Eastern Craft in Orientalism and Modern Design ISHIKAWA, Yoshimune / Phd / Toyo Institute of Art and Design / Japan

Eastern craft in Orientalism and Modern Design ISHIKAWA, Yoshimune / PhD / Toyo Institute of Art and Design / Japan

Chinoiserie / Japonisme / Japanese Design / Scandinavian roof and door with a lattice pattern similar to the back of the chair Design (fig. 1, right). Because part of their design derived from traditional Chinese architecture, their design was different from original Chi- This article focuses on furniture inspired by Eastern culture in Ori- nese furniture. For example, the Chinese chair had a back that entalism and modern design and clarifies the acceptance of the was one curved slat with minimal fretwork. The cabinet was a East not only as exoticism but also as inspiration for new design simple box that had no architectural decoration (however, there and theory beyond century. Eastern craft often offered new im- were some examples that had pediment or cornice in the origi- ages from the eighteenth to the twentieth century, and this his- nal Chinese cabinet importing Orientalism in the nineteenth cen- torical process is easily seen. Therefore, with regard to craft, the tury). The exoticism portrayed by Chippendale was, as it were, a East was not an “other” as Said has suggested. collage of Chinese architecture.

In 1754, Chippendale published The Gentleman and Cabinet-Mak- 1. Introduction er’s Director, which shows Chinese style governed by his logi- According to Edward Said, the Orient signified a system of repre- cal method of design. He took Chinese architecture apart once, sentations that were politically framed by the Western world and chose some of its symbolic parts, and then reconstructed them existed as a separate, eccentric, backward, and silently different in Rococo style. Therefore, with regard to images of exoticism, his world of paintings, literature, and so forth. The Orient existed for furniture was stronger than original Chinese furniture. the West and was constructed by and in relation to the West. Moreover, it was a mirror image of what was inferior, an “other” to the West.

The Orient represented in crafts, however, was different. Oriental- ism, such as Chinoiserie and Japonisme, were popular and inspired the new design of furniture. Although they were generally accepted as exotic, they also inspired new design and theory in both the West and East, a point evident in both Orientalism and modern design. For example, English designers reconstructed Chinese images in furniture or discovered lost craftsmanship in Japanese style; French aristocrats regarded the Turkish sofa as a refuge from the mechanized West; and Japanese designers regarded the harmony of the West and East as aesthetics of standardization. Finally, Chinese or Islamic chairs offered Scandinavian Figure 1. Chinese-style chair and cabinet designed by Thomas Chippendale. designers a prototype with a strategic and practical design. Exoticism as fantastic anti-modernism Historically, Eastern crafts have offered new images beyond Exoticism faced a new phase. The Eastern style offered a refuge century and border. Thus, this article clarifies that Eastern craft from modernization in the nineteenth century. The refuge had existed not as an “other” but as a creative inspiration for the West two aspects: the decadent dream for aristocrats and the pure and East. beauty for craftsmanship. Sigfried Giedion pointed out lifestyle differences between the East and West: 2. Eastern craft in Orientalism Mechanized man in the nineteenth century yearned for an atmosphere other than that of his own surroundings. In the East everyone, rich and poor alike, has time and leisure. In the West Design by Chippendale: Exoticism as reconstruction of no one has. Western life tends toward strain; Eastern life toward symbol relaxation. The early trend of Eastern craft in the West was called Chinoiserie. Such lifestyles can be seen in the French interior of aristocrats One example is English designer Thomas Chippendale (1718– such as Louis Philippe, whose double bed with a rudimentary 1779) who designed some Chinese-style furniture. arm or backrest occupied the center of the room, offering a place where aristocrats could relax during parties. Eastern furniture, The chair often had distinctive fretwork on the back comprised of such as the Turkish sofa, facilitated their pleasure-seeking life- geometrical lines (fig. 1, left). The cabinet also had a high-pitched style. Walter Benjamin criticized such lifestyles as follows:

ISHIKAWA, Yoshimune 2012. Eastern craft in Orientalism and Modern Design. In Farias, Priscila Lena; Calvera, Anna; Braga, Marcos da Costa & Schincariol, Zuleica (Eds.). Design frontiers: territories, concepts, technologies [=ICDHS 2012 - 8th Conference of the International Committee for Design History & Design Studies]. São Paulo: Blucher, 2012. ISBN 978-85-212-0692-7. DOI 10.5151/design-icdhs-091 Eastern craft in Orientalism and Modern Design

The Persian carpet and the ottoman, the hanging lamp and the genuine Caucasian dagger. Behind the heavy, gathered Khilim tapestries the master of the house has orgies with his share certificates, feels himself the Eastern merchant, the indolent pasha in the caravanserai of otiose enchantment, until that dagger in its silver sling above the divan puts an end, one fine afternoon, to his siesta and himself.

This description elicits images of Oriental products as represen- tations of a decadent life. The interior was a private universe like Figure 2. Stenciled frogs and flowers of cabinet and low seat chair designed a dream of “Phantasmagoria” written in his essay Paris: capital by Christopher Dresser. of the nineteenth century (1939). Because the Orient was different as an “other” in contemporary capital culture, it could be manufacturing and trading company, and it encouraged the their means of escape from the real world. Japanese industries until 1891. Their products, which ranged from paintings to furniture, were extremely decorative, portray- Design by Dresser: Exoticism as representation of ing to the West a rare exoticism. For example, the cabinet had craftsmanship relief of bamboo at the front door. Crown molding like pediment, As mentioned above, to seek refuge from mechanization which was not provided with the traditional Japanese cabinet, showed other aspects as well. As mechanization and mass were in the shape of many birds. Orientalism also changed production increased, so too did the interest in decorative art conventional philosophy. Japanese products had conceptually in handcrafts of the medieval age. Christopher Dresser (1834– unified several types of products asOdougu , a concept that 1904), for example, was interested in traditional Japanese included tools, implements, instruments, utensils, kits, outfits, design: grotesque in the shape of man or animal seen in the and so forth. Further, art and craft had not been conceptually cabinet or vase. He also regarded it as design free from Western separated. There were differences between Jotemono and Ge- artistic canons that were believed to be a pure, childlike accept- temono. The former means a refined product that is elaborately ance of nature. His design of the chair also reflects this idea. decorated; the latter means a plain product having no decora- He designed cabinets that had stenciled frogs, flowers, fish, and tion. However, these unifications were lost when the western birds on black (fig. 2, left) that were inspired byMaki-e , which is concept of “craft” was introduced. Japanese lacquer sprinkled with gold or silver powder on a black surface of Urushi. The height and width of the seat, back, and Birth of modern design and philosophy in Japan: Har- legs varied. The chair had a geometrical pattern on the low seat, mony of various cultures and the back was derived from Japanese craft (fig. 2, right). Crafts, an export industry, were still a vital slogan of the govern- ment in the late 1920s. Product designer Toyoguchi Katsuhei The longing for Eastern craft could be equated to the Arts and (1905–1991) established Keiji-Kobo (Workshop for Physical- Crafts Movement of England that respected medieval crafts- ity) with others in 1928. The main purpose of their activity was manship. Dresser studied graphical patterns of animals and the standardization of the whole life space, and it led the post- plants seen in the wallpaper designed by William Morris. Various war Japanese industrial design movement. Although Keiji-Kobo patterns in his design can be regarded not only as a representa- spontaneously disappeared in the 1930s, Toyoguchi attempted tion of the Orient, but also as creativity of the past. This ambigu- to recover new aesthetics that fit the standardization. He said ity signifies a point of contact between the East and the West. that our lives should comprise a formative mixture and “the He discovered the past of the West in the Orient. elements of the mixture should be old, new, ethnic, mechan- ic, handmade, dynamic, and static, and must be unified by a As previously mentioned, Chippendale created furniture as a sense.” His masterpiece, the “Spoke Chair” (1962) (fig. 3, left) collage of Chinese elements. It was intended not to reproduce shows his philosophy with its thick legs so as not to damage original Chinese furniture but rather to emphasize the different the traditional Japanese rush floor and a low and wide seat that image as an “other.” Not only did Dresser reproduce it, but he is in line with the Japanese custom of sitting cross-legged on also discovered past Western creativity in Japanese craft and the floor. In the style of English local chairs, this chair also has a designed the furniture inspired by it. simplified Windsor back. The above characteristics illustrate the harmony of cultures as he described.

3. Eastern craft in modern design The Spoke Chair, compared with Dresser’s chair, has no decorative pattern on its surface and has no intention of showing Loss of traditional design and philosophy in Japan exoticism or craftsmanship. The Spoke Chair offered a harmoni- The Japanese craft that inspired Dresser is not exactly tradition- ous blending of West and East, creating a practical lifestyle for al. Orientalism in the nineteenth century resulted in Japanese the general user. craft being produced for commercial and export purposes. Es- tablished in 1874, Kiriu Kosho Kuwaisha was the first Japanese The same concepts are evident in works by other designers. In

Design Frontiers: Territiories, Concepts, Technologies 473 ISHIKAWA, Yoshimune

1984 product designer Riki Watanabe (1911-) designed the “Riki highly efficient. Wegner’s friend, Børge Mogensen, was also in- Rocker Chair” (fig. 3, right), which has a rocker and back inspired spired by Eastern craft. He designed the “Spanish Chair” in 1959, by Shaker’s rocking chair made in America in the nineteenth cen- which was his interpretation of traditional chairs found in areas tury. The seat that was originally made of weaving wooden tape is influenced by ancient Islamic culture. He modernized the shape, a low and wide cushion similar to the Spoke Chair. however, eliminated the elaborate carvings, and designed broad armrests that provided a place to put a cup.

Some modern designs created on the basis of Eastern culture fo- cused on practicality. Eastern craft was poisoned as a precedent balancing actuality and beauty. Designers discovered a modern method in it. Therefore, Eastern craft was not an “other,” even for the modern West.

Figure 3. Spoke Chair (1962) designed by Toyoguchi Katsuhei and Riki Rocker Chair (1984) designed by Riki Watanabe.

Eastern furniture introduced by Scandinavian designers: Balance of practicality and beauty Danish designer Hans Wegner designed the “Chinese Chair” Figure 4. Chinese Chair (1943), The Chair (1949) and Y-Chair (1950) designed by (fig. 4, left) in 1943. A redesigned version of a Ming dynasty Hans Wegner. Chinese chair, it has swollen, curved armrests and carvings in the seat frame. The armrest has a swollen, curved line, and the mahogany seat frame and the reddish-brown leather pad are 4. Conclusion identical in color. Due to the effects of its color, this chair appears Eastern furniture historically offered several inspirations: a col- balanced and harmonized. The section from the backrest to the lage of foreign culture, fantastic anti-modernism, representation armrests is finger-jointed. Later, it developed into two chairs: of craftsmanship, harmony of various cultures, and a balance First, by eliminating unnecessary lines, “The Chair” (1949) (fig. of practicality and beauty. After examining the process of the 4, middle) achieved ultimate simplicity in its structure. Each above designs and theories, we now know that they are not element serves a logical and important function. The seamless only various but also contrast as fantasy and practicality. This finger-joints on the back reclining part, the flowing lines of the indicates that Eastern furniture served as a core inspiring a wide front legs, and the slight curve on the seat frame produce a variety of creativities. decorative effect in its simplicity. Second, the “Y-Chair” (1950) (fig. 4, right) was designed to make the production process As the following table shows, the Eastern craft has been strate- more efficient and aimed to sustain high quality while achiev- gically accepted in both the East and West. Although some fur- ing lower costs by automated mass production. Its front legs niture styles, such as Shaker furniture or the Windsor chair, in- are shaped with a woodworking lathe, and its back legs actually fluenced contemporary styles of furniture and modern designs, form a two-dimensional curve but have a very convincing three- such styles that were inspirational over time and across nations dimensional look as a result of shifting its center slightly during were rare. Therefore, one can conclude that Eastern furniture the assembly process. Although this chair seems highly labor was the “self” for the frontiers of designer. intensive at first glance, the production process is strategic and

Design Frontiers: Territiories, Concepts, Technologies 474 Eastern craft in Orientalism and Modern Design

Chronological Table

The West The East

(England) Chippendale publishes The Gentleman and Cabinet-Maker’s 1754 Director, which demonstrates Chinese styles of making furniture. (China) Chinese furniture influenced by Orientalism appears. Western furniture 1800’s did not influence these styles due to efforts by the ruling elite to limit trade. (France) Un Hiver à Paris is published. The author, Jules Janin, writes 1843 that a relaxed posture facilitated by Oriental furniture is accepted in high society. (Japan) Kiriu Kosho Kuwaisha (the first Japanese manufacturing and trading 1874 company) is established (closed in 1891). It deals in craft that is intentionally “exotic” for the purpose of exporting it. 1876 (England) Christopher Dresser travels to Japan. (China, Japan) The Centennial International Exhibition is held in Philadelphia, U.S.A. 1876 Both countries exhibit their craft. Japanese craft is managed by the Kiriu Kosho Kuwaisha. (France) Les Meubles de la Chine, written by Odilon Roche, is 1922 published, and is the first technical book in Europe on Chinese furniture. (France) Einbahnstraße (One Way Street) is published. The author, 1928 Walter Benjamin, criticizes the aristocrats’ pleasure-seeking lifestyle by describing the Oriental-style interiors. (Japan) Keiji-Kobo (Workshop for Physicality) is established by Katsuhei Toyoguchi and others in order to study the standardization of products. He often determined “Eastern beauty” for export purposes. (Denmark) Type of Furniture is published. The author, Ole Wanscher, 1932 introduces the Chinese chair that inspired Hans Wegner’s “Chinese Chair.” (Denmark) The “Chinese Chair” designed by Hans Wegner is released. 1943 “The Chair” and “Y-Chair,” which were both inspired by it, are released in 1949 and 1950. 1962 (Japan) “Spoke Chair,” designed by Toyoguchi is released. 1984 (Japan) “Riki Rocker chair,” designed by Riki Watanabe is released.

Acknowledgment Shimazaki, M. Utsukushii Isu: Hokuou Yonin no Meisyo no Dezain, EI Pub- I appreciate Mr. Hideki Ota and other staff of Musashino Art Uni- lishing Co.Ltd., 2003 versity Museum & Library for their valuable materials. Suga, Y. “Modernism, Nationalism and Gender: Crafting ‘Modern’ Ja- References ponisme,” Journal of Design History, 21(3), Oxford University Press, Benjamin, W. “Paris the capital of nineteenth century,” Walter Benjamin: 2008, pp.259-275 Selected Writings, Volume 3: 1935-1938, Belknap Press of Harvard Uni- versity Press, 2006 The Koriyama City Museum of Art, Christopher Dresser and Japan, Exhibi- tion catalogue committee, 2002 Bernsen, J. Hans J. Wegner (Japanese Edition), Dansk Design Center, 1995 Toyoguchi, K. & Shimazaki, M. Keijikobo to Sonokagu no Dezain Kenkyu, Clive, E. “The Dream of a Golden Age: Danish Neo-Classical Furniture Musashino Art University, 1980. 1790–1850,” Journal of Design History, 19(1), 2006, pp.93-95 Yamaguchi, E. Isu to Shintai: Yoroppaniokeru “Za” no Youshiki, Minerva Giedion, S. Mechanization takes Command, a contribution to anonymous shobo, 2006 history, Oxford University Press, 1948, p.370 About the author Hida, T. Meiji no yushutsu kogei zuan: Kiryu Kosho Kaisha no rekishi Yoshimune Ishikawa, Ph.D.; Research interest: history and theory of [Meiji Period Design Sketches for Export Crafts: The History of the Kiritsu design; Institution: Toyo Institute of Art and Design; Recent publication: Kosho Kaisha], Kyoto Shoin, 1998 “The Three phases in the Development of Shaker Furniture in America, Europe and Japan,” 2011 IASDR Conference Proceedings (CD-ROM), Ar- Jackson, A. “Imaging Japan,” The Journal of Design History, 5-4, 1992, ticle no.83, pp.1-11, 2011; E-mail: [email protected] pp.245-256

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