socialization" classes. tutionalization of public sex education and information. In Women and men were instructed that being a cultured, many countries in northern Europe, particularly , moral person required them to realize the dictates of their gender-equality-oriented sex education had already started gendered nature. Sexual moral education texts launched in the 1950s, earlier than in the United States and Canada vivid attacks on emancipated (used pejoratively to mean (Bergström-Walan, 1965; Linn6r & Litell, 1967). In the autonomous, ambitious, and assertive) women. At the mid-1970s, when the U.S. was experiencing the sexual same time that the women's movement in Western Europe revolution, a Hood of "how-to" books accompanied the and North America seized upon images of sexual equality, rather sudden lifting of the veil of human sexuality (Phelps and egalitarian relations between men and women became & Austin, 1988, p. 142). Barbach (1975) advanced the popular among university-educated groups, Soviet experts concept of personal liberation for women as sexual human were attempting to encourage traditional interactions beings. Menand (1997, p. 27) wrote, "The pop ideology of between the sexes by modifying girls' and women's the sexual liberation was that . . . women enjoyed sex as behavior (Rivkin-Fish, 1999, p. 804). much as men, and in the same way as men were imagined Before the 1990s, the Soviet Union had no formal fam- to enjoy it — that is, actively, and without guilt." ily or sex education. Abortion was almost the only avail- Sexual relations between the sexes were expected to able method to prevent pregnancy (Kon & Riordan, 1993). reflect equal respect and concern for the differing sexual The risk of pregnancy was so great that Russian women needs of men and women (Hearn & Morgan, 1990). Some could not enjoy the same degree of sexual freedom as survey research in the U.S. has indicated a decrease in, if women in many Western countries did. At the end of the not disappearance of, the traditional sexual double stan- 1980s, Gorbachev's policy of glasnost led to the liberal- dard (Sprecher & McKinney, 1993). However, ization of the printed word, and such topics as abortion, Muehlenhard and Quackenbush (1988), using their Sexual birth clinics, contraceptives, and young people's sexuality Double Standard Scale, found that female college students entered into public debate (Kon 1995, p. 267). still held this standard to a certain degree, and they thought that their male sexual partners held it to an even greater SEX RESEARCH IN THE BALTIC REGION degree. A conditional double standard was found to oper- The 1990s saw a growing interest in both ate at least under certain circumstances, such as in casual and sexual science in cross-cultural comparisons. National relationships (Sprecher & McKinney, 1993). sex surveys were conducted in many Western countries (Gronow, Haavio-Mannila, Kivinen, Lonkila, & Rotkirch, THE DEMOGRAPHIC CRISIS IN THE SOVIET UNION 1997; Haavio-Mannila & Kontula, 2001; Haavio-Mannila The Soviet Union was geographically close to this Western & Purhonen, 2001; Hubert, Bajos, & Sandfort, 1998; sexual reform, but because of much slower economic Kontula & Haavio-Mannila, 1995; Laumann, Gagnon, development and public restrictions on the distribution of Michael, & Michaels, 1994; Lewin, Fugl-Meyer, Helmius, new sexual knowledge, Russian women missed their Lalos, & Månsson, 1998; Spira, Bajos, & the ACSF Group, chance to join the progress toward gender equalization in 1994; Wellings, Field, Wadsforth, & Johnson, 1994). The sexual matters. Compared with the West, in Soviet coun- specific aim of these surveys was not to study gender tries there was not much evidence of a sexual revolution at equality or sexual double standards as such; however, sur- the end of the 1960s or even in the 1970s. Indeed, sexual vey results indicated the presence of different sexual stan- patterns in Soviet countries have only gradually shifted in dards for men and women in these societies. the Western direction (Kon, 1995; Liljeström, 1995; This new wave of national sex surveys gave us a chance Rotkirch, 2000). to study whether sexual double standards still exist and The "demographic crisis" detected in the early 1970s whether there are differences in sexual standards between in the European regions of the USSR (low fertility and northern Europe and some adjacent areas of the former high divorce rates) was interpreted by the scientists and Soviet Union. In this paper, we analyze the following: (a) their bureaucratic colleagues to reflect a breakdown in the existence of sexual single and double standards in mar- family values, attributed largely to women's participation ital fidelity and in initiating sexual activity in Finland, in the labor force. Early socialist ideals concerning the Estonia, and St. Petersburg; and (b) their relation to sexu- need for gender equality were now viewed as misguided, al satisfaction in these societies. We hypothesized that and the policies that resulted from the concept of there would be less evidence of a double standard in women's emancipation were blamed for having brought Finland than in the two former Soviet areas, where the the nation to the brink of a population catastrophe Western type of sexual revolution did not emerge until the (Rivkin-Fish, 1999, p. 804). late 1980s. We also hypothesized that adherence to a sin- By the mid-1980s, discourses in the USSR had begun to gle sexual standard in marital fidelity and women's initia- promote family life and traditional gender roles. tion of sexual contacts would generate a higher level of Pedagogical campaigns were launched to cultivate femi- sexual satisfaction, especially among women. Our results 38 Sex Standards in Finland, Estonia, and St. Petersburg are based on an analysis of sexual attitudes and behavior in In 1999, a mail survey with m_ostly the same questions each national group according to gender, age group, and, was conducted in Finland. We received 1,496 responses for Finland, decade in which the data were collected. (from persons ages 18-81 years), corresponding to a response rate of only 46%. To compare these results with METHOD those in the other surveys, people older than 74 years were excluded. Thus we analyzed here only data given by 1,432 Participants respondents to the 1999 survey. Because the data were We studied six populations as represented in three Finnish weighted by age and gender, the demographic structure of samples in 1971, 1992, and 1999; one native Estonian and the data represents that of the original sample. The Finnish one native Russian sample in Estonia in 2000; and a sam- 1999 data do not appear to be very biased due to low ple of residents of St. Petersburg in 1996. The samples response rate. By analyzing the distributions of several were drawn at random from national population registers identical retrospective questions measuring sexual issues in Finland and Estonia and from the voting register of St. in different generations, Kontula (2001) was able to show Petersburg, and they were representative of the total popu- that the low response rate in 1999 did not have a major lations within the age range chosen for each study. impact on the results from the sexual histories of those In 1971 in Finland, the interviewers were local public who were less than 55 years old. In the 55-74 age group, health nurses who were paid for this extra work. In 1992 the male respondents were more monogamous than the the surveys were conducted by trained interviewers of corresponding birth cohort interviewed in 1992. Statistics Finland (the government's central office of statis- In St. Petersburg, the data were obtained in a similar tics). In St. Petersburg and Estonia, interviewers were manner as in Finland in 1971 and 1992. Each respondent employed by market research organizations Gallup St. answered general questions orally in a face-to-face inter- Petersburg and Emor (Estonian Gallup). The researchers view and then completed the intimate part of a paper-and- participated in the training of the interviewers in Finland pencil questionnaire by himself or herself. The number of and St. Petersburg. Most of the interviewers were middle- the respondents was 2,081 and the response rate was 60%. aged women. There was no matching of the interviewers to The respondents were found to be representative of the the respondents based on gender or other variables. general population in regard to gender and age. In Estonia, Initial contacts with potential respondents differed in the market research organization Emor carried out so- the different surveys. In Finland, press conferences were called Omnibus surveys, sampling the permanent residents organized in 1992 and 1999. The researchers distributed of the Republic of Estonia (ages 15-74) twice a month. announcements of surveys, and some radio stations and Each time the sample size was 500 persons. The sex sur- newspapers published news of the forthcoming research. vey was repeated five times in May to August, 2000. The In 1971 and 1992, the respondents were sent a letter before interviewers took the questionnaires to the respondents, an interviewer made personal contact with them. In 1999 who completed and returned them to Emor. Of the total the whole survey was conducted by mail. In St. Petersburg sample of 2,500 individuals, 1,031 (41%) returned the and Estonia, personal contact by an interviewer was not questionnaire. preceded by press conferences or letters sent to the poten- Emor used a two-staged stratified sampling method to tial respondents. To reduce the potential influence of obtain a sample representative of people throughout taboos against open discussions of sexual matters, the Estonia in both rural and urban areas, and weighted the titles of the studies indicated that they also covered other sample to be nationally representative by gender, age, type aspects of life in addition to sexuality. For example, the of settlement, and nationality. The sociodemographic 1992 Finnish study was entitled "A National Survey of structure of the sample was compared with that of the pop- Human Relations, Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles" ulation; the data were then weighted to ensure the repre- (Kontula & Haavio-Mannila, 1995). sentativeness of the sample. (More detailed information on The questionnaires were translated from Finnish into the sampling, interviewing, and questionnaires is available Russian by a Finnish translator working on our project in Haavio-Mannila & Kontula, 2001; Haavio-Mannila, (Satu Tihverä) and checked by sociologists at the Kontula, & Kuusi, 2001; Haavio-Mannila & Rotkirch, European University in St. Petersburg (Anna Temkina and 1998; Kontula & Haavio-Mannila, 1995; & Sievers, Elena Zvadromyslova). The translation into Estonian was Koskelainen, & Leppo, 1974.) made by Emor and checked by an Estonian medical doctor The total number of respondents under the age of 74 living in Finland who had previously done sex research years was 8,946. The number of men was 3,711 and that of (Krista Papp). women was 5,233 (there was no information on the gender In 1971, 2,152 Finns (ages 18-54 years) completed face- of two persons in St. Petersburg). to-face interviews during which each interviewee also com- Measures pleted a self-administered questionnaire. The response rate was 91%. In the 1992 survey, the data collection method In this article, we analyzed gender equality in sexual atti- was identical; the number of respondents was 2,250 (ages tudes and sexual behavior on three dimensions: marital 18-74), corresponding to a response rate of 76%. fidelity, initiation of sexual contact, and sexual satisfac- Haavio-Mannila and Kontula 39

tion. Attitude questions were presented to all participants Attitudes toward initiation of sexual contact by women in the study. We asked only married and cohabiting per- (AIW). We studied these attitudes using the following sons to respond to questions about fidelity (summarized in statement: "Women have the right to take the initiative Table 6). Questions on sexual initiative and satisfaction when they want to have sexual contact with men." The five were posed to people having experienced sexual inter- response alternatives ranged from absolutely disagree (1) course as defined below (summarized in Tables 8 and 9). to absolutely agree (5). Although there was no parallel The questions referred to both heterosexual and homosex- question about whether men have the right to initiate sex- ual activities. ual contact with women, we assume that most people Attitudes toward marital fidelity of husbands and wives afford this right to men. and the sexual double standard or single standard. These Actual taking of sexual initiative by women. Actual tak- attitudes were assessed using responses to two statements: ing of sexual initiative by women, as opposed to attitudes "One should find the temporary unfaithfulness of a hus- toward it, was measured only in Finland. The question was band acceptable" and "One should find temporary unfaith- "Which of you took the initiative in your latest sexual fulness of a wife acceptable." The five response alterna- intercourse?" The response alternatives were as follows: I tives ranged from absolutely disagree (1) to absolutely did more, partner did more, we both did equally, and can- agree (5). not remember. Cannot remember answers were treated as To study whether respondents held similar standards or missing data. This variable is not directly related to the double standards for husbands and wives, these scores sexual double standard, but it is interesting because it were compared. If the scores given for husbands and wives relates to the variable measuring attitudes toward women's differed, we concluded that a sexual double standard exist- initiative in sexual contact. ed, giving more sexual freedom to a husband (male double The perceived quality of sexual intercourse. We assessed standard, MDS) or a wife (female double standard, FDS). whether perceived quality of sexual intercourse was related If the infidelity of husbands and wives was rated as equal- to egalitarian attitudes about marital fidelity and sexual ini- ly acceptable, we concluded that a single sexual standard tiative. It was measured by the question, "Has the inter- (SSS) existed. In some analyses (e.g., the percentage dis- course you have experienced mostly been very pleasurable, tributions in Tables 4 and 5), we conceptualized sexual fairly pleasurable, neither pleasurable nor unpleasant, standards using three categories: the MDS, SSS, and FDS. rather unpleasant or very unpleasant, or is it difficult to For other analyses (e.g., the analyses of variance in Tables evaluate?" If the quality of intercourse was "difficult to 3 and 5), we conceptualized sexual standards a dichoto- evaluate," the response was coded as missing data. mous: Accepting a single sexual standard (SSS) was com- pared with accepting a sexual double standard (MDS and RESULTS FDS). Being more accepting of infidelity by husbands than Analyses by wives (MDS) was compared with the SSS and FDS; being more accepting of infidelity by wives than by hus- In this article, we present means or percentages, their bands (FDS) was compared with the MDS and SSS. standard deviations, the effect size of gender (d), and the Actual infidelity. We studied actual infidelity, as distin- statistical significance of the gender difference for each guished from attitudes toward infidelity, with a question indicator according to gender, age (three groups: 18-34, posed to presently married or cohabiting people in Finland 35-54, and 55-74 years, except for Finland 1971, where in 1992 and 1999 as well as in Estonia and St. Petersburg. data are not available for the oldest age group), and The question was "Have you had parallel sexual relation- research time or site (six groups: Finland in 1971, 1992, ships during your present marriage or cohabitation?" The and 1999; Estonians in Estonia; Russians in Estonia; and respondents were asked if they had had sexual intercourse, St. Petersburg). The effect size is the difference between defined as "sexual interaction in vaginal intercourse, hav- the mean scores of the group with the greater score and ing oral sex or stimulation by hand" with people other than the group with the Tower score, divided by the pooled their spouses or partners. standard deviation. Effect sizes of .80 or greater are often In the 1971 Finnish questionnaire, there was no explic- considered large, those around .50 medium, and those it definition of sexual intercourse. Probably most respon- around .20 small (Cohen, 1969). We used analysis of vari- dents reported only vaginal intercourse. In this early sur- ance (ANOVA) to test the significance of the effect of the vey, the question did not specify for people having had independent variables. In the tables, F and p values are several marriages which marriage they should be reporting presented. on. Consequently, some respondents may have reported For the six research groups we use the term national unfaithfulness in a previous marriage. We have combined group or nationality even though Finns in all three surveys these people with those having had affairs during their pre- were of the same nationality. The term Estonian is used for sent marriage because in 1971, very few ever-married native speakers of Estonia, and the term Russian in Finns (5.3%) had been married more than once. Thus the Estonia is used for native speakers of Russian. The name number of people who may have been reporting affairs of the country, Estonia, is used in referring to both lan- during an earlier marriage is probably very small. guage groups. Russian is also used here as a synonym of

40 Sex Standards in Finland, Estonia, and St. Petersburg

inhabitant of St. Petersburg and is not representative of the Male infidelity was found most acceptable in St. Petersburg, whole population in Russia. whereas female infidelity was found most acceptable among Attitudes Toward Infidelity Finns in 1971 and among Russians in Estonia. The national groups showed within-subject differences Attitudes toward marital infidelity of husbands and wives with regard to the impact of gender on attitudes. The inter- were mostly negative (see Tables 1 & 2). With the excep- action between nationality and gender was fairly large, tion of men in St. Petersburg, only one fifth of the especially for male infidelity (see Table 3). Finnish women respondents rated the temporary infidelity of either a hus- in 1999 were less accepting of temporary infidelity by a band or a wife to be acceptable. In St. Petersburg, 51 % of husband than were any of the other groups (see Table 1). the men rated a husband's temporary infidelity as accept- There was also a significant interaction between gender able. More Estonian and St. Petersburg men than women and nationality in the attitudes toward female infidelity. found male infidelity acceptable. The attitudes toward Attitudes toward infidelity by a wife varied by gender the infidelity of a wife did not vary much by gender (see more in Estonia, St. Petersburg, and Finland in 1999 than Table 2). Differences between the age groups were rela- in Finland in 1971 and 1992 (see Table 2). Also, the d val- tively small. Middle-aged and oider people were more ues in Tables 1 and 2 show that gender differences in the accepting of infidelity than were younger people. attitudes toward infidelity were larger in St. Petersburg and The national differences in people's reactions toward Estonia than in Finland. In Finland, gender differences infidelity of either spouse were larger than age differences. were a little larger in 1999 than earlier.

Table 1. Gender Differences in Men's and Women's Acceptance of Temporary Infidelity by a Husband, by Nationality and Age Group Men Women Men Women Men standard Women standard Age group N N mean deviation mean deviation d Finland 1971 18-34 644 638 2.91 1.33 2.65 1.42 .19 35-54 437 406 2.69 1.35 2.46 1.38 .17 Total 1,081 1,044 2.82 1.34 2.57 1.41 .18

Finland 1992 18-34 407 396 2.15 1.07 2.10 1.17 .04 .50 35-54 468 441 2.42 1.27 2.40 1.28 .02 .08 55-74 225 305 2.32 1.23 2.38 1.43 .04 .29 Total 1,100 1,142 2.30 1.19 2.29 1.29 .01 .05

Finland 1999 18-34 222 214 2.16 1.22 1.70 .97 .41 18.5*** 35-54 302 297 2.64 1.29 2.07 1.22 .44 31.6*** 55-74 169 210 2.45 1.24 2.27 1.26 .14 1.9 Total 693 721 2.44 1.27 2.02 1.18 .34 42.1***

Estonian in Estonia 18-34 105 118 2.96 1.13 2.35 1.24 .53 14.8*** 35-54 110 129 3.11 1.19 2.46 1.16 .55 18.5*** 55-74 81 92 2.83 1.17 2.50 1.30 .29 3.5 Total 297 338 3.00 1.16 2.43 1.22 .47 34.3***

Russian in Estonia 18-34 47 60 3.46 1.14 2.38 1.38 .76 18.7*** 35-54 60 81 3.67 1.11 2.76 1.32 .68 18.7*** 55-74 21 38 3.52 1.21 2.58 1.50 .64 13.4*** Total 147 196 3.57 1.12 2.58 1.39 .70 50.7*** St. Petersburg 18-34 307 374 3.44 1.19 2.34 1.33 .80 127.3*** 35-54 325 465 3.31 1.42 2.40 1.48 .60 75.8*** 55-74 163 299 3.17 1.46 2.40 1.46 .51 29.2*** Total 795 1,138 3.33 1.35 2.38 1.32 .65 218.9*** Note. These data summarize responses to the question, "One should find the temporary unfaithfulness of a husband acceptable." Response alterna- tives ranged from absolutely disagree (1) to absolutely agree (5). Table entries present the Ns and means for men and women, effect sizes for gender (d), and the statistical significance of gender differences (F and p values). *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Haavio-Mannila and Kontula 41

Table 2. Gender Differences in Men's and Women's Acceptance of Temporary Infidelity by a Wife, by Nationality and Age Group Men Women Men Women Men standard Women standard Age group N mean deviation mean deviation Finland 1971 18-34 644 638 2.91 1.33 2.65 1.42 .00 0.3 35-54 437 406 2.69 1.35 2.46 1.38 .04 0.3 Total 1,081 1,034 2.58 1.34 2.54 1.42 .03 0.5 Finland 1992 18-34 407 396 2.16 1.07 2.10 1.17 .09 1.3 35-54 468 441 2.42 1.27 2.40 1.28 .00 0.0 55-74 225 306 2.24 1.23 2.23 1.42 .01 0.0 Total 1,100 1,143 2.31 1.25 2.27 1.32 .03 0.7 Finland 1999 18-34 220 215 2.04 1.14 1.76 1.02 .26 7.3** 35-54 302 297 2.54 1.29 2.16 1.30 .29 12.8*** 55-74 169 209 2.35 1.23 2.25 1.27 .08 0.5 Total 692 720 2.33 1.25 2.07 1.23 .21 16.2*** Estonian in Estonia 18-34 105 118 2.58 1.15 2.28 1.18 .29 3.5* 35-54 109 128 2.76 1.27 2.46 1.15 .29 4.8* 55-74 78 92 2.58 1.15 2.39 1.29 .15 1.0 Total 292 337 2.65 1.19 2.36 1.19 .25 8.8** Russian in Estonia 18-34 47 60 2.61 1.43 2.43 1.43 .12 0.4 35-54 60 80 2.80 1.37 2.55 1.32 .19 1.2 55-74 33 53 3.11 1.48 2.58 1.44 .37 3.7 Total 140 193 2.81 1.42 2.49 1.38 .20 4.1 St. Petersburg 18-34 309 372 2.24 1.33 2.47 1.34 .18 4.7* 35-54 331 457 2.09 1.31 2.61 1.48 .36 26.2*** 55-74 163 298 1.95 1.37 2.36 1.45 .28 8.8** Total 805 1,127 2.12 1.33 2.50 1.44 .27 34.4*** Note. These data summarize responses to the question, "One should find the temporary unfaithfulness of a wife acceptable." Response alternatives ranged from absolutely disagree (1) to absolutely agree (5). Table entries present the Ns and means for men and women, effect sizes for gender (d), and the statistical significance of gender differences (F and p values). *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

There were small significant interactions between Women favored a single sexual standard much more nationality and age group in predicting attitudes toward often than men did; this was the case particularly in St. male and female infidelity (see Table 3). In Finland in Petersburg (see Table 5). In all research groups, especially 1971, Estonia, and St. Petersburg, age differences were in St. Petersburg, men were more inclined to accept male small. In Finland in the 1990s, middle-aged people rated than female infidelity. Only in St. Petersburg did we find a infidelity by either gender as more acceptable than did gender difference that could be interpreted as being more young people (see Tables 1 & 2). accepting of female infidelity than of male infidelity: 22% of St. Petersburg women but only 4% of Russian men gave Single and Double Standards in Attitudes Toward Infidelity more sexual freedom to women than to men. As one could expect on the basis of these findings, the In the whole data set, 73% of the respondents demonstrat- interactions between nationality and gender in predicting ed a single sexual standard (SSS), giving identical ratings sexual standards were statistically significant. The gender to infidelity by husbands and wives; 18% demonstrated a differences in all age groups were larger in St. Petersburg male double standard (MDS), rating infidelity by husbands than elsewhere. as more acceptable than infidelity by wives; and 9% Age predicted sexual double standard to some extent demonstrated a female double standard (FDS), rating infi- (see Figure 1). In most groups, younger people were more delity by wives as more acceptable than infidelity by hus- likely to expect a single sexual standard than were older bands (see Table 4). people. There was an interaction between the effects of age

42 Sex Standards in Finland, Estonia, and St. Petersburg

Table 3. Effects of Gender, Age Group, and Nationality on Sexual Standards and Behavior Supports Accepts Accepts Sexual Female Male Unfaithful sexual infidelity infidelity single double during Finds sexual double initiative by by standard standard standard present by women intercourse Predictors husbands wives (SSS) (MDS) (FDS) union (AIW) pleasurable Corrected model 23.2*** 8.0*** 35.0*** 49.1*** 11.4*** 17.9*** 45.5*** 25.0*** Intercept 15,903.8*** 12,36.0*** 14,082.8*** 1,469.5*** 429.6*** 940.7*** 74,818.9*** 150,300.5*** Main effects Gender 152.0*** 4.6* 126.9*** 274.3*** 119.4*** 257.8*** 203.2*** Age group 6.4** 4.6** 12.3*** 5.9** 8.2*** 109.9*** 30.0*** Nationality 62.8*** 15.6*** 141.3*** 146.5*** 31.5*** 65.3*** 29.5*** Interactions Gender X Age group 1.9 2.1 7.7*** 2.2* .8 27.0*** 16.9*** Gender X Nationality 29.0*** 8.2*** 63.8*** 31.6*** 4.6*** 9.2*** 8.3*** Age group X Nationality 6.9*** 3.8*** 3.2*** 2.5** 2.2* 3.8*** 1.0 All three .4 1.8 2.2* 1.1 1.3 2.7** 1.7 R2 .078 .026 .114 .154 .038 .093 .144 .091 N 8,692 8,672 8,729 8,729 8,729 5,432 8,708 7,894 Note. The effects of gender, age group, and nationality were analyzed using analysis of variance. Table entries represent F values and their statistical significance (p values). *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

and nationality on SSS. In St. Petersburg and Estonia, hav- 9% in Finland in 1971, about 15% in Finland in the 1990s, ing a single sexual standard was less related to age than in and 23% in Estonia and St. Petersburg. Finland, where younger men were more likely to accept a Overall, more men than women reported that they had single sexual standard than were older men. been unfaithful. The effect of age group was also signifi- cant; in most national groups middle-aged people were most Actual Infidelity likely to report infidelity. The proportions of unfaithful peo- Based on our data, twice as many men as women reported ple differed in the six research groups. There was more that they had had a temporary or a permanent "parallel rela- unfaithfulness in St. Petersburg and Estonia than in Finland. tionship" during their present relationship (see Table 6). The The interaction between gender and nationality was signifi- proportions of the married or cohabiting men reporting infi- cant. Gender differences in infidelity were larger in St. delity were about one fourth in Finland in 1971, about one Petersburg and in Finland in 1992 than in the other groups. third in Finland in the 1990s and in Estonia, and about one People tend to adjust their behavior to their attitudes or half in St. Petersburg. For women, these percentages were vice versa, as we found in this study. Having a sexual dou- ble standard by accepting the infidelity of one's own gender

Table 4. Percentage of Men and Women Holding Sexual Double and Single Standards in Marital Fidelity, by Nationality and Gender Direction of Finland 1971 Finland Finland Estonian Russian in St. sexual standard (18-54 year oids) 1992 1999 in Estonia Estonia Petersburg Men Female double standarda 8 11 9 3 5 4 Single sexual standardb 70 77 76 73 58 38 Male double standard(' 22 12 15 24 37 58 Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 N 1,077 1,101 723 297 88 796

Women Female double standard 9 7 8 4 9 22 Single sexual standard 80 85 86 87 80 61 Male double standard 11 8 6 9 11 17 Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 N 1,032 1,144 757 458 162 1,120 Note. Within each gender, the distribution of sexual standards differed by nationality: For men, x 2(10, N = 1,077) = 630.0, p < .001; for women, x2(10, N = 1,032) = 308.2, p < .001. a Female Double Standard (FDS): Accepts infidelity by wives more than by husbands. b Sexual Single Standard (SSS): Equally accepting of infi- delity by husbands and wives. C Male Double Standard (MDS): Accepts infidelity by husbands more than by wives.

Haavio-Mannila and Kontula 43 Table 5. Percentage of Men and Women Endorsing Different Sexual Standards, by Nationality and Age Group 18-34 year olds 35-54 year olds 55-74 year olds Sexual standard Men Women Men Women F Men Women d Finland 1971 Male double standardi 20 8 .34 38.7*** 27 15 .29 17.9*** Single sexual standardb 74 85 .29 27.4*** 64 72 .17 6.4* Female double standard 6 7 .01 0.0 9 13 .12 2.8 Total 100 100 100 100 N 639 634 436 400 Finland 1992 Male double standard 7 4 .14 4.1 * 12 7 .15 5.2* 20 13 .19 4.6* Single sexual standard 84 90 .17 5.7* 75 84 .21 10.1** 68 81 .31 12.7*** Female double standard 9 6 .09 1.6 13 9 .13 3.8 12 6 .23 7.1** Total 100 1 00 100 100 100 100 N 407 396 468 441 225 305 Finland 1999 Male double standard 9 1 .34 12.7*** 13 3 .39 23.5*** 21 11 .26 6.5* Single sexual standard 86 94 .26 7.6** 78 89 .31 15.1*** 67 76 .19 3.5 Female double standard 5 5 .02 0.0 9 8 .04 0.2 12 13 .02 0.1 Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 N 220 214 302 296 169 209 Estonian in Estonia Male double standard 25 7 .50 14.5*** 22 7 .41 10.4*** 17 14 .07 0.2 Single sexual standard 71 91 .51 15.3*** 78 89 .27 4.5* 77 79 .07 0.0 Female double standard 4 2 .11 0.6 4 .28 4.7* 6 7 .01 0.2 Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 N 104 118 109 127 78 91 Russian in Estonia Male double standard 41 8 .79 19.7*** 47 11 .78 25.5*** 21 17 .10 0.2 Single sexual standard 55 77 .49 6.5* 53 84 .67 17.3*** 61 72 .20 0.8 Female double standard 4 15 .36 3.5 - 5 .29 2.8 18 11 .17 0.6 Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 N 47 61 60 80 33 53 St. Petersburg Male double standard 60 14 .96 202.2*** 57 16 .88 180.6*** 56 21 .74 66.7*** Single sexual standard 37 66 .88 62.8*** 39 58 .39 29.2*** 38 59 .41 18.4*** Female double standard 3 20 .74 45.9*** 4 26 .60 73.7*** 6 20 .41 18.4*** Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 N 307 371 325 451 163 297 Note. Table entries show the percentage of each group endorsing each sexual standard, the effect size for gender (d), and the statistical significance of the gender differences (F and p). Male Double standard (MDS): Accepts infidelity by husbands more than by wives. b Single Sexual Standard (SSS): Equally accepting of infidelity by husbands and wives. C Female Double standard (FDS): Accepts infidelity by wives more than by husbands. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

was related to actual unfaithfulness. Of the 764 men endors- Attitudes Toward Initiation by Women (AIW) ing a male double standard, 47% reported unfaithfulness during their present marriage or cohabitation, compared Attitudes toward women's right to take the initiative when with 30% of the 1,801 men endorsing single sexual standard they want to have sexual contact with men (AIW) varied and 33% of the 213 men endorsing a female double stan- according to gender, age group, and nationality. Men in all dard. For women, unfaithfulness was reported by 26% of groups supported the right more than did women them- the 360 FDS women, compared with 16% of the 2,344 SSS selves (see Table 7 & Figure 2). women and only 11% of the 313 MDS women. Sexual stan- Young people supported the idea that women should be dards had similar correlations with infidelity in ali age and able to take the sexual initiative more than did oider people. national groups. The interaction between age group and gender was fairly

44 Sex Standards in Finland, Estonia, and St. Petersburg

Figure 1. Percentages of men and women endorsing a Table 6. Gender Differences in Infidelity During Present Marriage single sexual standard, as a function of or Cohabitation, by Nationality and Age Group nationality and age group. Men Women Men Women Men Age group N d F 100 Finland 1971 18-34 320 389 25 9 .43 33.6*** Nl ge «, iii 35-54 383 340 22 9 .32 21.2*** Ml ei 80 illtm.fer* ... Total 703 729 22 9 .37 53.6*** ..., ...... „, .,■ -'°-.1.111"11-.1.111P.1111.1111t - ■ mos ... e .... e'llemkurz- . 1:1 11:1 Finland 1992 18-34 60. 219 246 29 17 .32 9.9** 35-54 392 342 45 15 .62 84.2*** 55-74 146 177 27 7 .54 25.7*** • 40 illeastseetg Finland 1971 Total 757 765 37 14 .52 115.2*** ostiro or • . ee ei 1 Finland 1999 Finland 1990s 20 18-34 111 119 19 12 .21 2.0 Estonia 35-54 240 236 39 21 .40 18.6*** 55-74 118 140 25 13 .32 6.6* St. Petersburg Total 469 495 31 17 .34 27.4*** 18-24 25:34 35-44 45:54 55-64 65-74 Estonian in Estonia Age Group 18-34 70 86 34 25 .21 1.6 35-54 91 95 32 28 .09 0.4 55-74 63 54 40 14 .57 10.1** Total 224 235 35 24 .25 7.1** Women Russian in Estonia 100 18-34 34 46 44 21 .49 5.1* ue_ 35-54 50 62 28 25 .00 .8 80 ,%. ,4i,al on.ii 55-74 36 18 40 8 .67 6.3* % ,..Nar % ...... i.' ....- " Total 120 126 36 21 .31 6.7* 1,....filitraftsetcaorfiese 60 , 4$ 1.!!:, St. Petersburg ellts.mees.,,P'' 18-34 148 214 50 27 .48 21.8*** Finland 1971 35-54 262 337 58 40 25 .67 74.3*** • n 1 55-74 131 161 44 15 .55 32.6*** Finland 1990s 111=1•11 Total 541 712 52 23 .58 123.3*** 20 Estonia Note. These data include only married and cohabiting people. Table 8'1111 entries present the Ns and percentages of men and women who report- St. Petersburg ed infidelity, effect sizes for gender 18-24 25-34 35:44 45:54 55-64 65-74 (d), and the statistical significance of gender differences (F and p values). Age Group *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

strong. Gender differences were smaller among younger Russians both in Estonia and in St. Petersburg were less than older people because, similar to men, younger women accepting. strongly supported the right of women to take the sexual initiative. Actual Initiation by Women (IW) Attitudes toward women initiating sexual contact varied Actual initiation of sexual intercourse by women (IW) was in the different national groups. Finns had a more positive studied in Finland only (see Table 8). In the combined attitude toward it than Estonians and Russians did. Gender male and female population ages 18 to 54, the percentage interacted with national group. Estonian men were almost of the sole male initiators declined from 49% in 1971 (N = as likely to support the right of women to take the sexual 1,904) to 37% in 1992 (N = 1,601) and 38% in 1999 (N = initiative as were Finnish men. 981), where N is the number of respondents in this age There was also an interaction between nationality and group. At the same time, the proportion of women who age group. Age differences in AIW were smaller in took the initiative in the latest sexual intercourse increased Finland than in Estonia and St. Petersburg. We also from 7% to 12% to 14%. The shares of equal initiative found an interaction among ali three independent vari- were 44%, 48%, and 45%, respectively. Two percent did ables-gender, age, and nationality-on AIW. Young not remember who had initiated the latest intercourse. The Estonians, particularly men, supported sexual initiative statisticaily significant relationship, F (1, 5,218) = 16.0, p by women as much as young Finns did, but young < .001, between the year of study (1971 vs. 1990s) and the Haavio-Mannila and Kontula 45

Table 7. Gender Differences in Acceptance of Women's Right to Take the Sexual Initiative, by Nationality and Age Group Men Women Men Women Men standard Women standard Age group N N mean deviation mean deviation d F Finland 1971 18-34 651 642 4.70 0.68 4.41 0.93 .35 40.2*** 35-54 445 402 4.47 0.85 3.79 1.30 .59 81.8*** Total 1,097 1,044 4.60 0.76 4.17 1.13 .44 108.8*** Finland 1992 18-34 407 396 4.68 .74 4.59 .69 .11 2.6 35-54 467 441 4.61 .79 4.36 .86 .30 20.7*** 55-74 224 304 4.49 .84 3.62 1.35 .70 72.3*** Total 1,098 1,141 4.61 .78 4.24 1.04 .39 87.4*** Finland 1999 18-34 222 214 4.88 .48 4.79 .51 .19 3.7 35-54 303 296 4.69 .68 4.53 .77 .22 7.7** 55-74 167 209 4.58 .74 3.94 1.13 .62 39.5*** Total 692 719 4.72 .65 4.43 .89 .38 48.2*** Estonian in Estonia 18-34 108 118 4.75 .58 4.37 .98 .46 12.4*** 35-54 110 130 4.62 .72 3.91 1.13 .70 32.7*** 55-74 82 90 4.48 .87 3.05 1.33 1.07 67.7*** Total 301 337 4.63 .72 3.84 1.24 .71 92.0*** Russian in Estonia 18-34 47 60 4.31 .94 4.21 .93 .10 0.3 35-54 60 81 4.48 .66 3.66 1.07 .82 27.3*** 55-74 39 52 3.82 .93 3.41 1.41 .32 2.4 Total 147 193 4.24 .87 3.77 1.17 .44 17.2*** St. Petersburg 18-34 310 374 4.36 .91 4.05 1.07 .30 15.6*** 35-54 330 467 4.26 1.01 3.99 1.17 .24 11.3*** 55-74 165 298 4.04 1.20 3.32 1.46 .51 29.4*** Total 805 1,138 4.25 1.02 3.84 1.26 .35 60.1*** Note. Responses to the statement "Women have the right to take the initiative when they want to have sexual contact with men" ranged from 1 (absolutely disagree) to 5 (absolutely agree). Table entries present means, standard deviations, effect sizes for gender (d), and the statistical signifi- cance of gender differences (F and p values). *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

female partner's participation in the initiatiation of the lat- course did not vary much according to age among men, est intercourse indicates a noteworthy shift in the gender but young women enjoyed intercourse more than oider roles in sexual intercourse. women did. The effect of nationality on sexual satisfaction There was an interaction between gender and AIW on was considerable. Sexual satisfaction was higher in women taking or sharing the initiative, F (4, 5,148) = 4.3, Finland than in Estonia and St. Petersburg. The interaction p < .002. Women who had a positive attitude toward of gender and nationality was statistically significant. women taking the initiative in sexual contacts more often Gender differences were higher among Finns in 1971 and reported having participated in the initiation of their latest among Estonians than among other groups. sexual intercourse; men's attitudes were unrelated to Having a single sexual standard predicted sexual satis- whether the women took the initiative. The result makes faction of both genders. The independent variables in the sense: Women who thought that it was acceptable for ANOVA included the three background variables (gender, women to initiate sex were more likely to do so. Men who age group, and nationality) and the participant's sexual thought that it was acceptable for women to initiate sex standard (dichotomized so that those supporting a single may or may not have had partners who did so. sexual standard, SSS, were contrasted with those support- Sexual Satisfaction and Sexual Standards ing a sexual double standard, either MDS or FDS). Results showed that SSS was significantly related to sexual satis- Men reported more pleasure from sexual intercourse than faction, F(1, 7,643) = 7.6, p < .006, even when the effects did women (see Table 9). Young people enjoyed inter- of gender, F(1, 7,643) = 292.5, p < .001, age group, F(2, course more than oider people. Satisfaction with inter- 7,643) = 50.8, p < .001, and nationality, F(5, 7,643) = 25.5, p < 2,065) =5.2formenand F(4, 2,085)=13.4forwomen (both ps<.001). IWincreasedthesexual satisfactionof nificantly predictedsexual satisfaction:Evenwhenthe and women.Theresultsof ANOVA showedthatAIWsig- influence having apositiveattitudetoward women'ssexualinitiative ed towomen'ssexualinitiativeonsatisfaction (not significantly increasedthe sexual satisfactionofbothmen tionship betweenattitudes(AIW)andpractices(IW)relat- initiative (eitheraloneorsharedwiththeirpartners) and studied inEstoniaandSt.Petersburg).Womentaking the in anygroup. .066). NosignificantinteractionswithSSSwereobserved 46 Figure 2.Men'sandwomen'smeanacceptanceof In Finlandinthe1990s,wewereabletostudyrela- Mean, Range 1-5 Mean, Range 1-5 2,8 3,3 3,8 4,3 4,8 2,8 3,3 3,8 .001, wereincludedintheexplanatorymodel(R 4,3 4,8 18-24 18-24 Age Group Women 4.•• • Age Group 1 Men . 1111111 111 aII* of IWwascontrolledfor,the from want tohavesexualcontactwithmen"ranged have therighttotakeinitiativewhenthey and agegroup.Responsestotheitem"Women sexual initiative(AIW),asafunctionofnationality .....•••., 911Ria• 25-34 25-34 absolutely disagree(1)toagree(5). •

I* ap

35-44 35-44 ir * • * N S ♦ 4 k • • 45-54 45-54 lbs 111.. f. • 55-64 55-64 T, -4 F 4 values wereF(4, 65-74 65-74

11111111 8..1 maa. we as 1 — • St. Petersburg Estonia Finland 1990s Finland 1971 St. Petersburg Estonia Finland 1990s Finland 1971 2 = ences inthesevariablesby gender, agegroup,andnation- ality. Wealso women's taking thesexualinitiative. were affectedbysexual standardsandsupportfor cohabitation, andattitudes andpracticesrelatedto women's takingthesexual initiative.Weexploreddiffer- toward maritalfidelity,actual faithfulnessinmarriageor Estonia, andFinlandin1971.Thisappliestoattitudes a moreegalitariansexualculturethanSt.Petersburg, survey resultsshowthatFinlandinthe1990srepresented (in 2000)andSt.Petersburg1996).Thecomparable Western countries.Wehavecomparedgenderequality in of the1980sbutnevergainedforcethatithadin the sexual patternsinFinlandatthreepointstime(1971, The sexualrevolution--thefightforfreedomand Summary ofResults gender equalityinsexuality—begantheWest the actual practices. 1992, and1999)intwoformerSovietareas,Estonia rights ofwomen(seeTable10).Sexualpleasure those womenwhowerenotardentsupportersofsexual course increasedparticularlythesexualsatisfactionof 1960s. ItreachedRussiaatthetimeofglasnost end seems tobelessdependentontheirattitudesthan when theeffectofIWwascontrolledfor(bothps<.001). 2,065) =11.7formenandF(1,2,085)172.2women women evenmorethanAIW:The Note. the womantooknoinitiativeinlatestintercourse. indicate thepercentageofparticipantswhoreportedthatwoman was eitherthemainoranequalinitiator,asopposedtoreportingthat Table 8.PercentagesofFinnishMenandWomen Participation intheinitiatinglatestsexualinter- Age group 55-74 35-54 55-74 35-54 Total 18-34 35-54 Total 18-34 Total 18-34 For thistable,women'sinitiationwasdichotomized;tableentries Age Group Latest SexualIntercourse,bySurveyYearand Reporting theWomanParticipatedinInitiating looked athowlevelsofsexual satisfaction Sex StandardsinFinland,Estonia,andSt.Petersburg Men 630 290 974 436 407 153 365 976 188 569 173 N DISCUSSION Finland 1999 Finland 1992 Finland 1971 Women 668 290 406 992 227 185 359 929 192 559 371 N F Men values wereF(1, 46 55 56 62 42 58 56 67 44 51 57 % Women 42 57 59 71 43 58 57 69 43 51 57 %

Haavio-Mannila and Kontula 47

Table 9. Gender Differences in Ratings of Pleasure During Intercourse, by Nationality and Age Group Men Women Men Women Men standard Women standard Age group N mean deviation mean deviation d F Finland 1971 18-34 574 563 4.38 0.56 4.10 0.68 .43 54.8*** 35-54 417 377 4.37 0.54 3.83 0.72 .78 141.7*** Total 991 940 4.37 0.55 3.99 0.71 .57 171.8*** Finland 1992 18-34 373 368 4.42 .54 4.37 0.58 .08 1.3 35-54 438 416 4.39 .52 4.20 0.60 .32 24.7*** 55-74 180 256 4.41 .59 3.92 0.77 .61 52.4*** Total 991 1,040 4.40 .54 4.19 0.66 .32 63.0*** Finland 1999 18-34 180 188 4.46 .57 4.40 0.61 .07 0.7 35-54 260 265 4.49 .55 4.24 0.68 .38 22.6** 55-74 125 161 4.32 .54 3.96 0.72 .55 19.7*** Total 565 614 4.44 .59 4.22 0.69 .34 37.3*** Estonian in Estonia 18-34 100 106 4.33 .58 4.05 0.69 .46 9.9** 35-54 110 129 4.20 .58 3.99 0.68 .35 6.3** 55-74 78 86 4.21 .76 3.76 0.68 .57 16.0*** Total 284 321 4.24 .64 3.95 0.69 .45 30.5*** Russian in Estonia 18-34 44 52 4.30 .59 4.11 0.73 .18 2.0*** 35-54 58 81 3.99 .70 3.96 0.60 .02 .8 55-74 39 52 4.41 .50 3.71 0.81 .89 19.7*** Total 147 185 4.20 .68 3.93 0.71 .32 12.5*** St. Petersburg 18-34 287 342 4.27 .71 4.21 0.73 .20 7.1* 35-54 317 445 4.27 0.65 3.96 0.70 .41 39.3*** 55-74 157 276 4.21 0.72 3.75 0.71 .60 41.4*** Total 757 1,063 4.26 0.69 3.96 0.72 .38 80.4*** Note. Participants were asked to rate the quality of the intercourse they had experienced, ranging from very unpleasant (1) to very pleasurable (5). Table entries present means, standard deviations, effect sizes for gender (d), and the statistical significance of gender differences (F and p values). *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Around one fifth of the total sample responded that one women. These attitudes also had practical implications. should be able to accept either a husband's or a wife's tem- Women who indicated their acceptance of women initiating porary infidelity. There were two exceptions: Russian men sexual activity had themselves initiated their latest inter- in St. Petersburg and Estonia. Many of these men had a course more often than had those women who did not. sexual double standard: More than 50% of them respond- Differences between the sexual cultures were also asso- ed that one should be able to accept temporary infidelity of ciated with the quality of sexual experiences. In all survey a husband, but only about 20% responded that one should years, Finns were more likely to report that their latest sex- be able to accept the temporary infidelity of a wife. ual intercourse had been pleasurable than were the respon- The gender gap in attitudes toward marital fidelity dents in Estonia and in St. Petersburg. In St. Petersburg decreased in Finland from 1971 to the 1990s, when it was and Estonia, women's evaluation of the quality of sexual small in all age groups. In Estonia and in St. Petersburg, intercourse was similar to that of Finnish women some 25 gender differences were large in all age groups. A sexual to 30 years earlier. double standard prevailed even among the young respon- Younger Finnish women rated intercourse as more plea- dents. Sexual standards predicted actual fidelity in present surable than did older women. Consequently, there was marriages or cohabitation relationships. almost no difference in the sexual satisfaction of young Women's taking the initiative sexually received the most men and women. This is in line with the new international support in Finland (and by Estonian men), but women were approach to sexual health, in which sexual satisfaction has more reserved than men in this regard. Women had adopt- been defined to be a crucial part of sexual health and sex- ed traditional cultural expectations of sexual passivity by ual rights (Lottes & Kontula, 2000). 48 Sex Standards in Finland, Estonia, and St. Petersburg

Table 10. Men's and Women's Ratings of Pleasure During Intercourse, According to Attitudes Toward Initiation by Women (AIW) and Women's Sexual Initiative During the Latest Intercourse (IW) in Finland, 1992 and 1999 Men Women initiated Men Women Men standard Women standard latest intercourse N N mean deviation mean deviation AIW = negative or uncertain No 33 140 4.07 0.75 3.78 .87 .34 5.1* Yes 43 82 4.42 0.67 4.26 .71 .23 1.3 AIW = fairly positive No 121 201 4.29 .55 3.91 .70 .61 26.8*** Yes 162 234 4.36 .61 4.27 .68 .14 1.1 AIW = very positive No 529 373 4.41 .54 4.12 .73 .47 47.8*** Yes 658 601 4.47 .56 4.37 .60 .17 8.5** Note. Participants rated their pleasure during intercourse, from very unpleasant (1) to very pleasurable (5). These ratings are presented as a function of (a) participants' attitudes toward sexual initiative by women (AIW) and (b) whether participants reported that the woman participated in initiating their latest intercourse, either as the main initiator or an equal initiator (Yes), or that the woman did not participate in initiating the latest intercourse (No). Table entries represent satisfaction means and standard deviations, effect sizes for gender (d), and the statistical significance of gender differ- ences (F and p values). *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

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