DOCSLIB.ORG

Progress Toward a Practical Skywave Sea-State Radar

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Progress Toward a Practical Skywave Sea-State Radar EEE TILANSACTIONS ON ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION, VOL. “-28, NO. 6, NOVEMBER 1980 75 1 Progress Toward a Practical Skywave Sea-State Radar T. M.GEORGES Absrracr-Recent advancesin propagation modeling, ionospheric theNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s diagnostics,and signalprocessing have helped overcome the lim- (NOAA’s) Coastal Ocean Dynamics Radar (CODAR) system. itations the ionosphere imposes on sea-state measurements with HF Apair of these compact transportable HF radarsproduces skywave radar.Wind-direction fields in tropicalstorms can be surface-current-vector maps out to 70 km from shore in near- routinely mapped under mostionospheric conditions, but waveheight real-time [6]. Othersurface-wave radars have beenused to andwave-spectrum extractionismore sensitive to ionospheric measure rms waveheight, as well as the scalar and directional distortions and requires care in signal processing and in selecting an ocean-wave spectra [ 71. Because surface-wave radars present ionosphericpath. Spot measurements with a high-resolutionradar have verified its ability to measure (in order of increasing dif€iculty) fewremaining problems and are now virtually operational, wind-direction fields,rms waveheight,and the scalar ocean-wave onlythose problems unique to skywave systems will be spectrumat rangesup to 3000 km using one ionospherichop. addressed here. Althoughsuch a radar can in principle map thesequantities over It is the increase in single-radar coverage area from thou- millions of square kilometers of an ocean area, the time requiredto do sands to millions of square kilometers that prompts the use of so under various ionospheric conditions remains to be determined. A ionosphericreflection with its attendant contaminations. minimumobjective of onemap of rms waveheight per day seems Except for the effects of the intervening ionospheric reflec- attainable. tions: the sea echoes received by skywave radars are identical tothose obtained with surface-wave illumination. Initially, I. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE researcherswere optimistic that the effects of imperfect ionospheric reflection could be easily predicted and controlled KYWAVEradars sense natural and man-made targets andthat vast oceanareas could be monitored with a few beyond the optical horizon by bouncing HF radio waves S judiciously located skywave radar stations [ 8 I , [ 91 . Some of off the ionosphere. The first skywave radars were research in- this optimism dissipated when they discovered that, although strumentsdeveloped in the late forties and early fifties to wind-directionfields can usually be mapped, ionospheric study the structure and motions of the ionosphere itself, using degradation of thesea-echo spectrum often prevented the echoesbackscattered from the earth. Many researchers tried extraction of other important sea-state information, such as to developground-backscatter radar into anoperational the rms waveheight. Therefore, progress in skywave sea-state diagnoseic toolfor ionospheric mapping or HF frequency radar development in the lastfive years might be characterized management,but because of problems in uniquelytrans- as a reassessment of the ionospheric problem and a marshalling formingradar signatures into ionospheric structure: such of forces to deal with it. effortshave been largely abandoned. Consequently, the re- Renewed optimism about skywave radar now seemswar- views of suchapplications by Hayden [ 11 andCroft [2] ranted because of four developments: 1) improved understand- remain reasonably up-to-date. ing of the spectral contamination caused by the ionosphere, In the fifties, the prospect of detecting and tracking mili- b) an ability to derive optimum radar propagation paths from tarytargets (missiles, aircraft, and ships) with an over-the- real-timeionospheric soundings, c). the availabilityof high- horizon (OTH) radar -spurred a distinct and largely classified resolution radar facilities built with defense funds, and d) the line of research that led to the construction in the sixties and evolution ofhigh-speed signal processing strategies to deal with seventies of large-aperture HF-OTH radar arrays by the major contaminated data. powers [31, 141, [511. The subject of this review is the third and most recent ap- 11. THEORETICAL BASIS plicationof skywave radar-sea-state monitoring-in which information about the wind and wave fields at the sea surface Crombie’sobservations [ 51 stimulated wave theorists to is derived from the sea-clutter echo that is regarded as noise constructbetter models of the interaction of HF electrc- in surveillance systems. magnetic waves with gravity waves on the sea surface. Their A sea-state radar need not employan ionospheric (skywave) radar-cross-sectionmodels had to explain not only the first- path.Indeed, the whole field of HFradar oceanography orderor Bragg-backscattering process that produces an echo evolved from surface-wave experiments by Crombie [ 51 who with two sharp spectral lines but also the spectral structure of first demonstrated HF Bragg scattering by sea waves of half an observed weaker second-order continuum of echoes from the radar wavelength. Refinements in the mathematical model doublescattering by the sea waves. Barrick [lo], [ 11 ] has of HF scattering from the sea and the evolution of high-speed produced the most comprehensive second-order model for the signal-processingsystems have rapidly led tothe present HF seaecho spectrum and its dependenceon sea state, and his stateofsurface-wave radar development represented by modelhas withstood numerous comparisons between ex- perimentallymeasured sea-echo spectra and in situsampling ofocean-wave parameters. According to his model,two Manuscript received April 1, 1980; revised July 10, 1980. mechanismscontribute to the second-order continuum: one T. M. Georges is with the Wave Propagation Laboratory, National Oceanicand Atmospheric Administration, Environmental Research is actuallysingle scattering from evanescent ocean-wave Laboratories, Boulder, CO 80303. componentsthat arise from nonlinear hydrodynamic inter- U.S. Government work not protected by U.S. copyright. 752 IEEE TRANSACTIONSON ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION,VOL. AP-28, NO. 6, NOVEMBER 1980 action of two water waves; the second contribution is from radar waves twicescattered from the water surface before returning to theradar. Interpretingthe properties of thefirst-order or Bragg- scatter features of the Doppler spectrum permits measurement of surface wind direction and surface currents, whereas analy- sis ofthe second-order contributions to the echo spectrum hasled to methodsfor extracting rms waveheight and both the scalar and directional ocean-wave spectrum from measured -1 HZ 0 +lHZ sea-echo spectra. When waveheight measurements are coupled Doppler Shlt with suitable models for wind-wave generation, surface wind speed can also be estimated. A - Short wlnd-wave drrectlon (surface wnd d~recbon). B - Surfacecurrent. 111. MEASUREMENT HIERARCHY D/c - Rrns wave heght Some of the sea-statequantities just mentioned are rela- E - Scalar ocean-wave spectrum tivelyeasy to measurewith an HF radar,whereas others, namelythose derived from second-order echoes, require F - Frequency of domlnant Dcean waw more care in removing noise and interference from the radar Fig. 1. Many quantities that indicate conditions at the sea surface echo. Here we summarize the particular oceanographic quanti- can be extracted from the spectrum of HF radar sea echoes. Those ties that an HF sea-state radar can measure, briefly describe derived from the fiist-order spectral features (A and B) are easier howeach quantity is derived fromthe sea-echo spectrum, to measure in the presence of noiseand contamination than are and assess theparticular problems that arise in making that those derived from second-order features (D/C, E, and F). measurement with a skywave radar (seeFig. 1). B. Surface Currents A. Wind-Direction Fields Becausesurface currents simply transport gravity waves The short ocean waves (a few meters in length) that pro- (withminor complications introduced by current shear), duce first-order, Bragg-resonant echoes at HF respond quickly the Bragg lines of the Doppler spectrum are simply shifted in to the driving wind, so that the resonant waves of maximum frequency (from symmetry about zero Doppler) by an amount intensitytravel in the direction of the surface wind. If the proportional to the radial(from the radar) current com- directional pattern of these waves’ response to the wind can ponent[20]. Thus, mapping currents is relativelystraight- bemodeled, then the wind direction can be determined forward with a pairof surface-wave radars [61, [ 21 ], [ 531. (exceptfor a left-right ambiguity with respect to the radar With a skywave radar, one kind of ionospheric contamina- beam direction) by matching that pattern to relative strengths tion is a frequency shift of the seaecho spectrum caused by of the Bragg echo from waves advancing and receding along upwardor downward motion of the reflecting layer, Such theradar beam. (Brag-line echoes are virtually always ob- shifts are indistinguishable from a current-induced shift. Thus, tained even from visually calm seas.) The first demonstrations unlessthe target sea areaincludes a zero-Doppler reference of skywaveradar for ocean monitoring produced maps of (such as land or a moored platform), surface currents cannot wind-directionfields derived fromsuch measurements of be extracted from skywave sea echoes. Maresca and Carlson Bragg-line ratios [12], [131, [141, [151,
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Radio Communications in the Digital Age
    Radio Communications In the Digital Age Volume 1 HF TECHNOLOGY Edition 2 First Edition: September 1996 Second Edition: October 2005 © Harris Corporation 2005 All rights reserved Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 96-94476 Harris Corporation, RF Communications Division Radio Communications in the Digital Age Volume One: HF Technology, Edition 2 Printed in USA © 10/05 R.O. 10K B1006A All Harris RF Communications products and systems included herein are registered trademarks of the Harris Corporation. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION...............................................................................1 CHAPTER 1 PRINCIPLES OF RADIO COMMUNICATIONS .....................................6 CHAPTER 2 THE IONOSPHERE AND HF RADIO PROPAGATION..........................16 CHAPTER 3 ELEMENTS IN AN HF RADIO ..........................................................24 CHAPTER 4 NOISE AND INTERFERENCE............................................................36 CHAPTER 5 HF MODEMS .................................................................................40 CHAPTER 6 AUTOMATIC LINK ESTABLISHMENT (ALE) TECHNOLOGY...............48 CHAPTER 7 DIGITAL VOICE ..............................................................................55 CHAPTER 8 DATA SYSTEMS .............................................................................59 CHAPTER 9 SECURING COMMUNICATIONS.....................................................71 CHAPTER 10 FUTURE DIRECTIONS .....................................................................77 APPENDIX A STANDARDS
    [Show full text]
  • Comparison of Available Methods for Predicting Medium Frequency Sky-Wave Field Strengths
    NTIA-Report-80-42 Comparison of Available Methods for Predicting Medium Frequency Sky-Wave Field Strengths Margo PoKempner us, DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE Philip M. Klutznick, Secretary Henry Geller, Assistant Secretary for Communications and Information June 1980 I j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES iv LIST OF TABLES iv ABSTRACT 1 1. INTRODUCTION 1 2. CHRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF MF FIELD-STRENGTH PREDICTION METHODS 2 3. DISCUSSION OF THE METHODS 4 3.1 Cairo Curves 4 3.2 The FCC Curves 7 3.3 Norton Method 10 3.4 EBU Method 11 3.5 Barghausen Method 12 3.6 Revision of EBU Method for the African LF/MF Broadcasting Conference 12 3.7 Olver Method 12 3.8 Knight Method 13 3.9 The CCIR Geneva 1974 Methods 13 3.10 Wang 1977 Method 15 3.11 The CCIR Kyoto 1978 Method 15 3.12 The Wang 1979 Method 16 4.
    [Show full text]
  • Reception of Skywave Signals Near a Coastline
    JOURNAL OF RESEARCH of the National Bureau of Standards-D. Radio Propagation Vol. 67D, No.3, May- June 1963 Reception of Skywave Signals Near a Coastline J. Bach Andersen Contribution from Laboratory of Electromagnetic Theory, The Technical University of Denmark, Copenhagen, Denmark (Recei\'ed November 5, 1962) An experimental investigation has been made on t he influence of gt'ou nd inhomoge­ neities on the reception of skywave sig nals, especiall y t he in fluence of the conductivity contrast ncar a coastline. This gives rise to a r apid decrease in fi eld strength ncar til(' coastline as is "'ell known from g roundwave mixed path theory. Comparison with Lheory is given. Infl uC'llce of dilhts(' reflection from t he ionosplwre is also cOIl :; idereri . 1. Introduction conditions, i. e., a s Lraight boundary lin e, n,lt <l IH1 homogeneo us sectiollS , it was co nsidered worthwhile ;,lany factors influence the radiation 01' reception to measure tbe field in tensity at a n actual reception of skywave signals in the shortw,we ra nge, a nd in site in order to find Lhe deviation s from the simple choosing a proper site for a HF-a ntenna it is impor­ theory. tant to evaluate the influence of the various factors. lnstead of m eftsuring t he verticlll radiation pat­ They include th e electrical parameters (the conduc­ tern aL d iIrerent distances from Lhe coastlin e, the tivity and the p ermi ttiv ity) of the groulld, hills, or fi eld intensity from a distf\nL Lran smitter was m eas­ clift's a nd other irregularities of the sbape of the ured simultaneo usly at two d ifr erent places.
    [Show full text]
  • Interpretation and Utilization of the Echo
    PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 62, NO. 6, JUNE 1974 673 Sea Backscatter at HF: Interpretation and Utilization of the Echo DONALD E. BARRICK, MEMBER, IEEE, JAMES M. HEADRICK, SENIOR MEMBER, IEEE, ROBERT W. BOGLE, DOUGLASS D. CROMBIE AND Abstract-Theories and concepts for utilization of HF sea echo are compared and tested against surface-wave measurements made from San Clemente Island in the Pacific in a joint NRL/ITS/NOAA Although the heights of ocean waves are generally small experiment. The use of first-order sea echo as a reference target for in terms of these radar wavelengths, the scattered echo is calibration of HF over-the-horizon radars is established. Features of the higher order Doppler spectrum can be employed to deduce the nonetheless surprisingly large and readily interpretable in principal parameters of the wave-height directional. spectrum (i.e., terms of its Doppler features. The fact that these heights are sea state); and it is shown that significant wave height can be read small facilitates the analysis of scatter using the perturbation from the spectral records. Finally, it is shown that surface currents approximation. This theory [2] produces an equation which and current (depth) gradients can be inferred from the same Doppler 1) agrees with the scattering mechanism deduced by Crombie sea-echo records. from experimental data; 2) properly predicts the positions of I. INTRODUCTION the dominant Doppler peaks; 3) shows how the dominant echo magnitude is related to the sea wave height; and 4) per­ mits an explanation of some of the less dominant, more com­ T WENTY YEARS ago Crombie [1] observed sea echo plex features of the sea echo through retention and use of the with an HF radar, and he correctly deduced the scatter­ higher order terms in the perturbation analysis.
    [Show full text]
  • KHF 950/990 HF Communications Transceiver PILOT’S GUIDE and DIRECTORY of HF SERVICES
    KHF 950/990 HF Communications Transceiver PILOT’S GUIDE AND DIRECTORY OF HF SERVICES A Table of Contents INTRODUCTION KHF 950/990 COMMUNICATIONS TRANSCEIVER . .I SECTION I CHARACTERISTICS OF HF SSB WITH ALE . .1-1 ACRONYMS AND DEFINITIONS . .1-1 REFERENCES . .1-1 HF SSB COMMUNICATIONS . .1-1 FREQUENCY . .1-2 SKYWAVE PROPAGATION . .1-3 WHY SINGLE SIDEBAND IS IMPORTANT . .1-9 AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM) . .1-9 SINGLE SIDEBAND OPERATION . .1-10 SINGLE SIDEBAND (SSB) . .1-10 SUPPRESSED CARRIER VS. REDUCED CARRIER . .1-10 SIMPLEX & SEMI-DUPLEX OPERATION . .1-11 AUTOMATIC LINK ESTABLISHMENT (ALE) . .1-11 FUNCTIONS OF HF RADIO AUTOMATION . .1-11 ALE ASSURES BEST COMM LINK AUTOMATICALLY . .1-12 SECTION II KHF 950/990 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION. .2-1 KCU 1051 CONTROL DISPLAY UNIT . .2-1 KFS 594 CONTROL DISPLAY UNIT . .2-3 KCU 951 CONTROL DISPLAY UNIT . .2-5 KHF 950 REMOTE UNITS . .2-6 KAC 952 POWER AMPLIFIER/ANT COUPLER .2-6 KTR 953 RECEIVER/EXITER . .2-7 ADDITIONAL KHF 950 INSTALLATION OPTIONS .2-8 SINGLE KHF 950 SYSTEM CONFIGURATION .2-9 KHF 990 REMOTE UNITS . .2-10 KAC 992 PROBE/ANTENNA COUPLER . .2-10 KTR 993 RECEIVER/EXITER . .2-11 SINGLE KHF 990 SYSTEM CONFIGURATION . .2-12 Rev. 0 Dec/96 KHF 950/990 Pilots Guide Toc-1 Table of Contents SECTION III OPERATING THE KHF 950/990 . .3-1 KHF 950/990 GENERAL OPERATING INFORMATION . .3-1 PREFLIGHT INSPECTION . .3-1 ANTENNA TUNING . .3-2 FAULT INDICATION . .3-2 TUNING FAULTS . .3-3 KHF 950/990 CONTROLS-GENERAL . .3-3 KCU 1051 CONTROL DISPLAY UNIT OPERATION .
    [Show full text]
  • Radio Communication Via Near Vertical Incidence Skywave Propagation: an Overview
    Telecommun Syst DOI 10.1007/s11235-017-0287-2 Radio communication via Near Vertical Incidence Skywave propagation: an overview Ben A. Witvliet1,2 · Rosa Ma Alsina-Pagès3 © The Author(s) 2017. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com Abstract Near Vertical Incidence Skywave (NVIS) propa- 1 Introduction gation can be used for radio communication in a large area (200km radius) without any intermediate man-made infras- Recently, interest in radio communication via Near Verti- tructure. It is therefore especially suited for disaster relief cal Incidence Skywave (NVIS) propagation has revived, not communication, communication in developing regions and in the least because of its role in emergency communica- applications where independence of local infrastructure is tions in large natural disasters that took place in the last desired, such as military applications. NVIS communication decade [1–3]. The NVIS propagation mechanism enables uses frequencies between approximately 3 and 10MHz. A communication in a large area without the need of a network comprehensive overview of NVIS research is given, cover- infrastructure, satellites or repeaters. This independence of ing propagation, antennas, diversity, modulation and coding. local infrastructure is essential for disaster relief communi- Both the bigger picture and the important details are given, cations, when the infrastructure is destroyed by a large scale as well as the relation between them. natural disaster, or in remote regions where this infrastructure is lacking. In military communications, where independence Keywords Radio communication · Emergency communi- of local infrastructure is equally important, communications cations · Radio wave propagation · Ionosphere · NVIS · via NVIS propagation have always remained important next Antennas · Diversity · Modulation to troposcatter and satellite links.
    [Show full text]
  • DOC-308662A1.Pdf
    ELEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION FISCAL YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1945 UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. WASHINGTON. 1946 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office: Washington 25, D. C. Price 20 cents COMMISSIONERS MEMBERS OF THE FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION [As of January 1, 1946] CHAIRMAN PAUL A. PORTER (Term expires June 30,1949) PAUL A. WALKER EWELL K. J'ETT (Term expires June 30, 1946) (Term. expires June 30, 1950) RAY C. WAKEFIELD CHARLES R. DENNY (Term expires June 30.1947) (Term expires June 30, 1951) CLIFFORD J. DURR WILLIAM H. WILLS (Term expires JUne. 30, 1948 ~ (Term expires June 30, 1952) 11 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS CO~IMISSION, Washingt"", 25, D.O., April 3, 194fJ. To the Oongress of the United State.: In accordance with the requirements of section 4 (k) of the Com­ munications Act, the Eleventh Annual Report of the Federal Com­ munications Commission for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1945, is submitted herewith. Respectfully, CHARLES R. DENNY, Acting Ohairman. III [ Page IV in the original document is intentionally blank J TABLE OF CONTENTS Page SUMMARy _ vii Chapter I. GENERAL_________________________________________________ 1 1. Administrative_ __ __ _ __ ___ __ 3 2. Commission membership changes_____________________ 3 3. Staff organization_ __________________________________ 3 4. PersonneL '_ _____ ____ ______ _ 8 5. Appropriatiotls_ _____ ___ __ ____ _______ __ __ 3 6,. LegislatioD_ ________________________________________ 4 7. Litigation_ _________________________________________ 4 8. Dockets_ __ __ __ ___ _______ 6 9. InternationaL ~ _________________________________ 6 10. Indepartment Radio Advisory Committee______________ 7 11. Freqnency allocation ~____ 7 II.
    [Show full text]
  • Report Itu-R M.2027*
    Rep. ITU-R M.2027 1 REPORT ITU-R M.2027* Engineering guidance for operators to upgrade shore based facilities to operate the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System in the A1, A2 and A3/A4 sea areas (2001) 1 Overview In order to establish a new A2, A3, or A4 sea area it is necessary to gain some knowledge of how the propagation conditions vary. A2 coverage is by groundwave, which is stable, enabling the extent of the service area to be confirmed by measurement before committing capital expenditure, which is recommended by the IMO. A3 and A4 coverage is by skywave which depends upon the condition of the ionosphere which varies with solar activity. Since this follows an 11-year cycle, the extent of the service area cannot be confirmed by performing a new measurement study, and administrations wishing to join the HF shore station network may require methods to verify feasibility and size the equipment required in order to confidently establish a project budget. The extent of the sea areas A2, A3, and A4 are specified by the IMO in Annex 3 to their resolution A.801(19), and § 3.4.1 of this Report provides charts for rapid assessment of the extent of the A2 sea area using this data, and also guidelines to enable administrations to make their own assessment of potential A3 and A4 coverage using HF prediction software in the context that each shore station is a member of a community of HF stations working together to provide the required grade of service.
    [Show full text]
  • Early Skywave Detection Network: Preliminary Design and Analysis
    Early Skywave Detection Network: Preliminary Design and Analysis Sherman Lo, Stanford University, Peter Morris, Raytheon, Per Enge, Stanford University, A skywave signal is one has propagated by reflecting off the ionosphere. These signals are common in low frequency (LF) broadcast. However, in Loran, these signals are nuisances since they interfere with the more stable groundwave signal. Loran-C was designed with mitigations for the most common forms of skywave interference. However, these mitigations are not adequate to mitigate early skywave, a short delay skywave that interferes with the tracking point of the Loran signal. The interference can affect both the measured envelope and phase (timing) of the Loran signal. These effects can be deleterious for the accuracy and integrity of a Loran position solution. Preserving integrity is critical for safety of life application such as aviation landing. As such mitigations for early skywave need to be designed. It is difficult for a mobile user receiver to detect and eliminate the effect of early skywave in Loran-C. For eLoran, a monitor network will be used to provide the necessary early skywave warning to protect integrity. The resulting reduction in availability is acceptable since early skywave is reasonably rare in the conterminous United States (CONUS). This paper describes early skywave and the phenomena that cause the event. It describes some characteristics that can be used for identifying and analyzing early skywave events. It also details the preliminary design and analysis of the monitor system. There are two major components to the network. The first is the monitor receiver that has to detect the skywave event locally.
    [Show full text]
  • Medium Frequency Propagation Prediction Techniques and Antenna Modeling for Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) Broadcast Applications
    NTIA Report 99-368 Medium Frequency Propagation Prediction Techniques and Antenna Modeling for Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) Broadcast Applications Nicholas DeMinco U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE William M. Daley, Secretary Larry Irving, Assistant Secretary for Communications and Information August 1999 This Page Intentionally Left Blank This Page Intentionally Left Blank CONTENTS Page FIGURES ....................................................................v ABSTRACT ..................................................................1 1. INTRODUCTION ...........................................................1 2. BASIC CONCEPTS IN RADIO-WAVE PROPAGATION ..........................3 3. GROUND-WAVE PROPAGATION ............................................4 3.1 SPECIFIC GROUND-WAVE PROPAGATION MODELS .....................8 4. SKY-WAVE PROPAGATION ...............................................20 5. ANTENNA MODELING ....................................................29 6. SYSTEM PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS AND PREDICTIONS ................42 7. CONCLUSION ............................................................57 8. REFERENCES ............................................................61 iii This Page Intentionally Left Blank This Page Intentionally Left Blank FIGURES Page Figure 1. Spherical smooth-Earth geometry. ......................................10 Figure 2. Spherical smooth-Earth mixed-path geometry. .............................15 Figure 3. Geometry for integral equation irregular-Earth model along the great circle path.
    [Show full text]
  • Analysis and Modeling of Skywave Behavior
    Analysis and Modeling of Skywave Behavior Sherman Lo, Stanford University, Robert Wenzel, Booz Allen Hamilton, Per Enge, Stanford University 1.0 Introduction Skywave signals are an inherent part of low frequency transmissions such as Loran. Unfortunately for navigation users, skywave signals are a source of interference to the Loran groundwave signal used for the range determination. The interference increases the variability of the range measurement. The result is poorer accuracy and a potential threat to navigation safety. The Loran signal design allows the user receiver to mitigate most skywave. While this is acceptable for many applications, safety of life scenarios require dealing with all likely events. This means handling the most severe form of skywave - short delay skywave or “early skywave”. Since early skywave is difficult for a moving user to detect, the eLoran system will have to provide warning of these events. Likely, it will utilize a monitor network to detect and warn against situations that would lead to early skywave. These monitors need to be able to detect early skywave and do so in a rapid manner. This paper examines the nature of skywave and how it induces error through the receiver front. First, an understanding how the front end affects the Loran skywave is needed to allow us to develop reasonable models and define the threat space. An understanding of the nature of skywave will assist in developing monitoring algorithms for rapid and accurate detection. We study how the receiver front end affects the error induced by skywave. We model the front end using simple filter models and examine how differences in ECD and delay affect the error in measured time of arrival (TOA).
    [Show full text]
  • NVIS Near Vertical Incidence Skywave NVIS, Or Near Vertical Incidence Skywave, Refers to a Radio Propagation Mode Which Involves
    NVIS Near Vertical Incidence Skywave NVIS, or Near Vertical Incidence Skywave, refers to a radio propagation mode which involves the use of antennas with a very high radiation angle, approaching or reaching 90 degrees (straight up), along with selection of an appropriate frequency below the critical frequency, to establish reliable communications over a radius of 0-200 miles or so, give or take 100 miles. Although not all radio amateurs have heard the term NVIS, many have used that mode when making nearby contacts on 160 meters or 80 meters at night, or 80 meters or 40 meters during the day. They may have thought of these nearby contacts as necessarily involving the use of groundwave propagation, but many such contacts involve no groundwave signal at all, or, if the groundwave signal is involved, it may hinder, instead of help. Deliberate exploitation of NVIS is best achieved using antenna installations which achieve some balance between minimizing groundwave (low takeoff angle) radiation, and maximizing near vertical incidence skywave (very high takeoff angle) radiation. As hams, we often faithfully follow the advice: get your antenna up as high as you can get it! We do this, and other things (like choosing antennas that have a low angle of radiation) in order to maximize the distance over which we can communicate. An antenna with a particularly high angle of radiation is often somewhat disparagingly referred to as a "cloudwarmer", the implication being that if the signal isn't radiated at a low enough angle, it's being wasted. For NVIS, we ignore all this traditional advice, and select instead techniques which will maximize not our DX, but our ability to reliably communicate with other stations within a radius of 0-300 miles.
    [Show full text]