AN INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATING CHILDREN WHO ARE DEAF/HARD OF HEARING

Chapter 10 Educational Settings “Hearing loss of any Dawn Gettemeier type or degree that occurs in infancy placements and the academic achievements or childhood can of students who are interfere with a D/HH. The decision regarding placement is child’s development often as contentious as of spoken language, the decision regarding communication methods reading and writing and teaching approaches. skills, and academic Children who have more significant hearing performance.” losses—combined with other factors outlined —Cole & Flexer, 2016 below—may benefit Photo courtesy of NCHAM from specialized Introduction programming, especially when growth in listening and spoken language (LSL) is the ith support from qualified professionals goal or when the student needs access to communication in appropriate educational environments, partners who are fluent in American Sign Language (ASL). Wstudents who are deaf or hard of hearing (D/HH) can achieve academically in ways commensurate with When considering educational placement along with academic their hearing peers. achievement and the importance of social relationships for children who are D/HH, it is important to consider The purpose of this chapter is to describe the various the following topics that will be addressed in this chapter: educational placement options that can be available to children who are D/HH. Due to Public Law 94-142— IDEA passed in 1975 and later reauthorized as the Individuals with Continuum of educational placement options, services, and settings. Education Act (IDEA)—there has been a shift Different roles that certified personnel hold. from residential and other segregated schools and programs Indicators of academic readiness. to more educational placements in general education settings. The concept of least restrictive environment Importance of social relationships. (LRE) has increased the attention given to educational Process of determining placement.

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IDEA Overview FAPE Overall, the goal and related of IDEA is to Overall, the goal of IDEA is to provide children with services that are provided at the provide children disabilities the same opportunity for education as public’s expense, under public those students who do not have a . When supervision and direction, and with disabilities reviewing educational options, it is important to without charge. the same understand the aspects of the law with regards to deaf education (Wright, Wright, & O’Connor, 2010). • Meets the standards of the opportunity for The Office of Special Education Programs—part state’s educational agencies. education as of the U.S. Department of Education—provides • Includes appropriate information and resources about IDEA at the IDEA preschool, elementary, or those students website (https://sites.ed.gov/idea/about-idea/). The secondary education. who do not have Council on Exceptional Children provides another • Aligns with the IEP. excellent source for information on IDEA (https:// • Results in educational a disability. www.cec.sped.org/Policy-and-Advocacy/Current- benefit to the child. Sped-Gifted-Issues/Individuals-with-Disabilities- Education-Act). The main idea is that it is the state’s responsibility to provide an appropriate education with necessary IDEA is composed of four parts: services in order for students to achieve their IEP goals and demonstrate growth in an educational setting. Keep General aspects of the law. in mind that each state, agency, school community, and/ A or parents may interpret what is considered appropriate Education of all children with disabilities differently. from age 3 to 21. B LRE Services for infants and toddlers with C disabilities from birth to age 3. To the maximum extent appropriate, children with National support programs administered at disabilities, including children in public or private the federal level. institutions or care facilities, are to be educated with D children who are nondisabled; and special classes, separate schooling, or removal of children with disabilities from regular educational environment occurs IDEA has five elements that support the main points: only if the nature or severity of the disability is such that education in regular classes with the use of supplementary 1 Individualized Education Program (IEP) aids and services cannot be achieved satisfactorily. The LRE is the environment most like that of typical Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) children in which a child with a disability can succeed 2 academically as measured by specific goals on the IEP. Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) 3 When discussing the LRE, there are two questions to consider:

Parent and Teacher Participation Can an appropriate education in the 4 general education classroom with the use of supplementary aids and services be achieved Procedural Safeguards 1 5 satisfactorily? If placed in a more restrictive setting, is the For the purposes of this chapter’s focus on educational student integrated to the maximum extent settings, knowledge of FAPE and LRE is essential. 2 appropriate?

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Again, the words satisfactorily and appropriate, Continuum of Placement, Services, along with supporting verbiage, is often viewed more subjectively than objectively. It can be difficult & Settings for an IEP team to come to a conclusion as to what is appropriate for a student, which is why it is so While there are a variety of ways that terms related important for the team to work collaboratively and to placement, services, and settings are defined, the consider what is best for each individual student. definitions found in Table 1 will be used in this chapter. Table 1 Definitions of Terms Related to Placement, Services, & Settings

Definitions of Terms for Placement

Reverse Mainstreaming Integration Mainstreaming

The placement of a The process of Efforts used to The practice of bringing student into general integrating a student move students from typical peers into the education classes with a disability in segregated classes into special education regardless of the degree or a regular education a more mainstreamed classroom of students severity of a disability. An school setting, but only setting. Integration is who are D/HH to inclusive classroom and if they can follow the IEP-driven. provide opportunities the LRE may be the same mainstream curriculum for interaction. placement for a child who academically without is D/HH, but that may any issues and without For example, a private not always be the case. the regular education preschool program teacher needing to for students who are For example, a student make adaptations to the D/HH enrolls typical with a moderate, curriculum. hearing peers into their unilateral hearing program. The hearing loss who does well An example of peers model age- academically, is socially mainstreaming is appropriate language appropriate, and has a student with a and social interactions. good self-advocacy skills profound, bilateral could benefit from an hearing loss who does inclusion placement. A well academically and student with significant socially in a general gaps in language and education classroom literacy may not be with support and/or able to learn in an consult with a teacher inclusive setting. Special of the deaf (TOD). The education professionals TOD may preteach and parents may disagree vocabulary, language, on inclusive placements, and academic concepts. and these decisions will However, the regular be made in IEP meetings education teacher doesn’t or through mediation or make any adaptations to due-process hearings. the curriculum.

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Table 1 (continued)

Definitions of Terms for Services

Remediation Accommodations Modifications

Teaching that includes The adjustments that the school Changes that a school or teacher identification of a student’s provides that will make a student may make to the curriculum. This specific learning skill deficit and more successful academically. may result in a modified grade or corrective, remedial, or clinical These may include strategies to diploma at the high school level. approaches to improve that deficit. bypass a weak function or skill. For example, a student who has For example, a student who is having For example, a student with a challenging trouble learning to read may get extra handwriting issues may use a in math may have fewer math help on individual phonics work. keyboard for written assignments. problems assigned.

Definitions of Terms for Settings

Class Within a Class (CWC) or Co-Taught (CT) Push-In Pull-Out Resource Room

CWC is an inclusion This type of therapy This type of therapy is A classroom in a model of service delivery involves a TOD and/ provided by the TOD or student’s school where for students with mild or a therapist (speech- other therapist outside special program services to moderate disabilities. language therapist, of the general education are provided by the CT is a collaborative occupational therapist, classroom (Miller, TOD. teaching model that or physical therapist) 2014). pairs a special education working with a student teacher with a general in the classroom education teacher. along with the general These two professionals education teacher co-plan and co-teach. (Miller, 2014). The general education teacher is the curriculum expert, and the special education teacher is the strategic expert when co- planning. Planning also involves deciding which teacher is the lead and which is the support for each lesson. Successful planning provides for the education of all students who are in a CWC classroom.

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Placement Options Certified Personnel

The placement options shown in Table 2 are often used Students who are D/HH often receive services from a for students who are D/HH. number of professionals, including those shown in Table 3.

Table 2 Placement Options for Students Who Are D/HH

Local Public School Classroom

Students with disabilities are taught in a general education Pros Cons classroom alongside their peers. Supports are offered in the classroom in several different ways. First a TOD and/ In a regular education public Special education services or special education teacher may come into the classroom school placement, students who in a local public school and co-teach with the general education teacher for are D/HH receive the maximum may not be as intensive portions of the day. Services may also be provided to the exposure to nondisabled peers. as those offered in more students by an instructional assistant or aide working This placement is beneficial for structured environments. under the direction of the special education teacher. students who are able to learn in Students having difficulty Finally, the classroom teacher may provide services a general education classroom with listening in noisier to the student by collaborating with the TOD and/or with minimal outside support. environments, expressive special education teacher. In any of these scenarios, the and receptive language skills, instruction and assignments in the classroom need to be and academics may feel differentiated in order to meet the needs of students with overwhelmed or frustrated. disabilities.

Public School Classroom with Resource Room Support

The resource room is a classroom in the school setting Pros Cons where a TOD and/or special education teacher works individually or with small groups of students for certain Students receive instruction in While in the resource subjects during the school day. Students attend a general a quieter, small-group setting at room, students are not education classroom but receive pull-out services in an individualized level and pace. educated with their typically the resource room for portions of the day. The purpose Instruction is tailored for the developing peers. Students of the resource room is to provide more intensive and individual needs of each student. may encounter or perceive individualized instruction for students with disabilities. This negative stigma from their level of instruction is not available to students in a general peers for going to the education classroom. The amount of time that students resource room. This is more spend in a resource room should be clearly defined in the common in the upper grades services section of the IEP. than in primary grades.

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Table 2 (continued)

Separate Classroom in Public School/Self-Contained Classroom

Self-contained classrooms are special education classrooms Pros Cons designed to meet the academic, social, and behavioral needs of students who would otherwise struggle in a Self-contained classrooms are Social interaction with typical typical classroom. Self-contained classrooms are taught by usually highly structured and peers is reduced. Access to a a certified special education teacher trained to work with a designed to provide enhanced TOD is often limited. specific population of students. A TOD is usually in a more services to students who supportive role, although in some districts there may be require more support than resource rooms that are staffed by a TOD. These classrooms services available in the general often have a specific focus, such as autism, behavior, or education setting. Students cognitive delays. There is a lower student-teacher ratio. receive instruction in a small- Typically these classrooms have approximately ten students group environment with a highly with one teacher and several instructional assistant, or trained special education teacher. paraeducators. Students may spend their entire day in a self- contained setting or have a combination of time in the self- contained classroom and time in mainstreamed classes with their peers.

Separate Nonresidential Schools—Public or Private/Out of District

Sometimes a student may have educational needs that Pros Cons cannot be met within the programs available in a public school district. At times, an out-of-district placement in a Out-of-district placements are Exposure to typically private school setting may be necessary. Most communities highly specialized schools with developing peers is generally have private or not-for-profit schools that specialize in a certified staff trained to work not available. Depending on variety of areas, such as autism, behavior, and schools for with a specific population of the location of the school, students who are deaf and/or blind. Public schools vary in students. Services are based on it may be a long commute their available programming. If they are unable to provide best practices, the most current for the students. Due to the appropriate special education services that students need, research and materials are students not attending they are legally required to pay for tuition and transportation utilized, and most schools have their home school, they to an out-of-district placement. direct access to more immediate may find it difficult to fit in audiological support. Students with their neighborhood receive all day, direct support peers and community. Such from staff who are highly trained placements are extremely and certified. costly for school districts. School districts are held accountable to the state department of education for explaining such expenditures and balancing that with why they don’t have their own program.

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Table 2 (continued) OPTION Schools, Inc.

This coalition of schools advance LSL education by Pros Cons Pros Cons supporting and promoting educational options for students, Self-contained classrooms are Social interaction with typical measuring outcomes, establishing and sharing best Shared access to the most current While an excellent resource usually highly structured and peers is reduced. Access to a practices, and raising awareness through advocacy (www. research, methods, and best and option, not always designed to provide enhanced TOD is often limited. optionschools.org). practices in deaf education that readily available due to the services to students who benefits families that have chosen limited number of programs. require more support than the communication mode of LSL. services available in the general education setting. Students Teleintervention/Teletherapy receive instruction in a small- group environment with a highly trained special education teacher. Teletherapy offers support for both families and schools Pros Cons towards helping students obtain services via the internet (Stredler-Brown & Alverson, 2012). Academic supports, Teletherapy offers services for There are costs related to the speech therapy, audition therapy, and consultation are some those who may not have access technology and updating of the options available. This is a good option for families otherwise. equipment. There may be and/or school districts that do not have immediate access to issues with internet failure a TOD (https://sjid.org/services/ihear-internet-therapy/). and internet access.

Separate Residential Schools—Public or Private Pros Cons All states, except for Nebraska and Wyoming, have a public Pros Cons Out-of-district placements are Exposure to typically state school with a residential option (http://www.deafed. highly specialized schools with developing peers is generally net/PageText.asp?hdnPageId=105). Most state schools use There is a sense of community Students may feel left out certified staff trained to work not available. Depending on both sign language and spoken language with the emphasis for the students, since they are and isolated from their own with a specific population of the location of the school, being on sign language. All private schools for the deaf have surrounded by their deaf peers at families. And if LSL is the students. Services are based on it may be a long commute closed the residential aspect of their programs. all times. communication goal, there best practices, the most current for the students. Due to isn’t as much support due to research and materials are students not attending the focus of most state schools utilized, and most schools have their home school, they on Deaf Culture and sign direct access to more immediate may find it difficult to fit in language. audiological support. Students with their neighborhood receive all day, direct support peers and community. Such from staff who are highly trained placements are extremely Homebound or Hospital Environment and certified. costly for school districts. School districts are held Homebound instruction is a service available to students Pros Cons accountable to the state ages 3 to 21 who, because of their medical and/or department of education for psychological condition(s), require instruction outside Students at least have access to The students usually have explaining such expenditures of school as a result of hospitalization or a medical/ some services and one-on-one limited time with an educator and balancing that with why psychological condition that prevents their school time with a teacher. and no opportunity to learn they don’t have their own attendance for an extended time. The time allotted for these with peers. program. services is considerably less compared to time spent in attending school daily.

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Table 3 Professional Services for Students Who Are D/HH Teacher of the Deaf (TOD)

A teacher that has completed listening systems. TODs who The following terms describe some college programming in deaf attend a deaf education professional of the support provided by a TOD: education to become certified to preparation program that focuses teach children who are D/HH. on sign language will study • Full access. When a student Depending on the deaf education receptive and expressive language, has access to a TOD the program at a given college or literacy, and sign language. majority of the day. university, communication • Hearing itinerant. A TOD that modes are focused on LSL or sign Listening and Spoken Language will usually travel from school language. Some programs are Specialist (LSLS) Certification. to school providing pull- described as comprehensive and Some TODs take the extra step of out and/or push-in therapy address both spoken language obtaining LSLS certification via the and services (Compton, and sign language. TODs Alexander Graham Bell Academy. Appenzeler, & Kemmery, 2015; who attend a deaf education Teachers participate in professional Luckner & Ayantoye, 2013). professional preparation program learning and mentoring and See the Itinerant Teaching that focuses on LSL are trained demonstrate knowledge of the nine chapter for more information in the components of receptive LSLS domains via a rigorous exam about itinerant teaching. and expressive language, literacy, (http://www.agbell.org/Academy. • Consult. A TOD that is available auditory development, speech, and aspx?id=555). to the rest of the staff for advice, academics. The curriculum includes inservices, classroom observations, content on hearing assistive A TOD may provide services in a and for trouble-shooting issues technology, including hearing aids, variety of ways depending on the with hearing devices and/or cochlear implants, and classroom educational needs of the student. classroom listening equipment.

Special Education Speech-Language Regular Education Teacher Pathologist (SLP) Teacher

Special education teachers can Depending on training and experience, A teacher who teaches in a general provide resource room and/or SLPs can offer speech and auditory education classroom. general education support. therapy. Service options can include pull-out and/or push-in, individual, and/or small-group instruction. Sign Language Interpreters Paraprofessionals

A trained staff member whose job it Also known as a shadow, teacher is to sign information to students in aide, teacher assistant—a trained a variety of settings—the classroom, worker who is not a member of a assemblies, after-school activities, given profession but assists a certified etc. It is not their job to assist the professional. The paraprofessional is teachers, explain the content, or there to provide support to the students. teach the student. This can include small-group review work, preteaching vocabulary, and academic support. It does not include direct instruction of new material. Photo courtesy of NCHAM

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Indicators of Academic Readiness How Is Placement Determined?

Academic readiness is one of many factors that the Placement is determined by the IEP team, which IEP team takes into consideration when determining consists of the parents, the student (if appropriate), placement for a student who is D/HH. The most obvious TOD, general education teacher, and a representative indicator, of course, is if the student is performing on of the local education agency (LEA). The LEA grade level academically. Most classrooms have students representative is usually the school administrator or who are functioning below grade level, on target, principal. The team may also include related service and above grade level. For example, if an IEP team is providers, other administrators, school psychologists, considering a student for placement in a fourth-grade school counselors, transition coordinators, or other class, some of the students may be reading at a third- individuals who have knowledge about the student. grade level, some at the fourth-grade, and others at a According to IDEA, placement decisions must involve fifth-grade level. Therefore, if a student who is D/HH is the parent and cannot be predetermined prior to an IEP reading at the third-grade level, he could still possibly meeting (https://sites.ed.gov/idea/). function just fine. However, it isn’t always as simple as that. There are many other questions to ask that will also Placement decisions are based on the needs of the help determine if a student is academically ready for a student. The law specifies that students must be given placement: educated in their LRE. This means to the maximum extent appropriate, students with disabilities should Does the student have appropriate classroom behaviors? be educated with nondisabled peers in their home • Raises hand to be recognized. school. However, the general education classroom 1 • Follows directions. isn’t always a student’s LRE. For some students with • Has good organizational skills. disabilities, this setting can be highly restrictive, because the student may not be able to process the How developed are the student’s language skills, including general education curriculum. Placement decisions vocabulary, content, structure, and pragmatics? For a student are extremely individualized and must always take using LSL to communicate, can he comprehend what he has into consideration the unique needs of each student heard? Can he give that information back verbally or in a 2 (Guardino, 2008). written format? For a student who uses sign language, can she understand and/or keep up with a sign language interpreter? In the last 15 years, many public school districts have If a student uses hearing devices, does he receive good benefit? formed working relationships with private schools that Is he a good reporter if something isn’t working? specialize in deaf education, especially schools that have 3 created programs focused on LSL. Some school districts Is the student’s speech intelligible to unfamiliar listeners? recognize the value of early intervention, auditory 4 therapy, speech therapy, development of expressive How does the student cognitively process? and receptive language skills, • Learning style. Academic emerging literacy skills, and • Awareness of one’s strengths and weaknesses. 5 academics. Educators are aware readiness is one • Knowledge of strategies to support challenges. of how highly trained, certified, of many factors Is there a presence of other learning issues? If so, what supports and knowledgeable the faculty 6 would be needed? are, and that they can’t always that the IEP replicate that. It is also expected team takes into Does the student advocate for herself? that when a student exhibits 7 good growth in consistently consideration meeting their IEP goals that the when determining How motivated is the student to succeed? team will work together to have 8 her mainstream back to her placement for a What kind of family support does this student have? home school with the proper student who supports in place. 9 is D/HH.

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“Cooperation is When determining placement, For children who are D/HH, their communication IEP meetings can be fraught needs set them apart from children with other when one person with conflict—perceived or disabilities. The law has delineated those needs. engages another otherwise. Is the team working together in cooperation or IDEA states . . . person to achieve collaboration? It is always in the best interest of the student to the goals of the “The IEP team shall consider the communication needs of the keep in mind that it is critically child, and in the case of a child who is D/HH, consider the first person. important for every member child’s language and communication needs, opportunities for of the IEP team to approach Collaboration is direct communications with peers, and professional personnel each meeting, each discussion in the child’s language and communication mode, academic when two or more in the most collaborative level, and full range of needs, including opportunities for manner possible. It is the team’s people engage direct instruction in the child’s language and communication responsibility to go through the mode” (IDEA, Sec. 300.46 (a)(2)(iv); https://sites.ed.gov/ in a mutually student’s IEP first to determine idea/). beneficial what the student needs to access his IEP goals. It is only relationship after most of the IEP has been that allows all conducted, and the team arrives But how does the “consideration of communication at the Placement Decisions and needs” mesh with the general applicability of the LRE involved to Considerations page that the concept? The individualized needs of the student achieve goals team can determine placement. become the primary predictor of the placement decision. IDEA regulations state that in all cases, while remaining In the broadest sense, parents placement decisions must be individually determined true to beliefs have the responsibility to choose on the basis of each child’s abilities and needs and the educational setting for not solely on factors, such as category of disability, and mission.” their child—public education, significance of disability, availability of special education homeschooling, or education and related services, configuration of the service —National Association in a private institution. For the delivery system, availability of space, or administrative of State Directors parent who has chosen public convenience. of Special Education, Inc. education, they are then part of a decision-making team IDEA states . . . through the IEP process in determining services, supports, and placement issues. When a parent chooses homeschooling or a private placement, a different set “Rather, each student’s IEP forms the basis for the placement decision. of rules apply to what they can and cannot expect from Further, a student need not fail in the regular classroom before another special education under IDEA (https://sites.ed.gov/ placement can be considered. Conversely, IDEA does not require that idea/). a student demonstrate achievement of a specific performance level as a prerequisite for placement in a regular education classroom” (IDEA, When it comes to who is making the decision about Appendix A, Section 1(1); https://sites.ed.gov/idea/). school placement in public education, the law is clear.

IDEA states . . . In conclusion, the whole team, working collaboratively— diligently following the IEP process—should: “In determining the educational placement of a child with a disability, each public agency shall ensure that the placement • First, discuss how to best support a student’s needs decision is made by a group of persons, including the parents through the IEP goals developed by the team. and other persons knowledgeable about the child, the meaning • Next, honor the mandate of LRE. of the evaluation data, and the placement options” (IDEA, Sec. • Then, determine placement of what is in the 300.552(a)(1); https://sites.ed.gov/idea/). best interest of the student educationally both academically and socially.

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The Importance of Social Families need to . . . Relationships • Include the child in family discussions. It is imperative to have all aspects of a student’s • Be both realistic and positive about the child’s strengths and academic education arranged and the appropriate weaknesses. supports put into place. Sometimes during the IEP • Model good listening behaviors. process, professionals forget or do not place enough • Encourage appropriate risk-taking behaviors. stress on the importance of a student’s self-esteem and • Teach manners. the correlation to positive social relationships. When • Have consistent consequences for inappropriate behaviors. asked, many parents will say it is more important for • Have a positive attitude about the child’s hearing loss and use their child to succeed academically than to fit in with of amplification. their peers. While that is important, a number of • Be educated with regards to the child’s audiological needs. parents in their heart of hearts will admit that if asked to • Be involved in their child’s school and community. choose, they would pick social acceptance first. So why not make academics and social relations both a priority! Oftentimes it can be Community Activities School Activities The U.S. Department of Education believes that it is difficult for a child important that state and local education agencies, in with hearing loss to Sports Choir developing an IEP for a child who has a hearing loss, build appropriate Religious Communities Band take into consideration such factors as: social relationships. Families and Scouts Drama Club • Communication needs and the child’s and family’s schools can provide Summer Camps Dance Line preferred mode of communications. support by having • Linguistic needs. the child engage in Cheerleading • Severity of hearing loss and potential for using various activities School Newspaper residual hearing. with both hearing Yearbook Committee • Academic level. and non-hearing • Social and emotional needs, including peers, including Community Service opportunities for peer interactions and community and Projects communications (Deaf Students Education school activities. Services; Policy Guidance, U.S. Department of Education). The following strategies may support students who are D/HH in social interactions: It is well documented that meeting a child’s social and emotional needs • Role-play new or doubtful situations at home It is imperative contributes to positive before the encounter and rehearse conversational self-esteem. Good self- repair strategies. to have all esteem can help further • Use a buddy system. aspects of academic success and • Find deaf support communities for both the lifelong happiness. students and families (online, local clubs, AG Bell, a student’s Many studies have Hands & Voices). academic demonstrated that the • Monitor use of social media. more family support • Keep the lines of communication open regarding the education a student receives, the child’s hearing loss through the years as a toddler, arranged and more likely it is the child, adolescent, teenager, and adult. Most parents student will succeed have already gone through the stages of grieving the appropriate academically and their child’s hearing loss. Oftentimes upon becoming supports socially (Antia, Jones, an adolescent, the realization that the hearing loss Kreimeyer, Reed, & isn’t going to go away can trigger one’s own process put into place. Luckner, 2011). of grieving. This may take a few days or a few years.

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• Use humor to help children and their families when dealing with the unfairness of having a hearing “I really hope we can laugh . . . loss, especially if a child has experienced someone making fun of them. I believe that laughing was probably God’s best idea. It will be the one thing that can bring joy to our lives the quickest. If I get stuck in a mud puddle, it is probably funny. If you are lifting me, and we both fall on the floor in a heap, that is probably funny too. A good joke is worth taking the time to laugh at. Help me not get so caught up in the serious problems we face every day to forget about laughing.” —The Ten Things I Wish You Knew, Sally Brown/AG Bell

Photo courtesy of NCHAM

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Resources

• Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, Office of Special Education Programs, https://sites.ed.gov/idea/ about-idea/ • AG Bell Association, http://www.agbell.org/families/family-resources/educational-law-definitions.aspx#idea • Council for Exceptional Children, https://www.cec.sped.org/Policy-and-Advocacy/Current-Sped-Gifted-Issues/ Individuals-with-Disabilities-Education-Act • Hands & Voices, School Placement Considerations for Students Who Are Deaf and Hard of Hearing, http:// www.handsandvoices.org/needs/placement.htm • Success for Kids with Hearing Loss, http://successforkidswithhearingloss.com/social-skills-dhh/

References

Antia, S. D., Jones, P., Kreimeyer, K. H., Reed, S., & Luckner, J. (2011). Social outcomes of students who are deaf and hard of hearing in general education classrooms. Exceptional Children, 77(4), 489-504. Cole, E., & Flexer, C. (2016). Children with hearing loss: Developing listening and talking, birth to six (3rd ed). San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing, Inc. Compton, M. V., Appenzeller, M., Kemmery, M., & Gardiner-Walsh, S. (2015). Itinerant teachers’ perspectives of using collaborative practices in serving students who are deaf or hard of hearing. American Annals of the Deaf, 160(3), 255-272. Guardino, C. A. (2008). Identification and placement for deaf students with multiple disabilities: Choosing the path less followed. American Annals of the Deaf, 153(1), 55-64. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) website. Retrieved from https://sites.ed.gov/idea/. Luckner, J. L., & Ayantoye, C. (2013). Itinerant teachers of students who are deaf or hard of hearing: Practices and preparation. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 18(3), 409-423. Miller, K. (2014). Trends impacting one public school program for students who are deaf or hard-of-hearing. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 36(1), 35-43. Stredler-Brown, A., & Alverson, D. C. (2012). More than 150 years in the making: The evolution of telepractice for hearing, speech, and language services. The Volta Review, 112(3), 195. U.S. Department of Education. (1992). Deaf students education services; Policy guidance. Retrieved from https:// www2.ed.gov/print/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/hq9806.html. Wright, P. W. D., Wright, P. D., & O’Connor, S. W. (2010). Wrightslaw: All about IEPs. Hartfield, VA: Harbor House Law Press.

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