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Radiowave Propagation and Antennas for Personal Communications Radiowave Propagation and Antennas for Personal Communications Third Edition For a complete listing of the Artech House Mobile Communications Library, turn to the back of this book. Radiowave Propagation and Antennas for Personal Communications Third Edition Kazimierz Siwiak Yasaman Bahreini a r techhouse. com Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record of this book is available from the Library of Congress. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record of this book is available at the British Library. ISBN 13: 978-1-59693-073-5 Cover design by Igor Valdman © 2007 ARTECH HOUSE, INC. 685 Canton Street Norwood, MA 02062 All rights reserved. Printed and bound in the United States of America. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including pho- tocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. All terms mentioned in this book that are known to be trademarks or service marks have been appropriately capitalized. Artech House cannot attest to the accuracy of this information. Use of a term in this book should not be regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 To my family for their support and guidance, my mom for teaching me patience, and my dad for teaching me perseverance. —Yassi Moim Rodzicom Janowi i Bronislawie – Kai Contents Preface to the First Edition ix Preface to the Second Edition xiii Preface to the Third Edition xvii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction and Historical Perspective 1 1.2 Personal Communications 3 1.3 Electromagnetics Fundamentals 5 1.3.1 Maxwell’s Equations 8 1.3.2 Boundary Conditions 10 1.3.3 Vector and Scalar Potentials 11 1.3.4 Radiation from a Sinusoidally Excited Current Element 12 1.3.5 Duality in Maxwell’s Equations 14 1.3.6 Current Loop for Sinusoidal Excitation 16 1.3.7 Radiation of a UWB Elementary Dipole and Loop 16 1.3.8 Radiation Zones 20 1.4 Basic Radiowave and Antenna Parameters 23 1.5 Summary 30 Problems 30 References 35 vii viii Radiowave Propagation and Antennas for Personal Communications 2 Fixed-Site Antennas 37 2.1 Introduction 37 2.2 Antennas as Arrays of Current Sources 39 2.3 Pattern Multiplication and Array Factor 39 2.4 Collinear Antennas and Vertical-Plane Pattern Control 40 2.5 Directivity and Beam Width for Omnidirectional Antennas 41 2.6 Array Antennas 42 2.6.1 Collinear Array and Fourier Transform 43 2.6.2 Horizontal-Plane Pattern Directivity 44 2.6.3 Aperture Antennas: Two-Dimensional Transforms 45 2.7 Pattern Shaping of High-Gain Collinear Antennas 46 2.8 Multiple-Beam Antennas 49 2.8.1 Matrix-Fed Multiple-Beam Antenna Designs 50 2.8.2 Smart Antennas 51 2.9 Proximity Effects in Antennas 53 2.9.1 Treating Scatterers as Infinitely Long Cylinders 53 2.9.2 Modeling the Finite-Length Scatterer 55 2.9.3 Measured and Calculated Patterns Involving Cylindrical Scatterers 57 2.9.4 Application to an Antenna Mounted on the Side of a Tower 57 2.9.5 Effect of Antenna Distortion on Coverage Range 61 2.9.6 Parasitically Driven Array Antennas 61 2.10 Indoor Fixed Sites 65 2.10.1 Wireless Local-Area Network Fixed Sites 66 2.10.2 Gain Antennas for UWB Pulses 66 2.11 Summary 68 Problems 69 References 73 3 Radio Communication Channel 77 3.1 Introduction 77 Contents ix 3.2 Guided Waves 78 3.2.1 Losses in Dielectrics 78 3.2.2 Losses in Conductors 80 3.2.3 Coaxial Transmission Lines 81 3.2.4 Parallel Transmission Lines 84 3.2.5 Minimum Attenuation in Transmission Lines 85 3.2.6 Summary of Transmission Line Relationships 86 3.2.7 Optical Fiber Transmission Lines 86 3.3 Basic Radiowave Propagation 87 3.3.1 Friis Transmission Formula 88 3.3.2 Comparison of Guided Wave and Radiowave Propagation Attenuation 89 3.4 Wave Polarization 90 3.4.1 Polarization of Antennas 90 3.4.2 Polarization Characteristics of Antennas 91 3.4.3 Polarization Mismatch in Antennas 91 3.4.4 Polarization Filtering: An Experiment in Optics 92 3.4.5 Polarization Scattering and the Radar Equation 93 3.5 Summary 94 Problems 95 References 98 4 Radio Frequency Spectrum 99 4.1 Introduction 99 4.2 Extremely Low and Very Low Frequencies (<30 kHz) 101 4.3 Low and Medium Frequencies (30 kHz to 3 MHz) 103 4.4 High Frequencies (3 to 30 MHz) 103 4.4.1 Ionosphere 104 4.4.2 Layers in the Ionosphere 104 4.4.3 Ionized Gases 105 4.4.4 Ionospheric Reflection 106 4.4.5 Maximum Usable Frequency 106 4.4.6 Multiple Hops in Shortwave Communications 107 x Radiowave Propagation and Antennas for Personal Communications 4.5 Very High Frequencies and Ultrahigh Frequencies (30 MHz to 3 GHz) 110 4.5.1 Communications via Scattering from Meteor Trails 110 4.5.2 Propagation by Tropospheric Bending 113 4.5.3 Tropospheric Scattering 113 4.6 Above Ultrahigh Frequencies (Above 3 GHz) 114 4.7 Picking an Optimum Operating Frequency 114 4.8 Multiuser Communications Systems 117 4.8.1 Paging Systems 118 4.8.2 Digital Voice Broadcasting Systems 122 4.8.3 Packet Access Systems 123 4.8.4 Cellular and Mobile Voice Systems 125 4.8.5 Third-Generation Voice and Data Mobile Systems 129 4.8.6 Broadband Wireless Access Systems 131 4.8.7 Wireless Local-Area Network Systems 132 4.8.8 UWB Systems 134 4.9 Summary 135 Problems 136 References 141 5 Communications Using Earth-Orbiting Satellites 145 5.1 Introduction 145 5.2 Satellite Orbit Fundamentals 146 5.2.1 Orbital Mechanics 146 5.2.2 Orbital Predictions 148 5.2.3 Types of Orbits 149 5.2.4 Big LEO Systems 151 5.3 Satellite Propagation Path 151 5.3.1 Path Loss in a Satellite Link 152 5.3.2 Doppler Shift 154 5.3.3 Coverage from Satellites 155 5.3.4 Link Characteristics from Earth-Orbiting Satellites 157 5.4 Polarization Effects in Signals from an Orbiting Satellite 160 5.4.1 Effects of Reflections and Diffractions 160 Contents xi 5.4.2 Faraday Rotation of Polarization 161 5.5 Summary 163 Problems 164 References 169 6 Radiowave Propagation over a Smooth Earth 171 6.1 Introduction 171 6.2 A Two-Ray Propagation Model for Harmonic Waves 171 6.2.1 Spherical Wave with Modifiers 172 6.2.2 Plane Wave Reflection Coefficients 174 6.2.3 Two-Layer Ground Model 175 6.2.4 Surface Wave Factor 176 6.2.5 Grazing Angle of Incidence 177 6.3 An Open-Field Test Range Model 178 6.3.1 A Two-Ray Model of an Open-Field Test Site 180 6.3.2 Field Strength Versus Ground Parameters 181 6.3.3 Field-Strength Profile on a 45m Range 182 6.3.4 Calibrating a Test Site 183 6.3.5 Effect of the Calibration Gain Standard 185 6.4 UWB Pulse Propagation with a Ground Reflection 187 6.4.1 UWB Pulse in Free Space 187 6.4.2 Ground Reflection with a UWB Pulse 190 6.4.3 UWB Pulses Sent at High Repetition Rate 193 6.5 Summary 194 Problems 194 References 197 7 Radiowave Propagation: Urban and Suburban Paths 199 7.1 Introduction 199 7.2 Theoretical Models for Urban Propagation 200 7.2.1 Diffracting Screens Model 200 7.2.2 COST 231 Model 205 7.2.3 Diffraction over Knife-Edge Obstacles 206 7.3 Empirical Models for Urban Propagation 208 xii Radiowave Propagation and Antennas for Personal Communications 7.3.1 Okumura Signal Prediction Method 208 7.3.2 Hata and Modified Hata Formulas 208 7.3.3 Ibrahim and Parsons Method: London Model 212 7.4 Propagation beyond the Horizon 214 7.5 Propagation within, near, and into Buildings 216 7.5.1 Theoretical In-Building Multipath-Based Model 216 7.5.2 Theoretical In-Building Ray-Tracing Model 217 7.5.3 An In-Room Deterministic Propagation Model 218 7.5.4 Propagation near Buildings 221 7.5.5 Propagation into Buildings 223 7.6 Polarization Effects 224 7.6.1 Polarization Cross-Coupling Model Using Diffraction 225 7.6.2 An Urban Model of Polarization Cross-Coupling 227 7.6.3 Polarization Cross-Coupling Measurements 229 7.6.4 A Three-Dimensional Model of Incident Waves 231 7.7 Summary 231 Problems 232 References 235 8 Signals in Multipath Propagation 239 8.1 Introduction 239 8.2 Urban Propagation: Understanding Signal Behavior 241 8.3 Statistical Descriptions of Signals 242 8.3.1 Multipath and Fading: Local Variations 243 8.3.2 Large-Scale Signal Variations 246 8.3.3 Combining Cumulative Distribution Functions 247 8.3.4 Normal Approximation to Composite CDF 248 8.3.5 Small-Scale Signal Variations and Delay Spread 248 8.3.6 Multipath with UWB Pulses 251 8.3.7 Relation Between Multipath and Propagation Law 252 8.4 Signal Strength Required for Communications 254 8.4.1 Signal Call Success Probability 255 8.4.2 Determining the Fixed Station Power 257 8.5 Diversity Techniques 258 Contents xiii 8.5.1 Diversity Improvement by Repeated Transmission 258 8.5.2 Simultaneous Transmissions in Radio Communications 259 8.5.3 Diversity Reception by Multiple Antennas 263 8.5.4 Diversity Reception of Lognormally Distributed Signals 266 8.5.5 Diversity Reception of Rayleigh-Distributed Signals 268 8.5.6 Mitigation of Multipath Effects 270 8.5.7 Maximum Rake Gain for UWB Pulses in Multipath 271 8.6 Multiple-Input, Multiple-Output Systems 271 8.6.1 A MIMO System Reference Model 271 8.6.2 MIMO System Capacity 273 8.6.3 MIMO System Capacity with a LOS Component 273 8.7 Summary 274 Problems 275 References 278 9 Receiver Sensitivity and Transmitted Fields 281 9.1 Introduction 281 9.2 Field-Strength Sensitivity of Receivers 282 9.2.1 Statistical Method for Measuring Field-Strength Sensitivity 282 9.2.2 Determining the 80% Calling Response Rate 283 9.2.3 Accuracy of the 20-Call Test 284 9.2.4 A Simplified Three-of-Three Method 285 9.3 Relating Field Strength to Received Power 286 9.3.1 Pattern Gain Averaging 287 9.3.2 Averaging Methods for Mobile Phone
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