Observation on the Limitations of (Action) in the Shankara

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The principal constitute the final portion of the and therefore, are known as ‘Vedanta.’ Later on, San- skrit utilized major Upanishads for building up one of the most important system of philosophy, namely the Vedanta. So now the word ‘Vedanta’ has come to mean the philosophy rather than the Upanishads, the source material from which that phi- losophy is developed. The Upanishads are neither the work of one seer nor they reveal any explicit subject. They are documents ex- ploring the revelation of higher reality intuited by different Vedic seers at different times. These texts describing Brahmavidya are interpreted by ancient Indian philosophers variously and thus dif- ferent philosophical systems are constituted such as Kevala-advaita, Vishisht-advaita, Dvaita, Shuddh-advaita, Daita-advaita etc. Among them philosophy of Vedanta enunciated by Adi Shankar- (788-820 A.D.) is called’ Kevalaadvaita’ It is also known as Shankara- Vedanta due to his immense contribution to Vedanta. In his life time, Shankara defeated in debate the followers of the path of , , , Kapalikas etc. and 44 laLÑr&foe'kZ% established his doctrines of his philosophy. Be- sides being a philosopher and a debater he was a saint, a poet and a great religious reformer. From that time, Advaita philosophy has influenced Indian religious life to a great extent. In this reference S.N. Dasgupta may be quoted, “So great is the influence of the philosophy propounded by Shankara and elaborated by his illus- trious followers that whenever we speak of Vedanta-Philosophy, we mean the philosophy that was propounded by Shankara. If other expositions, are intended, the names of the exponents have to be mentioned, e.g. Ramanujamata, Vallabhamata, etc.”1

1. Major Doctrines of Acharya Shankara Shankaracharya wrote commentaries on Prasthana-trayi - Major (eleven) Upanishads, Brahmasutra and Shrimadbhagava- dgita and tried to establish his principles related to , Jiva. , world, life, liberation etc. He propounded the doctrine of identity of Brahman and Atman. Salvation () or deliver- ance from the cycle of birth and death is the Vedantic goal of hu- man life. He holds that the world of multiplicity has its being in the non-dual Brahman apart from which it has no independent existence or reality. Shankara accepts perception, inference and scriptural testimony as the sources of valid knowledge. According to him the emancipation or liberation (Moksha) is the result of real knowledge of the identity of the Self and Brahman. By knowledge, Shankara means realization of the Self, a rare event, which can take place only when aspirant is most competent. Perception of oneness is knowledge and perception of diversity is not-knowl- edge. Liberation is merely a discovery of one’s non-dual Self. - parent multiplicity is nothing but result of ignorance. It is sure that only knowledge of Self (Jnana) leads to liberation. For this state- ment there are a number of Upanishadic evidences: ‘Without knowledge, there is no salvation.2’ ‘He who knows the Supreme Brahman verily becomes Brahman’.3 ‘When to the knower all be- ings become one with his own Self, what delusion, what grief can there be when one perceives the unity?’4 After realizing the high- est reality there is no place for lamentation. Thus path of knowl- edge (Jnana) alone is the means for attaining liberation according to Shankara Vedanta. He has emphasized that there can be no state of liberation without real knowledge of Self. Actually supreme knowledge’ . is the knowledge of oneness. In other words that is to know the identity of the Self and the Brahman. The seeker has to know that Supreme Brahman who resides in all beings. As Observation on the Limitations of Karma (Action)... 45 says Upanishad. ‘the wise beholds all beings in his own Self and his own Self in all beings; for that reason he does not hate any- one.’5 All the revulsion arises from seeing some thing different from Self. For a man who all the time sees the Self there is no object which could cause the feeling of revulsion. A man endowed with Self- knowledge remains undisturbed by the outer manifestations of ugliness or beauty, strength or weakness. For the knower multi- plicity is shattered and he is free from pain and pleasure. According to Shankara in order to obtain this knowledge, one has to acquire four qualifications, namely (1) discrimination between eternal and non-eternal ( Nilyanitya-vastu- vivek), (2) non- attachment to the enjoyment of this and the other world ( lhamutra- phalabhoga-viraga), (3) six ethical qualifications ( Shama- damadisadhanasampatti), and (4) intense desire for liberation ( Mumuksha). In his work entitled ‘Vivekchudamani’ Shankara has explained these qualities as essential conditions for the seeker of Supreme . He has highlighted that Self-knowledge should be imparted by a Brahmanishtha Guru to a tested sincere disciple having these qualities. For a knower attainment of true knowl- edge alone is liberation.

2. Importance of Actions (Karma) in Life All the important scriptures instruct upon actions, espe- cially performance of duties prescribed in the scriptures must be done by human beings. The result of Karma or ritualistic perfor- mances is told in Vedic texts as attainment of celestial abodes. As such an attainment is transitory and material, thus practice of karma is considered unwise. The Bhagavadgila also disapproves Sakama Karma. Gita is well known for establishing the principle of action without attachment (Nishkama Karma- ).6 It says, ‘You have a right to perform your prescribed duty, but you are not entitled to the fruits of action.’ The in the second verse exhorts, ‘By doing Karma one should wish to live here for a hundred years.’7 This means that should one desire to live a hun- dred years then it is only doing the actions like Agnihotra etc., enjoined for him. For such a man there is no other mode whereby he is not tainted with evil actions. Gita says no one can live with- out doing actions. Even in sleeping state mind remains active. The journey of life cannot be fulfilled without performing actions. Gita instructs, ‘Perform your prescribed duty, for doing so is better than not working.’8 Commenting on the second verse of lsha Upanishad, 46 laLÑr&foe'kZ% commentator Upannishad-Brahmayogi has written that it is bet- ter for an ignorant to perform actions even with desires. The ac- tions are considered necessary requirement for worldly beings in almost every philosophical move.

3. Salvation and Knowledge It is universally accepted in Indian intellectual traditions that freedom of soul is the ultimate goal of mankind. It is known as fourth Purushartha. Also, there is no point of difference in real- izing that the supreme happiness lies in the liberation of soul, but there are various opinions in regard to the ways of achieving this goal. Even the position and the relation of knowledge and action are looked at from different view-points. Some philosophers advo- cate knowledge as the sole means of liberation, while others advo- cate the combination of action and knowledge as the means of it. Similarly, from generations, the way of right living has been a seri- ous question. Is life to be spent in walking the path of renunciation or in striving on the path of action? The Vedic literature covers a wide range of thoughts about it, but Isha Upanishad’s real excel- lence lies in the analysis of the two doctrines, the two ways, i.e. knowledge ( Jnana) and action( Karma). According to some think- ers who are called Samuccayavadins, the Isha Upanisad advo- cates a synthesis of Karma and Jnana for the attainment of final liberation. But according to some other commentators it describes Jnana and Karma as two different ways, meant for different types of seekers, for attaining different results. The seer of the Isha Upanishad teaches the way to know the real nature of Brahman and also the way to lead a successful life. For this the great declarations of opening two verses are im- portant. They refer to two disciplines. The first verse shows the path of knowledge and prescribes the discipline of complete re- nunciation. It states, ‘whatever there is changeful in this changing world, all that must be enveloped by the Lord. Protect the Self by renunciation. Do not covet the wealth of anyone.’9 This profound utterance declares that the whole universe is nothing but the Brah- man. He is identical with the Atman. An illumined person regards the whole universe as Atman alone, and so he renounces the worldly objects. The second verse indicates the path of action. It declares, ‘For a man, there is no way other than Karma. Actions should be performed in a spirit of dedication so that they do not cling to the Self.’10 This says that those who are attached Observation on the Limitations of Karma (Action)... 47 to earthly life should perform righteous duties in a spirit of dedica- tion. The verse provides the philosophical background of the Karma-yoga of Gita. Again in this Upanishad, verses nine to eleven indicate that Vidya and Avidya are to be taken together for a su- perior result. ‘He who knows Vidya and Avidya both together crosses death through Avidya and attains Amritam through Vidya’. Most of the commentators take these words in the mean- ing of knowledge and action respectively in reference to its gen- eral usage in Upanishads. However in we find these terms and a clear hint that both are different to each other, ‘That which is known as Vidya (knowledge) and that which is known as Avidya (ignorance or action) are widely contradictory, and they follow divergent courses.’11

4. Synthesis of knowledge and Action The Jnanakarmasamuccayavadin philosophers advocating the combination of knowledge and actions, believe that Isha Upanishad presents a synthesis of knowledge and action. Accord- ing to them, the first verse enunciates the concept of knowledge and the basic philosophy of life, ‘Know the Supreme Lord, present in all beings as Atman and enjoy the world, but with a feeling of non-attachment’. The second verse enunciates the concept of ac- tion and illustrates its importance. ‘We must do actions and not refrain from them’. Detachment does not mean inaction. In fact attachment is the cause of pain and suffering. So always perform duties in a spirit of detachment. Thus the Upanishad hints at the combination of knowledge and action. It is not necessary to with- draw from active life to give oneself up to the contemplative. In the opinion of Madhva (Dvaita school) and Vedanta Deshika ( school) even Jnani or Samnyasin cannot give up action, though of course his action must be without attachment. Uvata and Mahidhara. the commentators of (Isha Upanishad is fortieth chapter of Yajurveda), point out that verses nine to eleven of this Upanishad state that Vidya (knowledge) and Avidya (action) are to be taken together by a seeker. Harmoniza- tion of these two is suggested here for the attainment of immortal- ity ‘Amrita’ or Moksha. The verse says, ‘Who synthesizes both, crosses death, evil by Avidya (action) and enjoys immortality, per- fection by Vidya (knowledge).’12 Thus this view point recommends the synthesis of knowledge and action as the means of liberation. It presents the doctrine that a man attains the ultimate goal only by the combined pursuit of religious duties (Karma) and spiritual 48 laLÑr&foe'kZ% knowledge (Jnana) together. Knowledge without action or action without knowledge cannot lead to salvation.

5. Antithesis between Knowledge and Action According to Shankara’s interpretation Isha Upanishad re- fers the concept of knowledge and action very differently. Both the paths are totally different as they lead to different destina- tions. Knowledge leads to final liberation, while action fulfils ma- terial desires. The first verse of the Isha Upanishad enunciates to the path of knowledge through renunciation of all desires and the second verse expounds’ the path of actions (rituals) for those who are ignorant, desirous of long life on earth and incapable of culti- vating devotion to knowledge. In his opinion, these are two an- cient paths described in the Vedas. First mantra talks about devo- tion to knowledge for one who can renounce, while the second mantra speaks about devotion to performance of action, for one who is unable to renounce. In his commentary, Shankara quotes Taittiriya which says that path of renunciation excels.13 Explaining the verses from nine to eleven of lsha Upanishad, Shankaracharya takes the term Vidya in the meaning of ‘knowl- edge of deities’ because he is firm that Vidya meaning Jyana will be wrong here as mantra is taking about the practice of Vidya and Avidya simultaneously by one person. In the commentary of Gita too we find his same viewpoint. In the introduction there he presents seven points (yuktis) to prove that Lord has told two paths very differently - Sankhya Budhi and Yoga Buddhi. First is path of knowledge and the sec- ond is path of action. They cannot be performed by a person at the same time because they need diverse attitude. Knowledge cannot be combined with action. If Shri Krishna has instructed Arjun to pursuit them jointly, he would have not asked, ‘O Krishna! First of all You ask me to renounce work, and then You recommend work with devotion. Now will You kindly tell me definitely which of the two is more beneficial?’14 In the opinion of Acharya Shakara, there is basic antithesis between Jnana and Karma since they lead to distinct destinations. Knowledge alone constitutes Moksha or lib- eration. Action by itself cannot lead to ultimate goal to which knowledge leads. The antithesis between knowledge and action is as unshakable as a mountain. These are the two paths serially to be practice - first the path of action and later the path of renuncia- tion. The later involves thc abandonment of the three desires. Of Observation on the Limitations of Karma (Action)... 49 these two, the path of renunciation is to be preferred. Accord- ingly, the discipline of Self-knowledge and the way of worldly enjoyment are totally incompatible. A sannyasin, seeking Self- knowledge, is indifferent to both life and death. Atman, the Self, is all-pervading Consciousness and the inner core of all things, great and small. Though dwelling in body, It is bodiless, though associated with changing things, It is un- changing. One cannot know Atman either by means of much study or through a keen intellect.l5 Atman is to be known here and now, and not else where after death, if a man knows Atman here he attains the true goal of life and if he dose not know Atman here, a great destruction awaits him.16 The nature of Brahman or Atman is Existence-Knowledge-Bliss Absolute. It dwells in every heart. On account of maya, a man is not conscious of his true Self. So the only way of liberation is that of the Knowledge of Self. Upanishads lay down again and again Self-knowledge as the only condition of Self-realization. This Self-realization is Moksha in Shankara- Vedanta. Moksha is not a new acquisition. It is neither produced by knowledge nor is it the result of knowledge. Any thing that is produced has a beginning and an end and cannot be immortal. Liberation is not an effect of any action. An effect does not exist before it is produced but immortal Brahman always exists. The Self always exists, undimmed and undiminished, neither waxing nor waning through a man’s good actions. Like the sun, however, it can be hidden by the cloud of ignorance and is reveled when the ignorance is destroyed by Knowledge. Self-knowledge bestows lib- eration from the sufferings phenomenal existence. Shankara on this point is decisively uncompromising and emphatically maintains that Jnana and Karma can not be done by any person at one time. Knowledge and actions (rituals) cannot, by any means, be reconciled, because they are contradictory both as to their nature and as to their ultimate result. The co-existence between the two is impossible. They are opposite of each other in their causes, nature and result. The result of ignorance or action is entanglement in the world, and that of knowledge, liberation from the world. A knower of Self is rendered incapable of action as the distinctions of agent, means of action and the aims or worlds to be attained by action, are seen as nothing but the non-dual Self. For him ignorance has been totally destroyed. Hence he cannot per- form any ritualistic action which is result of ignorance or Avidya. Once knowledge or Vidya dawns, action or Karma or Avidya is 50 laLÑr&foe'kZ% just lost and can never exist in the person. Therefore they cannot be harmonized. This is philosophical position of Sankara’s Vedanta and must be evaluated as such. In this context his comment on the eighteenth verse of Isha Upanishad is worth noticing: ‘The know- ing of the Highest Self and the performance of actions being an- tagonistic, how could a co-existence between the two be possible?’17

6. Significance of Actions for Knowledge Then what is the status of Karma in the path of knowl- edge? According to Shankara, it is necessary to perform actions, as says second verse of Isha Upanishad, but the object of such performance of action is the purification of heart (Chitta-shuddhi). Ethical laws, sacrificial ceremonies, philanthropic works, austeri- ties, religious duties, study of scriptures, worship and other simi- lar spiritual disciplines only serve to remove the impurities of the mind, which hinder the manifestation of Atman or Brahman. Acharya Shankara is very clear about the role of actions done with attachment or without attachment. According to him actions when performed without attachment, purify chillcl. In the he explains that when actions are done without at- tachment they execute purity.18 Commenting upon Gia, he estab- lishes that the doctrine of Nishkam karma is a means of Chitta- shuddhi .In other words, the state of ( Sarnalva) is called Karmayoga. Sthiraprajnata is the result of Karrnayoga, a path firstly hinted hy biha Upanishad and later on highly struc- tured by Lord Shri Krishna in Gita. A person who is free from desires has stead intelligence, he alone attains real peace which is Moksha or absorption into the highest Self. This state is called Brahmi Slhiti in Gila. Actions when performed following the in- structions of Vedas, ultimately prepares one for the cultivation of Self-knowledge. Actions can work as a ladder to reach up to Moksha. When the mind become pure through righteous action, through self-control and contemplation, it then becomes serene and reflects the majesty of Atman. The knowledge of Brahman (Jnana) is necessary for ob- taining the ultimate end. With ignorance (Ajnana) one can never have union with Brahman. Attachment to life and physical enjoy- ments are great hindrances in the journey of the soul. For this man should perform all his duties, but without attachment to their fruits. This makes him capable to Self-realization (Jnana). Shri Krishna emphasizes, ‘That is the way of the spiritual and godly life, after Observation on the Limitations of Karma (Action)... 51 attaining which a man is not bewildered. If one is thus situated even at the hour of death, one can become one with the Brah- man’.19 The practice of actions without attachment ( Karmayoga) makes a seeker pure-minded. A pure mind is capable to cultivate Self-knowledge, and that knowledge finally leads to Moksha. Hence, actions themselves do not lead to the ultimate goal, to which Knowledge (Jnana) and Renunciation (Samnyasa.) lead; but it is no doubt an inevitable step in the process of proceeding to Jnana and Samnyasa. In other word, with a little exaggeration one may be justified to say that Karma. and Jnana can be picturesquely said as in a sense integrated. According to Shankara, once Karma has served its purpose of purifying the heart, and when the knots of heart are liquidated, it is not essential that the Knower (Jnani or Samnyasin) must perform Karma. He mayor may not work. The Jnani may give up Karma even if it is Nishkama. This is the stage where Karma leaves its limitation in the way to accomplish ulti- mate goal. It is sure that Shankara emphasizes on the importance of Jnana and also establishes its supremacy above Karma, but defi- nitely he treats Karma as an alternate path for the attainment of highest end. It is reiterated by Vedantic teacher that the truth of Atman is revelled when a qualified aspirant, instructed by an illumined teacher practices the disciplines of selfcontrol, meditation, and in- wardness of mind. The path of action with its limitations leads to the ultimate goal Moksha which is attainable only by Self- realiza- tion. Thus, ShankaraVedanta values and appreciates the path of Karma. The difference between the two paths is that while one is direct, the other is indirect; while one is foremost, the other is sub- ordinate to other in regard to Moksha. The observation centering round the concept of knowledge and action can be set at rest by pointing out that Shankara- Vedanta gives appropriate importune to both and regards them significant in their own ways.

1. Dasgupla. S.N., 1957. A History of lndian Philosophy, Vol. I. p. 429 2. Rite jnanat na mukti., Ya vidya sa vimuktaye. etc. 3. veda brahmaiva bhavati. 3.2.9 4. Yasmin sarvani bhutanyatmaivabhud vijanatah, Tatra ko mohah kah shokah ekatvam anupasyatah. Isha Upanishad 7 5. Yastu sarvani bhutanyatmanyevanupashyati, Sarvabhuteshu catmanam tato na vijugupsate. Ihid 6. 6. Karmanyevadhikaraste ma phaleshu kadacana. Gila 2.47 52 laLÑr&foe'kZ%

7. Kurvanneveha karmani jijivishecchatam samah. Isha Upanishad 2 8. Niyatam kuru karma tvama karmajyayo hyakarmanah. Gita 3.8 9. Ishavasyamidam sarvam yatkinchit jagtyam jagat, Tena tyaktena bhunjitha ma gridhah kasya svid dhanam. Isha Upanisad 1 10. Ayam tvyi nantheto’st na karma lipyate nare. Ibid 2 11. Duramete viparite vishuchi avidya ya ca vidyeti jnata. Katha Unanishad 1.2.4 12. Vidyam cavidyam ca yastad vedobhayam saha. Avidyaya mrityum tirtva vidyayamritam ashnute. Isha Upanishad 11 13. Taittiriya Aranyaka 10.62, 10.78 14. Sannyasm karmnam Krishna punryogam ca shnsati, Yaccheya etayorekam tanme bruhi sunishcitam. Gita 5.1 15. Nayamatma pravacanena labhyo na medhaya na bahuna shrutena. Katha Upanishad 1.2.23 16. Eha cedavedidatha satyamasti na cedihavedinmahati vinashtih. Kena Upanishd 2.5 17. Vidyam cavidyam ceti vacanadavirodha iti eet. Na, hetusarupaphalvirohat. Isha Upanishad Bhashya 18 18. Chandogya Upanishad Bhashya 8.1.6 19. Esha Brahmi partha nainam prapya vimuhyati, Sthitva’syamantakale’pi brahmanivanamriehati. Gita 2.72