REACHINREACHINGG AA NENEWW UNDERSTANDINUNDERSTANDINGG OOFF THTIlEE ANDALUSIANDALUSl

'ULAMA'ULAMA'OFTIlE' OF THE TAIFTAIFAA KINGKINGSS ERERAA (1013-1086(1013-1086))

bbyy

WilliaWilliamm MM.. MalMalczyckczyckii

A thesithesiss submittedsubmitted ttoo ththee facultfacultyy ooff thethe UniversityUniversity ooff UtahUtah iinn partiapartiall fulfillmentfulfillment ooff ththee requirementrequirementss foforr ththe degredegreee ofof

MasterMaster ooff ArtsArts

inm

MiddleMiddle EastEast StudiesStudies -~ HistoryHistory

DepartmentDepartment ofof LanguaLanguagegess andand LiteratureLiterature

TheThe UUniversitniversityy ofof UtahUtah

AugustAugust 20012001 CopyCopyrighrightt © WilliaWilliamm MM.. MalczyckMalczyckii 20012001

AllAll RightRightss ReservedReserved THE UNIVERSITY OF UTAH GRADUATE SCHOOL

SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE APPROVAL

of a thesis submitted by

William. M. Malczycki

This thesis has been read by each member of the following supervisory committee and by majority vote has been found to be satisfactory. ���v� . Chair: Peter von Sivers

Peter Sluglett

,),I t(/� ( rj Bernard Weiss THE UNIVERSITYOF UTAH

FINAL READING APPROVAL

To the Graduate Council of the University of Utah:

I have read the thesis of William M. MalCk)'ckiin its final form and have found that (1) its format, citations, and bibliographic style are consistent and acceptable; (2) its illustrative materials including figures, tables, and charts are in place; and (3) the final manuscript is satisfactory to the supervisory committee ad is ready for submission to The Graduate School.

Ij"--:-9 --()( /JIAA/!tly( cA0$0'1 Date Peter von Sivers Chair, Supervisory Committee

Approved for the Major Department

/l.llV'.... L I . I r LV' _"E..-­

" Ibrahim Karawan Director of the Middle East Center

Approved for the Graduate Council

��David S.S'.CJ2�--. Chapman Dean of the Graduate School ABSTRACABSTRACTT

TheThe purpospurposee ooff thithiss thesithesiss iiss ttoo re-examinre-examinee ththee AndalusAndalusii 'ulama' ofof ththee taifataifa

kingskings ereraa (1013-1086)(1013-1086) iinn aann efforteffort ttoo bettebetterr understanunderstandd howhow thetheyy vieweviewedd ththee taifataifa

politicapoliticall systemsystem.. ThThee mainmain argumenargumentt ooff thithiss thesithesiss iiss thathatt onconcee a newnew

understandinunderstandingg ofof ththee politicapoliticall viewviewss ooff ththee ulamulamaa iiss obtainedobtained,, itit wilwilll bbee possiblpossiblee toto looklook aatt ththee historiographhistoriographyy ofof ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss eraera frofromm a neneww perspectiveperspective.. ThisThis

argumenargumentt restrestss onon a divisiondivision ooff ththee ulamulamaa intointo twtwoo categories:categories: "mosque"mosque ulama"ulama"

anandd "palace"palace ulamaulama"" respectively.respectively.

ThThee reasoreasonn forfor categorizincategorizingg ththee ulamulamaa thithiss wawayy iiss thathatt thetheyy havehave heretoforheretoforee beebeenn vieweviewedd asas a mormoree oorr leslesss homogeneouhomogeneouss grougroupp thathatt sharesharedd aa commoncommon attitudeattitude towartowardd taiftaifaa politicspolitics.. EssentiallyEssentially,, historianhistorianss ooff thithiss perioperiodd havehave assumedassumed thathatt ththee AndalusAndalusii ulamulamaa werweree hostilhostilee ttoo ththee taiftaifaa systemsystem.. AAss isis demonstrateddemonstrated iinn thithiss thesisthesis,, thithiss wawass nonott ththee case.case. IndividuaIndividuall membermemberss ooff thethe ulamulamaa approachedapproached ththee taiftaifaa systesystemm inin a numbenumberr ooff differendifferentt waysways,, nonott alalll ofof whicwhichh werweree hostilehostile.. ThereforeTherefore,, ththee assumptionassumption thathatt ththee ulamulamaa ooff ththee taiftaifaa kingskings eraera werweree opposeopposedd ttoo ththee taiftaifaa systesystemm seemseemss ttoo bbee erroneous.erroneous. IItt isis ththee goalgoal ofof thisthis thesithesiss ttoo ggoo somsomee wawayy towartowardd reachinreachingg a neneww understandinunderstandingg ooff ththee AndalusiAndalusi ulamulamaa ofof thithiss perioperiodd anandd therebtherebyy suggessuggestt a differendifferentt wawayy ooff approachinapproachingg thethe historhistoryy ofof ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss era.era. TABLTABLEE OOFF CONTENTSCONTENTS

ABSTRACABSTRACTT ...... iviv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTACKNOWLEDGMENTSS ...... Vllvii

, ChapteChapterr

I.I. INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION:: PURPOSEPURPOSE,, SCOPESCOPE,, ANANDD SOURCESSOURCES ...... 11

PurposPurposee ...... 11 ScopeScope ...... 55 PrimarPrimaryy andand SecondarSecondaryy SourcesSources ...... 1111 SummarySummary ...... 2525

II.II. HISTORICAI-IISTORICALL BACKGROUNBACKGROUNDD ...... 2727

TheThe Arab-BerbeArab-Berberr ConquesConquestt ofof IberiIberiaa andand ththee UmayyaUmayyadd CaliphateCaliphate ofof CordobaCordoba ...... 2727

ThThee RisRisee ofof thethe 'ArniridI Amiridss andand ththee FalFalll ooff ththee CaliphateCaliphate ooff CordobCordobaa ...... 3535

III.III. THETHE TAIF A SYSTEMSYSTEM 1013-1069:1013-1069: COMPETITNECOMPETITIVE POLITICPOLITICSS ...... 4141

IVIV.. EXTERNAEXTERNALL PRESSUREPRESSURESS ONON THTHEE TAIF A SYSTEMSYSTEM:: ALFONSALFONSOO VVII OFOF LEON-CASTILLE6N-CASTILEE ANANDD IBIBNN TASHUFIN,TASHUFIN, THTHEE ALMORAVIALMORAVID D EMIEMIRR ...... _.. 5050

Leon-CastilLe6n-Castilee inin ththee EleventEleventhh Century:Century: AlfonsAlfonsoo VPVI'ss RisRisee ttoo PowePowerr ...... 5050 ThThee AlmoravidAlmoravidss andand IbIbnn Tashutm'sTashufin's JihadJihad ...... 6161 SummarySummary ...... 7070

VV.. THETHE TAIFTAIFAA SYSTEMSYSTEM 1069-1086:1069-1086: FROMFROM COMPETITIOCOMPETITIONN TTOO RELUCTANTRELUCTANT COOPERATIOCOOPERATIONN ...... 7171

ThThee InformalInformal AlliancAlliancee ofof BadajozBadajoz,, GranadaGranada,, anandd ToledToledoo 1069-741069-74 ...... 7171 CasCasee HistorieHistoriess ...... 7575 SummarySummary ...... 9090 VIVI.. THTHEE EVOLUTIOEVOLUTIONN OOFF THTHEE MOSQUMOSQUEE ULAMULAMAA OOFF AL-ANAL-ANDALUSD ALUS ...... 9292

ThThee AndalusAndalusii UlamUlamaa ttoo 10010088 ...... 9292 MainstreaMainstreamm SunnSunnii LegaLegall TheorTheoryy RegardinRegardingg ththee ImamatImamatee (Caliphate(Caliphate)) . 105105 SummarSummaryy ...... 109109

VIIVII.. THTHEE MOSQUMOSQUEE ULAMULAMAA AFTEAFTERR 10851085:: POLITICAPOLITICALL ACTIVISACTMSMM ...... 111Ill

IntroductioIntroductionn ...... 111Ill CasCasee HistorieHistoriess ...... 114114 SummarSummary...... y ...... 137137

VIIIVIII.. CONCLUSIOCONCLUSIONN ...... 137137

SummarSummaryy ...... 139139 ImplicationImplicationss foforr FuturFuturee HistoricaHistoricall ResearcResearchh oonn ththee TaifTaifaa KingKingss ErEraa ..... 141141

SELECTESELECTEDD BIBLIOGRAPHBIBLIOGRAPHYY ...... 142142

vivi ACKNOWLEDGMENTACKNOWLEDGMENTSS

ThiThiss thesithesiss woulwouldd nonott havhavee beebeenn possiblpossiblee withouwithoutt ththee dedicationdedication andand assistanceassistance ofof a numbenumberr ooff institutionsinstitutions anandd peoplepeople.. MMyy thankthankss ggoo ttoo thethe

UniversityUniversity ooff UtaUtahh MiddlMiddlee EasEastt CenteCenterr anandd ththee DepartmenDepartmentt ooff HistoryHistory,, botbothh ofof whicwhichh patientlpatientlyy awaiteawaitedd ththee completioncompletion ooff thithiss thesisthesis.. I wilwilll alwaysalways bbee indebtedindebted ttoo BarbarBarbaraa andand BilBilll FugitFugittt whwhoo madmadee mmyy academicacademic careecareerr possiblepossible.. I thankthank

ProfessorProfessorss LindsaLindsayy AdamsAdams,, SoheilaSoheila AmirsoleimaniAmirsoleimani,, HusseiHusseinn ElkhafaifiElkhafaifi,, IbrahimIbrahim

KarawanKarawan,, HarrisHarris LenowitzLenowitz,, GlenGlen Olsen,Olsen, andand HakaHakann YavuYavuzz foforr ththee supporsupportt theythey havehave givengiven mmee durinduringg mmyy graduategraduate careercareer.. I thanthankk NayeNayerr FallahFallahii forfor beinbeingg aa friendfriend andand teacheteacherr ttoo mmee overover thethe laslastt threthreee yearsyears.. loweI owe a debtdebt ofof gratitudgratitudee toto

ProfessorProfessorss BernarBernardd WeisWeisss andand PetePeterr SluglettSluglett nonott onlonlyy forfor sittingsitting oonn mmyy thesisthesis committeecommittee butbut alsalsoo foforr beinbeingg mmyy mentormentorss atat ththee UniversitUniversityy ooff UtahUtah.. BetBethh PhillipsPhillips ofof ththee MiddleMiddle EastEast CenteCenterr hahass alwaysalways beebeenn a tremendoutremendouss helhelpp ttoo meme.. ProfProf.. PeterPeter vovonn SiversSivers hahass provideprovidedd guidancguidancee andand inspirationinspiration foforr whicwhichh I wilwilll neveneverr bbee ableable ttoo thanthankk hihimm enoughenough.. FinallyFinally,, I musmustt thanthankk MisMisss TanyTanyaa MariMariee SzafranskiSzafranski foforr herher devotion,devotion, confidenceconfidence,, anandd companionship,companionship, withouwithoutt whicwhichh thithiss thesithesiss neveneverr wouldwould havhavee beebeenn written.written. CHAPTECHAPTERR I

INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION:: PURPOSEPURPOSE,, SCOPE,SCOPE, ANANDD SOURCESSOURCES

PurposPurposee

ThThee subjecsubjectt thithiss thesithesiss iiss thethe historiographhistoriographyy ofof thethe taiftaifaa kingkingss eraera ofof

AndaluslhistoryAndalusi history (1013-108(1013-10866 C.E.).C.E.).11 ThThee pointpoint thatthat wilwilll bbee addresseaddressedd iiss ththee wawayy inin

whicwhichh ththee 'ulama' (Muslim(Muslim religioureligiouss andand legallegal scholars)scholars) ofof thithiss perioperiodd areare

understoounderstoodd bbyy contemporarcontemporaryy historians.22 ContemporarContemporaryy historianhistorianss ofof ththee taifataifa

kingkingss ereraa seeseemm ttoo regarregardd ththee AndalusAndalusli ulamulamaa asas a homogeneouhomogeneouss grougroupp whichwhich

sharesharedd a commocommonn poinpointt ofof vievieww regardinregardingg ththee taiftaifaa politicapoliticall systemsystem.. MoreMore

specifically,specifically, contemporarcontemporaryy historianhistorianss believbelievee thathatt ththee ulamulamaa werweree generallygenerally

opposedopposed ttoo ththee taiftaifaa kingskings.. ThisThis understandinunderstandingg ooff ththee AndalusAndalusli ulamulamaa isis basebasedd onon threthreee thingsthings:: ththee poinpointt ooff vievieww fromfrom whicwhichh ththee primarprimaryy sourcesourcess areare narrated,narrated,

1 AllAll datesdates willwill bebe givengiven inin C.E.C.E. ratherrather thanthan A.H.A.H. inin thisthis thesis.thesis. AndalusiAndalusi isis thethe adjectivaladjectival forformm ooff al-Andalusal-Andalus whicwhichh iiss bettebetterr knowknownn ttoo WesterWesternn audiencesaudiences aass MusliMuslimm Spain.Spain.

2 TheThe tertermm "ulama""ulama" referreferss ttoo anyany membememberr ofof ththee IslamicIslamic educational-legal-religiouseducational-legal-religious establishmentestablishment.. LikLikee allall otheotherr ArabiArabicc wordwordss whicwhichh araree useusedd frequentlfrequentlyy iinn thithiss thesisthesis,, "ulama""ulama" willwill bbee fullyfully transliteratetransliteratedd onlonlyy ththee firsfirstt timtimee itit iiss usedused.. ArabiArabicc wordwordss whicwhichh havhavee a commoncommon EnglishEnglish spellingspelling suchsuch asas "emir"emir"" anandd "wazir"wazir"" wilwilll nonott bbee transliteratetransliteratedd aatt all."Taifaall."Taifa kingskings"" iiss thethe generally­generally- accepteacceptedd WesterWesternn renditiorenditionn ooff ththee ArabiArabicc phrasphrasee "muluk"muluk al-tawa'if."al-tawa'if." "Muluk""Muluk" meanmeanss "kings""kings" anandd "tawa'if""tawa'if" meanmeanss factionsfactions oorr partiesparties.. ThThee tertermm "taifa"taifa kingskings"" wilwilll bbee useusedd insteainsteadd ooff "mulu"mulukk al­al- tawa'iftawa'if"" iinn thithiss thesis.thesis. 2 assumptionsassumptions historianshistorians havehave madmadee basebasedd oonn IslamiIslamicc politicapoliticall theortheoryy regardingregarding thethe caliphatecaliphate (imiimnte),(imamate), andand ththee assumptioassumptionn thathatt ththee ulamulamaa cancan bbee thougthoughh ofof aass aa homogeneouhomogeneouss groupgroup thathatt does.does nonott neeneedd ttoo bebe divideddivided iinn ordeorderr ttoo bbee understood.understood.

ThisThis thesisthesis isis a challengechallenge ttoo thethe contemporarcontemporaryy historicahistoricall understandinunderstandingg ooff thethe

AndalusAndaIusii ularnaulama ofof thethe taIfataifa kingskings era.era.

TheThe purposepurpose ofof thisthis thesethesess iiss ttoo identifidentifyy variouvariouss groupgroupss withiwithinn ththee ularnaulama andand thenthen determinedetermine whatwhat theitheirr attitudeattitude ttoo ththee taiftaIfaa systesystemm mighmightt havhavee been.been.

TryingTrying toto dividedivide thethe ulamaulama intointo categoriecategoriess iiss difficuldifficultt becausbecausee thertheree iiss a greatgreat

3 degreedegree ofof overlapoverlap betweebetweenn differentdifferent groupgroupss withiwithinn ththee ulama.ularna. ModerModemn scholarsscholars tacitlytacitly interpreinterprett thisthis overlapoverlap asas aann indicatioindicationn ofof homogeneithomogeneityy amonamongg ththee ulama.ulama.

InIn thithiss thesisthesis,, I challengechallenge thisthis notionotionn ooff homogeneithomogeneityy bbyy lookinlookingg beyonbeyondd thethe overlapoverlap andand identifyingidentifying twtwoo diJdifferenlferentt groupgroupss withiwithinn ththee ulamularnaa accordingaccording ttoo thethe careercareer pathspaths theythey chose.chose. TheThe twotwo groupgroupss intintoo whicwhichh I dividdividee ththee AndalusAndaIusii ularnaulama areare "mosque"mosque ularna"ulama" andand "palace"palace ulama."ulama."44 TheThe termtermss mosqumosquee ulamulamaa anandd palacepalace

3 DominiqueDominique UrvoyUrvoy hashas publishedpublished a worworkk iinn whicwhichh hhee successfullysuccessfully dividesdivides ththee ulamaulama intointo categoriescategories accordingaccording ttoo theirtheir areasareas ofof speciaspecialtieltiess withiwithinn ththee IslamiIslamicc sciences.sciences. HoweverHowever,, thethe purposepurpose ofof hishis worworkk isis ttoo determinedetermine thethe intellectuaintellectuall fieldfieldss inin whicwhichh ththee ulamulamaa werweree workinworkingg inin ththee 11th11th centurycentury whereaswhereas thethe purpospurposee ofof thithiss thesithesiss iiss ttoo determindeterminee ththee attitudeattitudess whicwhichh membememberr ooff ththee ulamulamaa heldheld towardtoward ththee taifataifa kingskings.. SeSeee DominiquDominiquee UrvoyUrvoy,, Le monde des uUmasuiemas Andalous du V/XlV/XI au VII/XII sieclestick (Geneva:(Geneva: LibrairiLibrairiee Droz,, 1978)1978)..

4 TheThe termsterms "mosque"mosque ulama"ulama" andand "palac"palacee ulamaulama"" araree nonott useusedd iinn ththee sourcesourcess —- these these are are mymy ownown termsterms.. Granted,Granted, theythey areare a b"itbit crudcrudee andand thetheyy ddoo implimplyy a sharpesharperr divisiondivision betweebetweenn thethe twtwoo groupsgroups thanthan probablyprobably existed.existed. However,However, keekeepp iinn minmindd thathatt thithiss thesithesiss iiss ththee firsfirstt efforeffortt toto categorizecategorize thethe Andalusi:Andalusi ulamaulama asas a meansmeans ooff dedeterminintenniningg theitheirr attitudattitudee towartowardd taiftaifaa politics.politics. ThereThere isis nono pre-existinpre-existingg vocabularvocabularyy forfor thithiss typtypee ofof studystudy.. ThereforeTherefore,, iitt hahass beebeenn necessarnecessaryy ttoo inventinvent a newnew vocabulary.vocabulary. Unfortunately,Unfortunately, I havhavee beebeenn unabltmablee ttoo develodevelopp a mormoree preciseprecise terminologyterminology.. 3 ulamulamaa wilwilll bbee discusseddiscussed iinn detaidetaill iinn ChapteChapterr VIVI.. FoForr nonoww letlet itit sufficesuffice toto saysay thethe mosqumosquee ulamulamaa werweree thosthosee ulamulamaa whwhoo devoteddevoted themselvethemselvess ttoo traditionatraditionall IslamicIslamic learninglearning whilwhilee ththee palacpalacee ulamulamaa werweree thosthosee ulamulamaa whwhoo leftleft theirtheir studiesstudies toto pursupursuee politicapoliticall careers.s5 OfOf ththee twtwoo groupsgroups,, ththee mosqumosquee ulamulamaa wilwilll bbee treatedtreated moremore extensivelyextensively inin thithiss thesis.thesis.

TheThe importanimportantt thinthingg ttoo notnotee foforr ththee timtimee beinbeingg iiss thathatt mosmostt ooff thethe historicahistoricall sourcessources forfor ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss eraera araree narratenarratedd fromfrom ththee poinpointt ofof vievieww ofof a subsesubsett ooff ththee mosqumosquee ulamaulama.. ThiThiss smallsmall groupgroup wawass opposeopposedd ttoo ththee taiftaifaa kingskings anandd supportesupportedd theitheirr overthrow.overthrow. FoForr ththee remainderemainderr ofof thithiss thesisthesis,, thithiss grougroupp willwill bbee referrereferredd ttoo asas ththee anti-taifanti-taifaa mosqumosquee ulamaulama.. UntiUntill nownow,, fewfew scholarsscholars havehave considereconsideredd ththee effecteffect thathatt ththee dominancedominance ofof theitheirr pointpoint ofof vievieww hahass hahadd onon

6 researcresearchh ooff ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss era. IInn ththee chapterchapterss thathatt followfollow,, ththee problemproblemss thatthat arisearise frofromm workinworkingg frofromm thithiss singlsinglee poinpointt ooff vievieww wilwilll bbee examineexaminedd andand aa solutiosolutionn ttoo thithiss probleproblemm wilwilll bbee proposed.proposed.

InIn ordeorderr ttoo makmakee mmyy argumentargumentss clearclear,, iitt wilwilll bbee necessarnecessaryy ttoo examineexamine

5 OfOf course,course, allall membermemberss ofof ththee ulama,ulama, whetherwhether thetheyy devoteddevoted themselvethemselvess toto religiousreligious studiestudiess oror statstatee service,service, receivereceivedd theitheirr educatioeducationn iinn thethe mosqumosquee schoolschoolss ooff al-Andalus.al-Andalus. IInn thethe eleventeleventhh centurycentury,, alalll educationeducation wawass religioureligiouss iinn naturenature.. ThereforeTherefore,, eveneven ththee mosmostt worldlworldlyy palacepalace 'ali'alimm hahadd a solisolidd backgrounbackgroundd inin religioureligiouss studies.studies. TheThe divisiodivisionn ooff ththee AndalusAndalusii ulamulamaa intointo categoriecategoriess ofof "mosque""mosque" anandd "palace""palace" iiss nonott meanmeantt ttoo suggestsuggest thathatt ononee grougroupp wawass mormoree learnedlearned thathann ththee other.other. ThThee purpospurposee ofof thesthesee categoriecategoriess iiss toto dividdividee ththee ulamularnaa accordingaccording ttoo theirtheir attitudesattitudes towardtowardss politicpoliticss andand thethe relationshiprelationshipss withwith ththee taifataifa kingdoms.kingdoms.

6 M'hammedM'hammed Benaboud,Benaboud, "Historiography"Historiography iinn al-Andalusal-Andalus duringduring thethe perioperiodd ofof thethe taifataifa statesstates XltXIthh centurycentury a.d,a.d,"" Hesperis Tamuda, 2255 (1987)(1987),, 5-325-32.. IInn thithiss article,article, BenabouBenaboudd saysayss thatthat historhistoryy writinwritingg flourisheflourishedd iinn thithiss centurcenturyy becausbecausee ththee politicapoliticall atmospheratmospheree ofof ththee timtimee waswas conducivconducivee ttoo intellectualintellectual creativitycreativity.. However,However, BenaboudBenaboud doesdoes nonott addresaddresss ththee issuissuee ooff thethe dominancdominancee ofof ththee poinpointt ooff vievieww ofof thethe anti-taifanti-taifaa mosqumosquee ulamulamaa iinn ththee sources.sources. 4 mucmuchh mormoree thathann ththee AndalusAndalusii ulamaulama.. IInn additioadditionn ttoo ththee ulamaulama,, I musmustt alsoalso explaiexplainn ththee historicahistoricall backgrounbackgroundd ooff ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss ereraa anandd ththee taiftaifaa politicalpolitical systemsystem.. ThThee seconsecondd halhalff ooff thithiss chaptechapterr iiss devotedevotedd ttoo a descriptiodescriptionn ooff ththee scopescope ooff thithiss workwork,, a survesurveyy ooff ththee primarprimaryy sourcessources,, anandd explanatioexplanationn ooff thethe methodologmethodologyy employeemployedd iinn thithiss thesis.thesis.

ChapteChapterr IIII iiss aann overvieovervieww ooff ththee historhistoryy ooff IberiIberiaa frofromm ththee initiainitiall Arab-Arab-

BerbeBerberr invasioinvasionn ooff 717111 througthroughh ththee beginninbeginningg ooff ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss ereraa (c.a(c.a.. 1013).71013).7

ChapteChapterr IIIIII iiss a descriptiodescriptionn ooff ththee taiftaifaa systesystemm frofromm 10131013 ttoo 10861086.. ChapteChapterr IVIV describedescribess externaexternall pressurpressuree thathatt affecteaffectedd taiftaifaa politicpoliticss iinn ththee eleventeleventhh century.century.

ChapteChapterr V consistconsistss ooff ththee biographiebiographiess ofof threthreee ooff ththee laslastt taiftaifaa kingskings.. ThThee casecase historiehistoriess illustratillustratee ththee taiftaifaa systemsystem aass iitt existedexisted aatt ththee endend ofof ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss era.era.

ChapterChapter VVII iiss devotedevotedd ttoo ththee AndalusAndalusii mosqumosquee ulamaulama.. ItIt beginbeginss witwithh a sectionsection onon thethe historicahistoricall evolutioevolutionn ofof ththee ulamulamaa frofromm ththee eightheighth centurcenturyy througthroughh thethe eleventheleventh centurcenturyy followefollowedd bbyy aann overviewoverview ooff IslamicIslamic politicapoliticall theorietheoriess regardingregarding thethe caliphate.caliphate. ChapterChapter VIIVII isis anan explanationexplanation ofof ththee politicalpolitical activitiesactivities ofof thethe mosquemosque ulamaulama afterafter 10851085 andand itit concludesconcludes withwith thethe biographiebiographiess ofof threethree mosquemosque ulamaulama eacheach ofof whomwhom hadhad a differentdifferent viewview ofof thethe taiftaifaa system.system. ItIt isis throughthrough thesethese examplesexamples thathatt mymy argumentargument isis illustratedillustrated mostmost clearly.clearly. ChapterChapter VIIVIIII isis aa

7 ItIt isis notnot entirelyentirely correctcorrect toto describedescribe thethe ArabsArabs andand BerbersBerbers whowho invadedinvaded IberiaIberia inin thethe eightheighth centurycentury asas Muslim.Muslim. ScholarsScholars suchsuch asas Schacht,Schacht, Calder,Calder, JuynboU,Juynboll, andand CroneCrone havehave successfullysuccessfully challengedchallenged thethe notionnotion thatthat IslamIslam emergedemerged fromfrom ArabiaArabia fullyfully formedformed inin thethe seventhseventh century.century. TheThe religionreligion whichwhich thethe ArabsArabs andand BerbersBerbers ofof thethe earlyearly eightheighth centurycentury adheredadhered toto isis bestbest describeddescribed asas anan ill-definedill-defined monotheism.monotheism. Therefore,Therefore, thethe menmen whowho invadedinvaded IberiaIberia inin 711711 willwill bebe referredreferred toto withwith termsterms suchsuch asas U"Arab-Berber Arab-Berber"" untiluntil thethe chronologicalchronological progressionprogression ofof thisthis thesisthesis reachesreaches thethe earlyearly ninthninth centurycentury atat whichwhich timetime oneone cancan properlyproperly speakspeak ofof IslamIslam andand Muslims.Muslims. 5 conclusionconclusion iinn whicwhichh I summarizsummarizee ththee pointpointss madmadee inin ththee previoupreviouss chapterchapterss andand explaiexplainn hohoww thetheyy mighmightt affectaffect futurfuturee studystudy ofof ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss era.era.

Scopetope

ThThee historicahistoricall scopscopee ofof thithiss thesithesiss includeincludess ththee perioperiodd betweebetweenn 10131013 andand

10941094 witwithh a specialspecial emphasisemphasis oonn ththee yearyearss 1085-1094.1085-1094. TheThe taiftaifaa kingkingss ereraa beganbegan witwithh ththee capturecapture anandd sacksack ooff CordobaCordoba bbyy BerbeBerberr forcesforces iinn 10131013 anandd endedended withwith ththee arrivalarrival ofof ththee NortNorthh AfricaAfricann AlmoravidAlmoravidss (al-Murabitun) iinn al-Andalusal-Andalus iinn 1086.1086.

ThThee yearyearss 1086-10941086-1094 werweree a timtimee ooff politicapoliticall transitiotransitionn iinn MusliMuslimm Spain.Spain. ItIt waswas duringduring thathatt timtimee thathatt ththee taiftaifaa politicapoliticall systesystemm wawass dismantleddismantled andand replacereplacedd byby ththee AlmoraviAlmoravidd systesystemm ooff imperialimperial administration.administration. ThThee followinfollowingg pagepagess containcontain aa shortshort summarysummary ooff ththee historhistoryy ooff al-Andalusal-Andalus iinn ththee eleventheleventh centurycentury.. A moremore thorougthoroughh descriptiondescription ofof ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss ereraa wilwilll bbee presentepresentedd iinn ChapterChapter III.III.

Muluk al-tawa'if --— whicwhichh cancan bbee translatetranslatedd atat "kings"kings ooff factions"factions" --~ wawass anan appropriatappropriatee namnamee foforr ththee memenn whwhoo ruleruledd al-Andalual-Andaluss betweebetweenn 10131013 anandd 1086.1086. InIn ththee yearyearss immediatelimmediatelyy followinfollowingg ththee fallfall ooff ththee caliphatecaliphate ooff CordobaCordoba,, smallsmall kingdomkingdomss werweree establishedestablished alalll overover al-Andalus.al-Andalus. IInn additioadditionn ttoo beinbeingg divideddivided geographically,geographically, ththee taiftaifaa kingdomkingdomss werweree ruleruledd bbyy membersmembers ooff differentdifferent ethnicethnic groupsgroups.. ArabsArabs,, BerbersBerbers,, anandd saqaliba$aqaliba (manumitted(manumitted slaveslave soldiersoldierss frofromm EasternEastern

Europe)Europe) alikalikee becambecamee kingkingss afteafterr ththee collapscollapsee ooff ththee caliphate.caliphate. ByBy 1020,1020, moremore thathann fortyforty taiftaifaa kingdomskingdoms hahadd beebeenn established.established. 6

HoweverHowever,, oveoverr thethe coursecourse ofof ththee nextnext sixsix decades,decades, thethe numbenumberr ofof individualindividual kingdomskingdoms declineddeclined asas somesome taifastaif as conqueredconquered andand absorbedabsorbed theirtheir neighbors.neighbors. BByy 10851085 therethere werweree fivefive majomajorr taiftaifaa kingdomskingdoms andand anotheranother halfhalf dozedozenn oorr ssoo minominorr taifataifa states.states. TheThe politicalpolitical systemsystem throughthrough whichwhich ththee taifataifa kingskings ruleruledd inin al-Andalual-Andaluss cancan besbestt describedescribedd asas competitivecompetitive politics.politics. ThiThiss conceptconcept willwill bbee explaineexplainedd inin detaildetail inin ChapterChapter III,III, bubutt forfor nonoww letlet itit sufficesuffice toto saysay thatthat ththee taifataifa systemsystem wawass basebasedd onon competitioncompetition forfor landland andand wealtwealthh amongamong ththee taifataifa kings.kings.

ThisThis politicapoliticall environmentenvironment madmadee ththee kingkingss suspicioussuspicious ooff eaceachh otherother andand reluctantreluctant toto cooperatecooperate witwithh eaceachh other.other.

ItIt isis importantimportant toto notenote thathatt thethe taifataifa kingkingss eraera coincidedcoincided withwith a periodperiod ofof unprecedenteunprecedentedd ChristianChristian unitunityy andand strengthstrength inin Iberia.Iberia. PriorPrior ttoo ththee eleventheleventh century,century, ththee MuslimMuslimss ofof al-Andalusal-Andalus helheldd thethe uppeupperr hanhandd vis-a-vivis-a.-viss thethe ChristianChristian kingdomskingdoms ooff ththee northernorthernn IberianIberian Peninsula.Peninsula. ThiThiss situationsituation changedchanged dramaticallydramatically inin thethe eleventheleventh century.century. AtAt thethe beginninbeginningg ooff thethe taifataifa kingkingss era,era, thethe kingdokingdomm ofof

NavarrNavarree underunder SanchoSancho El Mayor (r(r.. 1000-35)1000-35) wawass thethe mosmostt prominentprominent ChristianChristian kingdokingdomm inin Iberia.Iberia. HoweverHowever,, afterafter Sancho'sSancho's death,death, NavarrNavarree wawass divideddivided byby

AragoAragonn anandd LeoLe6nn andand ceasedceased toto bbee anan independentindependent kingdom.kingdom. UnderUnder SanchoSancho

RamireRamirezz I (r.(r. 1063-94)1063-94) andand laterlater undeunderr AlfonsAlfonsoo I "The'The BattlerBattler"" (r.(r. 1104-34)1104-34) AragonAragon becambecamee a powerfulpowerful ChristianChristian entityentity inin Iberia.Iberia. InIn 1118,1118, thethe MusliMuslimm taifataifa ofof

ZaragozZaragozaa wawass addedadded toto thethe AragonesAragonesee realm.realm. AAtt thethe samesame timetime onon ththee easterneastern coastcoast ofof IberiaIberia,, thethe countycounty ooff BarcelonBarcelonaa wawass quietlyquietly gaininggaining landland andand wealthwealth 7 undeunderr ththee kingkingss ooff ththee BerengueBerenguerr lineline.. IInn 1137,1137, AragoAragonn anandd BarcelonBarcelonaa uniteunitedd toto

88 forformm aann enlargeenlargedd kingdokingdomm ooff Aragon.Aragon.

However,However, ththee mosmostt powerfupowerfull ChristiaChristiann entityentity inin IberiIberiaa duringduring ththee secondsecond halhalff ofof ththee eleventheleventh centurycentury anandd ththee firsfirstt parpartt ooff ththee twelfttwelfthh centurycentury wawass thethe kingdokingdomm ofof Le6n-CastileLe6n-Castile.. FernandFernandoo I ofof CastilCastilee (d(d.. 1065)1065) uniteunitedd ththee kingdomkingdomss ofof

CastileCastile,, GaliciaGalicia,, anandd LeoLe6nn iinn ththee middlmiddlee ofof ththee eleventheleventh century.century. HiHiss son,son, AlfonsoAlfonso

VIVI,, maintainemaintainedd thithiss unitunityy andand revitalizerevitalizedd thethe ChristiaChristiann reconquista (reconquest(reconquest)) ofof territorterritoryy thathatt hahadd onconcee beebeenn iinn ChristiaChristiann handhandss bubutt hahadd beebeenn ruleruledd bbyy MuslimsMuslims sincesince ththee earlearlyy eighteighthh century.century.99 ThroughThrough variouvariouss militarymilitary,, economiceconomic,, andand politicapoliticall effortsefforts,, AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII succeededsucceeded inin makinmakingg ththee kingdokingdomm ooff Le6n-CastileLeon-Castile ththee mosmostt powerfupowerfull politicapoliticall entityentity inin IberiIberiaa anandd ththee mosmostt dangerousdangerous ChristianChristian enemenemyy ooff ththee taiftaifaa kingskings.. AAtt oneone timtimee oror anotheranother,, AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII attackeattackedd andand forceforcedd parias (tribut(tributee paymentspayments)) fromfrom allall ofof ththee majomajorr taifas.taifas.

AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII reachereachedd ththee heighheightt ooff hihiss powepowerr vis-a-vivis-a.-viss ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss iinn 10851085 whewhenn hhee annexedannexed ththee MusliMuslimm kingdokingdomm ooff Toledo.Toledo. BByy capturingcapturing ToledoToledo,, AlfonsoAlfonso

VVII doubledoubledd ththee sizsizee ofof hishis kingdokingdomm andand tootookk controcontroll ooff thethe north-centranorth-centrall Iberia.Iberia.

TheThe remaininremainingg taiftaifaa kingkingss fearefearedd thathatt thetheyy mighmightt bbee AlfonsAlfonsoo VI'sVTs nexnextt victims.victims.

DoubtingDoubting thathatt thetheyy stoodstood ananyy chancchancee ofof haltinhaltingg AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII onon theitheirr own,own, theythey

8 ForFor a conciseconcise explanationexplanation ofof thethe riserise anandd fallfall ofof thethe ChristianChristian kingdomskingdoms ofof IberiaIberia inin thethe latlatee eleventheleventh andand earlearlyy twelfttwelfthh centuries,centuries, seseee BernarBernardd FF.. ReillyReilly,, The Medieval Spains (New(New York:York: CambridgeCambridge UniversitUniversityy PressPress,, 1993),1993), 104-16.104-16.

9 TheThe conceptconcept ofof reconquistareconquista willwill bbee discusseddiscussed furtherfurther inin ChapterChapter IV.IV. 8 soughsoughtt helhelpp frofromm ththee BerberBerber AlmoravidAlmoravidss ooff NortNorthh AfricaAfrica.. IInn 1085-6,1085-6, thethe tallataifa kingkingss ooff BadajozBadajoz,, GranadaGranada,, anandd SevilleSeville sensentt a delegatiodelegationn ooff mosqumosquee ulamulamaa toto

MoroccMoroccoo toto enlisenlistt ththee supporsupportt ofof ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss forfor ththee defensdefensee ooff al-Andalusal-Andalus...

ThThee AlmoravidAlmoravidss werweree a grougroupp ooff religiously-motivatereligiously-motivatedd BerbeBerberr warriorswarriors whwhoo emergedemerged frofromm ththee areaarea ooff modermodernn southernsouthern MoroccMoroccoo andand northernnorthern

MauritaniaMauritania iinn ththee mid-eleventmid-eleventhh century.l0century.10 BByy 10831083 thetheyy werweree inin controcontroll ofof largelarge partpartss ofof northwesternorthwesternn AfricAfricaa includinincludingg allall ofof MoroccMoroccoo andand WesterWesternn AlgeriaAlgeria.. TheThe delegationdelegation sensentt bbyy ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss askedasked ththee AlmoraviAlmoravidd emiremir,, YusuYiisuff ibibnn TashufinTashufin

(d.(d. 1106),1106), ttoo comcomee ttoo al-Andalusal-Andalus ttoo helhelpp stestemm ththee tidtidee ofof AlfonsAlfonsoo WVI'ss imminentimminent conquesconquestt ooff MusliMuslimm Spain.Spain. IbIbnn TashufiTashurmn agreeagreedd ttoo helhelpp hishis co-religionistsco-religionists,, andand inin

10861086 hhee leledd hishis armarmyy ttoo AlgeciraAlgecirass oonn ththee southersouthernn coastcoast ooff al-Andalus.al-Andalus.

ThThee combinedcombined forceforcess ooff ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss andand AndalusAndalusii taiftaifaa kingkingss metmet

AlfonsoAlfonso VVII aatt al-Zallaqaal-Zallaqa neanearr BadajozBadajoz.. IInn ththee battlbattlee whicwhichh followedfollowed,, ththee MuslimMuslim armiearmiess soundlysoundly defeateddefeated theitheirr ChristianChristian opponentsopponents.. ApparentlApparentlyy feelingfeeling thathatt hehe hahadd donedone hishis religioureligiouss dutyduty bbyy waginwagingg jihadjihad againsagainstt ththee Christians,Christians, IbnIbn TashufinTashufin returnereturnedd ttoo NortNorthh Africa.Africa.

HoweverHowever,, asas soosoonn asas thethe bulbulkk ofof thethe AlmoraviAlmoravidd armarmyy returnereturnedd toto NorthNorth

AfricaAfrica,, ththee taifataifa kingkingss begabegann ttoo intriguintriguee againstagainst oneone another.another. AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII waswas ableable ttoo exploiexploitt thithiss dissensiondissension amongamong ththee taiftaifaa kingskings andand onconcee agaiagainn asserassertt hishis powepowerr inin al-Andalual-Andaluss bbyy launchinlaunchingg militarmilitaryy foraysforays intintoo ththee southsouth anandd bbyy forcingforcing

10W ThThee AlmoravidAlmoravid movemenmovementt wilwilll bbee discusseddiscussed mormoree thoroughlthoroughlyy inin ChapterChapter IV.IV. 9

ththee kingkingss ttoo papayy tributetribute.. Thus,Thus, withiwithinn twtwoo yearyearss ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss managemanagedd ttoo loselose

ththee advantageadvantage wowonn atat al-Zallaqa.al-Zallaqa.

InIn 10881088 ththee taiftaifaa kingskings agaiagainn soughtsought anandd receivedreceived helphelp fromfrom thethe

AlmoravidsAlmoravids.. HoweverHowever,, IbIbnn TashufiTashuf"mn spenspentt atat leasleastt aass muchmuch timtimee actinactingg aass refereereferee

amonamongg ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss aass hhee dididd fightinfightingg ththee Christians.Christians. ApparentlApparentlyy disgustedisgustedd atat

ththee behaviobehaviorr ooff ththee kingskings,, anandd frustratefrustratedd bbyy ththee lacklack ooff progresprogresss beinbeingg mademade

againstagainst ththee Christians,Christians, IbIbnn Tashuf"mTashufin returnereturnedd ttoo NortNorthh AfricaAfrica aatt ththee endend ooff 10881088

withouwithoutt havinhavingg settlesettledd ththee affairsaffairs ofof al-Andalus.al-Andalus.ll11

IbnIbn TashufiTashuf"mn andand hihiss armarmyy travelletravelledd ttoo al-Andalual-Andaluss forfor a thirthirdd timtimee inin 1090.1090.

ThThee purpospurposee ofof thithiss journejourneyy wawass conquest.conquest. ConvincedConvinced thathatt ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss couldcould

nonott defendefendd themselvethemselvess againstagainst AlfonsAlfonsoo VIVI,, IbIbnn Tashuf"mTashufin decideddecided thathatt ththee onlyonly

wawayy ttoo savsavee al-Andalual-Andaluss fromfrom AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII wawass toto absorabsorbb itit intointo hishis owownn realmrealm.. InIn

1090,1090, ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss tootookk GranadaGranada,, iinn ththee followingfollowing yeayearr thetheyy annexedannexed Seville,Seville,

anandd inin 10941094 thetheyy capturecapturedd BadajozBadajoz,, therebtherebyy effectivelyeffectively bringinbringingg ththee taiftaifaa systemsystem

ttoo anan end.end. TheyThey spenspentt ththee nexnextt twenty-fivtwenty-fivee yearyearss consolidatinconsolidatingg theitheirr controlcontrol overover

thethe MusliMuslimm soutsouthh andand increasingincreasing theitheirr influencinfluencee iinn Iberia.Iberia.

SomeSome ooff ththee AndalusAndalusii mosqumosquee ulamulamaa vieweviewedd ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss asas

1111 ThThee specifispecificc purpospurposee ooff IbIbnn Tashufin'Tashurm'ss seconsecondd voyagvoyagee ttoo al-Andalual-Andaluss wawass ttoo dislodgedislodge a garrisogarrisonn whicwhichh AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII hahadd beebeenn ablablee ttoo placplacee atat AledAledoo iinn southeastersoutheasternn IberiaIberia.. ThThee siegesiege ofof AledAledoo wilwilll bbee discussediscussedd iinn greategreaterr detaidetaill iinn ChapteChapterr IVIV.. FoForr aann accounaccountt ooff ththee siegesiege anandd IbnIbn

Tashufin'Tashurm'ss involvemeninvolvementt inin itit,, seseee KitabKitiib al-hullaal-lJulla al-mawshiyya, eded.. SuhaySuhayll ZakaZakarr andand 'AbI Abdd al-Qadiral-Qadir al-Zamarnaal-Zamama (Da(Darr al-Rashadal-Rashad al-Hadithaal-I:Iadjtha,, CasablancaCasablanca,, 1979),1979), 68-7068-70.. 1010 championschampions ooff IslaIslamm anandd ththee saviorssaviors ofof al-Andalus.1212 AfteAfterr thethe AlmoravidsAlmoravids conqueredconquered ththee taiftaifaa kingdomskingdoms,, a numbenumberr ooff thesthesee pro-Almoravipro-Almoravidd mosqumosquee ulamaulama becambecamee importanimportantt figurefiguress inin ththee AlmoraviAlmoravidd EmpireEmpire.. TheiTheirr poinpointt ooff viewview eventualleventuallyy camecame ttoo dominatedominate ththee historicahistoricall sourcessources foforr ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss era.era.

ItIt iiss beyonbeyondd ththee scopscopee ooff thithiss thesithesiss ttoo explainexplain fullyfully whwhyy thithiss poinpointt ooff viewview dominateddominated ththee historicahistoricall sourcessources.. OnOnee explanatioexplanationn mighmightt bbee foundfound iinn thethe adageadage lithe"the victorvictorss writwritee history.history."" ThThee AlmoravidAlmoravidss defeateddefeated ththee taiftaifaa kingskings,, so,so, iiff thethe victorvictorss inin thithiss casecase diddid inin factfact writwritee ththee historyhistory,, iitt woulwouldd havhavee beebeenn thethe prerogativprerogativee ofof pro-Almoravidpro-Almoravidss scholarscholarss ttoo recorrecordd ththee eventeventss ooff ththee taiftaifaa kingskings ereraa foforr posterityposterity.. ThiThiss topitopicc deservesdeserves mucmuchh mormoree researcresearchh anandd discussiondiscussion,, bubutt itit wilwilll nonott bbee examinedexamined witwithh ananyy deptdepthh inin thithiss thesisthesis.. SufficSufficee itit ttoo sasayy thathatt itit certainlycertainly seemsseems asas iiff oneone cancan detectdetect anan anti-taifa/pro-Almoravianti-taifa/pro-Almoravidd poinpointt ooff vievieww inin somesome ofof ththee sources.sources.

However,However, asas I mentionementionedd atat ththee beginninbeginningg ofof thithiss chapter,chapter, individualindividual mosqumosquee ulamulamaa subscribesubscribedd ttoo varietvarietyy ooff pointpointss ooff vievieww regardinregardingg ththee taiftaifaa kings.kings.

FeFeww historianshistorians ofof ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss eraera havhavee consideredconsidered ththee implicationimplicationss whichwhich thesthesee divergendivergentt pointpointss ooff vievieww havhavee forfor historicahistoricall researchresearch.. TheThe followinfollowingg sectionsection iiss devoteddevoted ttoo a discussiondiscussion ofof ththee historicahistoricall sourcesourcess foforr ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss eraera.. BothBoth ththee dominancdominancee ooff ththee anti-taifaanti-taifa poinpointt ooff vievieww andand ththee effecteffectss ooff workinworkingg frofromm thisthis singlesingle poinpointt ofof vievieww wilwilll bbee examined.examined.

1212 JacintJacintoo BoscBoschh VilaVila,, Los Almordvides.Almorrivides. eded.. EE.. MolinMolinaa LopeLo"ezz (Madrid:(Madrid: MAPFREMAPFRE.. 1990).1990). 127-70.127-70. 1111

PrimarPrimaryy anandd SecondarySecondary SourcesSources

TheThe PrimarPrimaryy SourcesSources

TheThe primarprimaryy sourcessources forfor ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss eraera belonbelongg ttoo historiographicalhistoriographical genresgenres aass diversediverse asas historicahistoricall chroniclechronicle,, literarliteraryy anthology,anthology, biographicalbiographical dictionary,dictionary, andand memoir.1313 ThThee followingfollowing pagepagess areare devoteddevoted ttoo anan overvieovervieww ofof ththee strengthsstrengths anandd weaknessweakness ooff thesthesee sourcessources.. IInn thithiss overviewoverview I wilwilll explainexplain howhow sourcesourcess thathatt presenpresentt ththee poinpointt ooff viewview ooff ththee anti-taifanti-taifaa subsesubsett ooff ththee mosquemosque ulamulamaa havhavee comecome ttoo dominatdominatee historicahistoricall researchresearch ooff ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss era.era. I wilwilll alsoalso looklook atat otheotherr sourcessources thathatt presenpresentt differendifferentt pointpointss ofof viewview,, bubutt whichwhich araree nonott asas widelywidely useusedd aass ththee otheotherr sources.sources.

TheThe sourcessources thathatt contaicontainn ththee mosmostt comprehensivcomprehensivee accountsaccounts ooff ththee taifataifa kingskings eraera araree ththee historicahistoricall chronicles.chronicles. AmonAmongg ththee mosmostt importanimportantt workworkss iinn thisthis genrgenree araree thosthosee ooff IbIbnn al-Kardabiisal-Kardabus (d.(d. 1174),1174), IbIbnn Tdhar'Idharii (d(d.. ca.ca. 1312),1312), andand IbIbnn al-al-

KhatiKhatibb (d(d.. 1374).141374).14 ThThee chronicleschronicles writtenwritten bbyy thesthesee memenn areare characterizedcharacterized byby certaincertain stockstock featurefeaturess thatthat areare foundfound throughouthroughoutt ththee ArabiArabicc historicahistoricall tradition:tradition:

1313 ThThee primarprimaryy sourcesourcess upouponn whicwhichh areare treatetreatedd inin thithiss thesithesiss araree alalll writtewrittenn iinn Arabic.Arabic. WorkWorkss writtewrittenn inin LatiLatinn anandd otheotherr RomancRomancee languagelanguagess wilwilll nonott bbee discussediscussedd foforr twtwoo reasonsreasons:: theythey generallygenerally ddoo nonott containcontain mucmuchh informatioinformationn abouaboutt ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss anandd thetheyy araree usuallusuallyy designeddesigned primarilprimarilyy ttoo glorifyglorify ththee patronpatronss whwhoo sponsoredsponsored theitheirr compositioncomposition.. AlthougAlthoughh ththee LatiLatinn andand RomanceRomance primarprimaryy sourcesourcess areare invaluableinvaluable foforr studyingstudying ththee ChristianChristian halhalff ooff ththee IberiaIberiann PeninsulaPeninsula iinn ththee eleventheleventh century,century, thetheyy ddoo nonott providprovidee substantialsubstantial informatioinformationn aboutabout ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss oror thethe AndalusAndalusii ulama.ulama.

1414 IbIbnn Tdhar'Idharli al-Marrakushial-Marrakushl,, Al-BayanAI-Bayiin al-mughrib, 4 vols.vols.,, eds.eds. E.E. LeviLevi ProvencaProven<;all andand I1:tsanIhsan 'Abba'Abbass (Beirut:(Beirut: DaDarr al-al-ThaqafaThaqafa,, 1967);1967); IbIbnn al-Kardabusal-Kardabus,, TiirzkhTarikh al-andalus, eded.. Al:unadAhmad MujtaMujtarr al-'al-'Abbad Abbadii (Madrid:(Madrid: InstitutInstitutoo dede EstudioEstudioss Islcimicos,Islamicos, 1971);1971); LisaLisann al-DiaI-Dinn ibibnn al-Khapo,al-Khatib, KitabKitiib a'malii'miil al-ii'liim,al-a'lam, ed.ed. E.E. LevLevii ProvencaProven<;all (Beirut:(Beirut: DaDarr al-Makshoufal-Makshouf,, 1956.)1956.) 12

thetheyy begibeginn withwith anan introductiointroductionn whicwhichh describesdescribes ththee scopscopee anandd purpospurposee ofof thethe

work;work; theythey araree organizedorganized accordinaccordingg ttoo ththee yearyearss (fi sinna) oorr ththee rulersrulers'' reignreignss inin

whichwhich eventsevents happenehappenedd (fi dawla); andand theitheirr accountaccountss araree relatedrelated onon ththee authorityauthority

ooff respecterespectedd peoplepeople,, iinn manmanyy casescases eye-witnesses.eye-witnesses.115 ThThee workworkss ofof IbIbnn al-al-

KardabusKardabiis,, IbIbnn Tdhari'Idharl,, andand IbnIbn aI-Khatibal-Khatib araree regionaregionall historiehistoriess ratheratherr thanthan

universauniversall historiehistoriess suchsuch asas thosthosee writtewrittenn bbyy ththee EasterEasternn historianhistorianss al-Ya'qiiblal-Ya'qubi (d.(d.

897)897) andand al-TabaraI-Tabar!i (d(d.. 923).923). IbIbnn al-Kardabiis,al-Kardabus, IbIbnn Tdhari'Idharl,, andand IbnIbn aI-Khatibal-Khatib

devotedevote theitheirr workworkss ttoo ththee historhistoryy ofof ththee MuslimMuslim WestWest,, mosmostt spedficallyal-specifically al-

AndalusAndalus andand Morocco.Morocco. AlAlll threthreee ooff thethemm discusdiscusss ththee UmayyadsUmayyads,, ththee taiftaifaa kings,kings,

andand thethe Almoravids.Almoravids.

ThThee chroniclerchroniclerss ofof al-Andalual-Andaluss facedfaced a challengchallengee whewhenn thetheyy trietriedd toto

describedescribe ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss era.era. AAss wawass mentionementionedd aboveabove,, ArabiArabicc historicalhistorical

chroniclechronicless werweree traditionalltraditionallyy arrangedarranged bbyy yeayearr oror reignreign.. EventsEvents werweree describeddescribed

aass havinhavingg taketakenn placplacee eitheeitherr ffiT sinnasinna (in(in ththee yeayearr ofof)) oorr fifi dawldawlaa (in(in ththee reigreignn of).of).

ForFor exampleexample,, inin thethe UmayyaUmayyadd andand AlmoraviAlmoravidd eras,eras, ththee dawldawlaa referredreferred ttoo isis thatthat

ooff ththee UmayyaUmayyadd caliphcaliph oror ththee AlmoraviAlmoravidd emir.emir.1616

1515 TheThe twtwoo besbestt treatmenttreatmentss ofof ArabiArabicc historiographhistoriographyy areare R.R. StephenStephen HumphreysHumphreys,, IslamicIslamic History: A Framework forfor Inquiry (Princeton:(Princeton: PrincetoPrincetonn UniversitUniversityy PressPress,, 1991)1991) anandd TariTariff Khalidi,Khalidi, Arabic thought in the classical period (New(New YorkYork:: CambridgeCambridge UniversitUniversityy PressPress,, 1994).1994). UnfortunatelyUnfortunately,, neitheneitherr ooff thesthesee authorauthorss sayssays mucmuchh abouaboutt al-Andalus.al-Andalus.

1616 ThThee UmayyadUmayyadss useusedd ththee simplesimple titltitlee of'emirof "emir"" untiuntill 929299 whewhen'n 'Ab Abdd al-Ral)manal-Rahman IIIIII tooktook ththee titltitlee "emir"emir al-mu'minin,al-mu'minin,"" ththee titltitlee reservereservedd foforr caliphscaliphs.. ThThee AlmoravidAlmoravidss useusedd ththee titltitlee ofof "emir"emir al-muslimihal-muslimin"" whicwhichh diddid nonott indicateindicate ananyy caliphacaliphall prerogativesprerogatives.. InIn fact,fact, YusuYusuff ibibnn Ta.shufinTashufin soughtsought andand receivedreceived ththee recognitionrecognition ofof the'the 'Abbasi Abbasidd caliphcaliphss iinn BaghdaBaghdadd therebtherebyy demonstratingdemonstrating hishis subordinatesubordinate status.status. 13

ThisThis historiographicahistoriographicall frameworkframework workworkss welwelll foforr periodperiodss ofof stabilitystability,, butbut ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss ereraa isis,, accordingaccording ttoo ththee chroniclerschroniclers,, a timtimee ofof fitnafitna oror upheaval.upheaval.

ThThee sinnsinnaa andand dawladawla frameworkframeworkss havehave ttoo bbee modifiemodifiedd inin orderorder toto dealdeal witwithh suchsuch aann eraera.. IbIbnn al-Kardabiisal-Kardabus organizeorganizess hihiss worworkk accordingaccording toto citiecitiess anandd eventsevents ratherrather thathann bbyy sinnasinna oror dawla.dawla. IbIbnn 'IdharlTdhari useusess sinnsinnaa andand dawladawla,, bubutt hhee devotedevotess somesome sectionssections ttoo specificspecific eventeventss andand individuals.individuals. IbIbnn aI-KhatIbal-Khatib useusess dawldawlaa bubutt hhee alsoalso employemployss liylimayam (th(thee daysdays ofof)) anandd dhikr (accoun(accountt oror recollectiorecollectionn of).of). ThereforeTherefore,, thethe chroniclerschroniclers ddoo nonott discardiscardd ththee traditionatraditionall sinnasinna anandd dawladawla frameworksframeworks entirely,entirely, bubutt thetheyy ddoo modifmodifyy thesthesee frameworkframeworkss significantlsignificantlyy iinn orderorder ttoo treattreat ththee taifataifa kingkingss era.era.

IInn contrast,contrast, ththee chroniclerchroniclerss returreturnn ttoo ththee traditionatraditionall sinnasinna andand dawladawla frameworkframeworkss whewhenn thetheyy describdescribee ththee AlmoraviAlmoravidd periodperiod.. ThisThis juxtapositiojuxtapositionn ofof fitnafitna witwithh sinnasinna anandd dawldawlaa leaveleavess ththee readereaderr witwithh ththee impressionimpression thathat..thet the

AlmoravidAlmoravidss representerepresentedd a returreturnn ttoo stabilitystability afterafter ththee upheavaupheavall ofof thethe taiftaifaa kingskings era.era. IInn additionaddition,, ththee chroniclerchroniclerss almosalmostt alwayalwayss addadd respectfulrespectful epithetepithetss afterafter mentioninmentioningg ththee AlmoraviAlmoravidd emirs.emirs. FoForr exampleexample,, IbnIbn Tashufm'sTashufin's namnamee isis usuallyusually followedfollowed bbyy phrasephrasess suchsuch aass "ra1:zimahu"rahimahu Allah" (ma(mayy GodGod havhavee mercmercyy onon him)him) andand

"1:zafi;r.ahu"haftzahu Allah," (ma(mayy GodGod protecprotectt him)him) asas welwelll aass ththee titltitle"e "emiremir al-miislimin"aI-muslim in" (the(the leaderleader ofof ththee Muslims)Muslims).. SuchSuch phrasephrasess anandd titlestitles rarelrarelyy follofolloww ththee namenamess ofof the·the taiftaifaa kingskings.. TheThe juxtapositiojuxtapositionn ofof fitnfitnaa witwithh dawldawlaa andand ththee ususee ofof honorificshonorifics afterafter mentiomentionn ooff ththee AlmoraviAlmoravidd emiremirss allowsallows forfor ththee conclusionconclusion thathatt ththee chroniclerschroniclers 1414 helheldd ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss inin mucmuchh highehigherr esteeesteemm thathann ththee taiftaifaa kingskings.. IfIf thisthis impressionimpression isis correctcorrect,, thethenn ththee tendenctendencyy ooff ththee chroniclerchroniclerss ttoo prefepreferr thethe

AlmoravidAlmoravidss ttoo ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss indicateindicatess thathatt ththee chroniclerchroniclerss subscribesubscribedd ttoo thethe poinpointt ofof vievieww ooff ththee anti-taifaanti-taifa mosqumosquee ulamulamaa whwhoo werweree alsoalso pro-Almoravid.pro-Almoravid.

AfteAfterr ththee chronicleschronicles,, ththee mosmostt usefuusefull worworkk iiss ththee literarliteraryy anthologyanthology,, al-al-

DhakhiraflDhakhirafi mahasmahiis ahl al-jazira ofof IbIbnn Bassam.1717 Al-Dhakhira containcontainss biographicalbiographical informationinformation aboua boutt poetpoetss anandd authorsauthors ooff ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss ereraa aass welwelll aass exampleexampless ofof theitheirr workwork.. EacEachh entrentryy beginbeginss witwithh a eulogyeulogy ooff ththee persopersonn iinn questionquestion,, usuallyusually writtewrittenn iinn rhymerhymedd proseprose.. ThesThesee introductionintroductionss areare followefollowedd bbyy selectionsselections fromfrom ththee person'person'ss diwan. ManManyy ooff ththee selectionselectionss araree accompanieaccompaniedd bbyy historicalhistorical informationinformation thathatt explainexplainss ththee contexcontextt iinn whicwhichh ththee worworkk wawass writtenwritten.. Al-DhakhiraAl-Dhakhira isis aann especiallyespecially importantimportant sourcsourcee foforr ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss eraera becausbecausee manmanyy ooff thethe kingkingss andand theitheirr courtierscourtiers werweree accomplisheaccomplishedd litterateurs.litterateurs. IInn additionaddition,, manmanyy ofof ththee kingkingss werweree greagreatt patronpatronss ofof literature;literature; thereforthereforee informatioinformationn aboutabout ththee kingskings isis includedincluded inin sectionsectionss devoteddevoted ttoo poetpoetss whoswhosee livelivess actuallyactually hahadd littllittlee oorr nono bearinbearingg oonn politicapoliticall history.history.

Al-Dhakhira musmustt bbee useusedd witwithh mormoree cautiocautionn thathann ththee chronicleschronicles becausebecause ititss maimainn purpospurposee isis ttoo recorrecordd literaryliterary ratheratherr thathann politicapoliticall historyhistory.. TheThe amounamountt ofof historicahistoricall informatioinformationn includedincluded bbyy IbIbnn BassamBassam isis directldirectlyy proportionaproportionall ttoo thethe literarliteraryy reputatioreputationn ooff a givegivenn personperson;; thereforetherefore,, ththee kingkingss whwhoo werweree ththee greatestgreatest

1717 AbuAbu al-I;Iassanal-Hassan 'Ali'Ali ibnibn Bassam,Bassam, Al-Dhakhira fifi mahiismahas ahl al-jazira,al-jazira, 44 vols.,vols., ed.ed. :QtsanIhsan 'Abba, Abbass (Beirut(Beirut:: DaOafr al-Thaqafaal-Thaqafa,, 1978).1978). 15 poetpoetss andand patronpatronss ofof poetrpoetryy receivreceivee ththee mosmostt attentionattention whilwhilee kingkingss whwhoo werewere leslesss talentetalentedd oorr generousgenerous receivreceivee relativelrelativelyy littllittlee attention.attention. UnfortunatelUnfortunatelyy foforr thethe contemporarcontemporaryy researcherresearcher,, a talentetalentedd kinkingg whwhoo wawass nonott a talentetalentedd poepoett mighmightt bebe moremore oror lessless passepassedd oveoverr inin al-Dhakhlra.al-Dhakhira.

A googoodd examplexamplee ooff thithiss shortcominshortcomingg ooff al-Dhakhiraal-Dhakhlra cacann bbee founfoundd iinn thethe differentdifferent treatmenttreatmentss givegivenn toto ththee kingkingss al-Mu'tamial-Mu'tamidd ooff SevilleSeville (d.(d. afteafterr 1095)1095) andand al-Mutawwakilal-Mutawwakil ofof BadajoBadajozz (d.(d. 1094).1094). FortFortyy pagepagess ooff al-Dhakhira areare devoteddevoted ttoo al-al-

Mu'tamiMu'tamidd bubutt fewefewerr thathann tetenn pagepagess areare allottedallotted ttoo al-Mutawwakil.1818 ThThee reasonreason forfor thithiss substantiasubstantiall differencdifferencee iiss thathatt al-Mu'tamial-Mu'tamidd wawass a greagreatt patropatronn ooff literatureliterature andand a talentetalentedd poepoett inin hishis ownown rightright.. HiHiss workworkss havhavee beebeenn collectedcollected inin a diwandiwan andand manmanyy bookbookss havhavee beebeenn writtewrittenn abouaboutt hihiss poetry.poetry.1919 Al-MutawwakiAI-Mutawwakill wawass aa patropatronn ooff poetrpoetryy andand hhee composecomposedd a fefeww verseversess ofof hihiss own,own, bubutt hhee wawass neitherneither asas generougenerouss witwithh hihiss patronagpatronagee nornor aass skilledskilled witVvithh hihiss pepenn aass al-Mu'tamid.al-Mu'tamid.

Consequently,Consequently, hhee receivereceivess lessless attentionattention thathann al-Mu'tamidal-Mu'tamid iinn al-Dhakhlra.al-Dhakhira.

NeverthelessNevertheless,, al-Mutawwakilal-Mutawwakil comparecomparess favorablfavorablyy witwithh al-Mu'tamidal-Mu'tamid inin termtermss ooff politicapoliticall abilityability:: al-Mutawwakial-Mutawwakill wawass inin powepowerr foforr twenty-fivtwenty-fivee yearsyears

(1068(1068 ttoo 1094),1094), hhee successfullysuccessfully defendedefendedd hihiss realrealmm againsagainstt botbothh hihiss ChristiaChristiann andand

MusliMuslimm enemies,enemies, andand hehe helheldd ououtt foforr foufourr yearyearss afterafter ththee beginninbeginningg ooff thethe

1818 IbnIbn Bassam,Bassam, AI-Dhakhlra,Al-Dhakhira, vol.vol. 2,2, pt.pt. 1141-81 41-81,, vol.vol. 2,2, pt.pt. 2,646-52.2,646-52.

1919 TwoTwo worksworks whichwhich dealdeal withwith thethe poetrypoetry ofof al-Mu'tamidal-Mu'tamid areare RaymondRaymond P.P. Scheindlin,Scheindlin, Form and Structure in the Poetry of al-Mu'tamid ibn 'Abbiid'Abbad (Leiden(Lei den:: E.JE.J.. BrillBrill,, 1974)1974) anandd RidhaRidha Souissi,Souissi, Al-Mu'tamidAI-Mu'tamid ibn 'Abblid'Abbad et son ouvre poetique: Etudes et themes (Tunis:(Tunis: PublicationPublicationss dede l'universittl'universitiee ddee TunisTunis,, 1977).1977). 1616

AlmoraviAlmoravidd conquestconquest ofof al-Andalus.al-Andalus. InIn contrastcontrast,, al-Mu'tamial-Mu'tamidd couldcould nonott preventprevent

AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII frofromm raidinraidingg hihiss territorterritoryy fromfrom oneone endend ttoo ththee otheotherr anandd waswas defeatedefeatedd bbyy ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss iinn 1091,1091, ththee seconsecondd yeayearr ooff theirtheir invasioinvasionn ooff al­al-

AndalusAndalus.. Al-MutawwakiAI-Mutawwakill mighmightt nonott havhavee beebeenn thethe brightesbrightestt stastarr iinn thethe literaryliterary galaxygalaxy ooff al-Andalusal-Andalus,, bubutt hhee seemseemss ttoo havhavee beebeenn a competentcompetent rulerruler.. ThusThus,, thethe cascasee ooff al-Mutawwakial-Mutawwakill anandd al-Mu'tamial-Mu'tamidd clearlyclearly illustrateillustratess ththee majomajorr pitfalpitfalll ofof usinusingg al-Dhakhira forfor historicahistoricall researchresearch:: althougalthoughh thithiss worworkk containcontainss a greatgreat dealdeal ooff informationinformation,, iitt isis mormoree concerneconcernedd witwithh ththee preservatiopreservationn ooff literaturliteraturee thanthan history.history.

HoweverHowever,, ththee factfact thathatt Al-Dhakhira isis mormoree devoteddevoted toto literatureliterature thanthan historyhistory carriecarriess witwithh iitt aann advantage:advantage: granted,granted, oneone cancan saysay thathatt al-Dhakhira isis dominateddominated bbyy a literarliteraryy poinpointt ooff viewview,, bubutt thethe perspectivperspectivee ofof ththee mosqumosquee ulamaulama fromfrom whicwhichh ththee chronicleschronicles areare narratenarratedd iiss absenabsentt frofromm thithiss workwork.. ThaThatt isis nonott toto saysay thathatt IbIbnn BassaBassamm iiss mormoree objectiveobjective thathann thethe chroniclers;chroniclers; howeverhowever,, atat ththee veryvery leasleastt al-Dhakhira isis nonott colorecoloredd bbyy ththee poinpointt ooff vievieww ofof ththee anti-taifaanti-taifa mosquemosque ulamaulama..

BiographicaBiographicall dictionariedictionariess constitutconstitutee anotheranother historiographicahistoriographicall genregenre whichwhich isis importanimportantt forfor ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss eraera.. ThThee twtwoo mostmost importanimportantt suchsuch workworkss araree AI­Al-

$ilaSilafl fi tarikh a'immat al-Andalus bbyy IbIbnn BashkawaBashkawall andand KitabKitiib al-takmila li-kitiibli-kitab al-$ilaal-sila 17 bbyy IbIbnn al-Abbaral-Abbar.. 2o0 ThThee biographica biographicall dictionariedictionariess contaicontainn shorshortt liflifee historiehistoriess ooff ththee ulamulamaa ooff al-Andalusal-Andalus.. EacEachh entrentryy givegivess ththee namnamee ooff aann 'alim,'iilim, hihiss placeplacess ooff birth,birth, residenceresidence,, anandd deathdeath,, anandd ththee yeayearr iinn whicwhichh hhee dieddied.. EacEachh entrentryy alsalsoo includesincludes informatioinformationn abouaboutt ththee teacherteacherss witwithh whowhomm hhee workeworkedd aass welwelll aass ththee fieldfieldss inin whicwhichh hhee specialized.specialized.

ThThee maimainn probleproblemm witwithh usinusingg ththee biographicabiographicall dictionariedictionariess iiss thathatt thetheyy dodo nonott contaicontainn aass mucmuchh informatioinformationn aass eitheeitherr ththee chroniclechronicless oorr ththee literaryliterary anthologiesanthologies.. ThThee entrieentriess araree shorshortt anandd givgivee onlonlyy ththee mosmostt essentiaessentiall details.details.

MoreoverMoreover,, thertheree iiss scanscantt informatioinformationn abouaboutt anyonanyonee whwhoo wawass nonott aann 'alim.'alim.

ThereforeTherefore,, ththee usefulnesusefulnesss ooff ththee biographicabiographicall dictionariedictionariess foforr historicahistoricall researcresearchh isis

2121 limitelimitedd bbyy theirtheir lacklack ofof deptdepthh anandd detail.detail.

TheThe biographicabiographicall dictionariesdictionaries areare,, ooff coursecourse,, relaterelatedd frofromm ththee perspectiveperspective ooff thethe mosqumosquee ulamaulama.. HoweverHowever,, alalll ofof ththee mosqumosquee ulamulamaa areare representerepresentedd inin thethe biographicabiographicall dictionariedictionariess ~-- nonott onlonlyy thosthosee whwhoo werweree opposedopposed ttoo ththee taiftaifaa system.system.

InIn addition,addition, thethe biographicalbiographical dictionariesdictionaries areare devoteddevoted almostalmost exclusivelyexclusively toto thethe ulamaulama themselvesthemselves --~ caliphs,caliphs, kings,kings, andand emirsemirs areare mentionedmentioned onlyonly inin passing.passing.

2020 IbnIbn al-Abbar,al-Abbar, Al-TakmilaAI-Takmila Iili kitiibkitab al-~ila,al-sila, ed.ed. EzzatEzzat el-Attarel-Attar el-Hosayniel-Hosayni (Cairo:(Cairo: LibrairieLibrairie el-Khanji,el-Khanji, 1956);1956); IbnIbn Bashkawal,Bashkawal, KitabKitiib al-$ilaal-sila ftfi tarikhtarlkh a'immat I1I-Andalus,al-Andalus, ed.ed. EzzatEzzat el-Attarel-Attar el­el- HosayniHosayni (Cairo:(Cairo: LibrairieLibrairie al-Khanji,al-Khanji, 1956).1956).

2121 DiscussionsDiscussions ofof thethe biographicalbiographical dictionariesdictionaries cancan bebe foundfound inin thethe followingfollowing articles:articles: M'hammedM'hammed Benaboud,Benaboud, "The"The valuevalue ofof biographicalbiographical dictionariesdictionaries forfor studyingstudying al-Andalusal-Andalus duringduring thethe periodperiod ofof thethe taifataifa states,"states," inin ActasAdas XVI Congresso UEAl,UEAI, ed.ed. ConcepcionConception VasquezVasquez dede BenitoBenito andand MiguelMiguel AngelAngel ManzanoManzano RodriguezRodriguez (Salamanca:(Salamanca: EUAI,EUAI, 1995),1995), 57-71;57-71; dede Felipe,Felipe, Helene,Helene, "Berberes"Berberes enen diccionariosdiccionarios biograficosbiograficos norteafricanosnorteafricanos y andalusies,"andalusies," inin ActasAdas XVI CongressoCongresso UEAl,UEAI, ed.ed. ConcepcionConception VasquezVasquez dede BenitoBenito andand MiguelMiguel AngelAngel ManzanoManzano RodriguezRodriguez (Salamanca:(Salamanca: EUAI,EUAI, 1995),1995), 185-9.185-9. 1818

TheThe attitudeattitudess thathatt variouvariouss ulamulamaa helheldd towartowardd ththee seculasecularr rulerrulerss araree rarelyrarely mentionedmentioned.. Therefore,Therefore, whilwhilee ththee biographicabiographicall dictionariedictionariess dodo nonott containcontain muchmuch informationinformation onon ththee taiftaifaa kingskings,, thetheyy areare nonott dominateddominated bbyy ththee poinpointt ooff vievieww ofof ththee anti-taifanti-taifaa mosquemosque ulamulamaa ttoo ththee samesame extenextentt aass ththee chronicles.chronicles.

ThThee laslastt historiographicahistoriographicall genregenre isis ththee memoirmemoir.. UnfortunatelyUnfortunately,, ththee onlyonly memoimemoirr fromfrom thethe taiftaifaa kingskings ereraa whicwhichh hahass survivesurvivedd isis thathatt ofof 'Ab'Abdd AllaAllahh ibnibn

2222 BulugginBuluggln,, ththee lastlast kinkingg ofof ththee taiftaifaa ooff Granada. TitledTitled The Tibyan, ththee memoirsmemoirs describedescribe ththee historhistoryy ofof ththee BanBanuu ZiriZiri ('('Ab Abdd Allah'Allah'ss family)family) iinn al-Andalusal-Andalus.. TheThe

Tibyan isis usefuusefull becausbecausee itit isis ththee onlyonly primarprimaryy sourcesource writtewrittenn fromfrom ththee poinpointt ofof vievieww ooff a taiftaifaa kingking.. 'Ab'Abdd AllaAllahh wawass a participanparticipantt iinn somesome ooff ththee mosmostt importantimportant eventeventss ooff ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss eraera.. FoForr exampleexample,, hishis accountaccount ooff ththee BattlBattlee ooff al-Zallaqaal-Zallaqa

(1086(1086)) iiss ononee ooff ththee fewfew accountsaccounts ooff ththee eveneventt relaterelatedd bbyy oneone ofof ititss participantsparticipants andand ththee onlyonly oneone toltoldd bbyy a taiftaifaa king.23king.23

TheThe shortcomingshortcoming ooff The Tibyan isis thathatt iitt isis,, ooff course,course, subjective.subjective.2424

UltimatelyUltimately,, The Tibyan is'is 'AbAbd d Allah'Allah'ss apologapologyy foforr hishis failuresfailures inin dealindealingg withwith

2222 'Abd'Abd AllaAllahh ibnibn Buluggln,Buluggin, Al-Tibyan,AI-Tibyiin, eded.. EE.. LevLevii ProvencaProven~all (Cairo(Cairo:: DaDarr al-M'arif,al-M'arif, 1955);1955); AmiAminn TT.. TibiTibi,, trans.trans.,, The Tibyiin:Tibyan: Memoirs of'of 'AbdAbd Allah ibn BulugginBuluggtn Last ZiridZtrid Amir of Granada,Granada, NeNeww YorkYork:: EJE.J.. BrilBrilll 1986.1986.

2233 'Abd'Abd AllaAllahh ibibnn BulugginBuluggln,, The Tibyiin,Tibyan, 115-7.115-7. AnotheAnotherr eye-witneseye-witnesss accounaccountt iiss thathatt ooff thethe 'alim,'alim, IbIbnn al-Qa!?lra.al-Qasira. seesee IbIbnn BassamBassam,, al-Dhakhfra,al-Dhakhira, volvol.. 22,, ptpt.. 1,241-4.1,241-4.

2424 AriAriee SchippersSchippers,, "Autobiography"Autobiography iinn MedievalMedieval ArabiArabicc Literature,Literature,"" iinn ActasAetas XVIXVI Congresso UEAI, eded.. Concepci6nConcepci6n VasqueVasquezz ddee BenitBenitoo anandd MigueMiguell AngeAngell ManzanManzanoo RodriguezRodriguez (Salamanca(Salamanca:: EUAIEUAI,, 1995),481-7.1995), 481-7. SchippersSchippers discussediscussess The TibyiinTibyan iinn thithiss articlarticlee andand reachereachess manymany ooff ththee samesame conclusionconclusionss puputt fortforthh here.here. 1199

Leon-CastilLe6n-Castilee anandd ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss durinduringg hihiss reignreign.. TherTheree araree somsomee instanceinstancess inin

whicwhichh The Tibyan contradictcontradictss ththee otheotherr sourcessources.. FoForr exampleexample/, iinn 10910900 'Ab'Abdd AllahAllah

wawass forceforcedd ttoo papayy tributtributee ttoo AlfonsAlfonsoo VIVI.. 'Ab'Abdd AllaAllahh dismissedismissess ththee paymenpaymentt aass a

necessarnecessaryy evievill anandd claimclaimss thathatt hhee wawass onlonlyy buyinbuyingg timtimee untiuntill ththee AlmoravidsAlmoravids

coulcouldd arrivarrivee ttoo protecprotectt Granada.2525 ThThee chroniclerchroniclerss offeofferr a differendifferentt explanation.explanation.

AccordinAccordingg ttoo ththee chroniclerschroniclers,, 'Ab' Abdd AllaAllahh wawass actuallactuallyy tryintryingg ttoo bubuyy protectionprotection

frofromm ththee ChristianChristianss againsagainstt ththee Almoravids.2626 'Ab'Abdd Allah'Allah'ss argumentargumentss iinn hishis

owownn defensdefensee seemseem ttoo bbee sound,sound, bubutt ththee facfactt remainremainss thathatt The Tibyan contradictscontradicts

ththee otheotherr sourcesourcess iinn somsomee placesplaces.. ThereforeTherefore,, whewhenn usinusingg The Tibyan, speciaspeciall carecare

musmustt bbee taketakenn ttoo balancbalancee whawhatt iiss relaterelatedd iinn thithiss worworkk witwithh whawhatt iiss founfoundd iinn thethe

otherother sources.sources.

TheThe primarprimaryy sourcessources forfor thethe taifataifa kingkingss ereraa belongbelong ttoo manymany historio-historio-

graphicagraphicall genresgenres andand containcontain a numbenumberr ofof differentdifferent viewpoints.viewpoints. HoweverHowever,, thethe

authorauthorss ofof thethe secondarysecondary sourcessources havhavee chosenchosen toto favorfavor oneone poinpointt ofof view,view,

namelynamely thatthat ofof thethe anti-taifaanti-taifa mosquemosque ulama.ulama. ThisThis isis probablyprobably duedue toto thethe factfact thatthat thethe chronicleschronicles areare thethe onlyonly genregenre ofof primaryprimary sourcesource materialsmaterials thatthat areare specificallyspecifically devoteddevoted toto history;history; therefore,therefore, theythey areare thethe sourcessources thatthat historicalhistorical researchersresearchers regardregard asas thethe mostmost reliable.reliable. A heretoforeheretofore unexaminedunexamined consequenceconsequence ofof relyingrelying onon thethe chronicleschronicles isis thatthat thethe conclusionsconclusions reachedreached therebythereby areare coloredcolored byby thethe pointpoint ofof

2525 'Abd'Abd AllahAllah ibnibn Buluggm,Buluggin, The Tibyan, 130-149.130-149.

2626 IbnIbn 'Idhari,'Idhari, AI-Bayan,Al-Bayan, vol.vol. 4,132-4;4,132-4; IbnIbn al-KardabUs,al-Kardabus, Tarikh, 103-105;103-105; IbnIbn al-Khap.o,al-Khatib, Kitab a'miila'mal al-a'lam, 233-6.233-6. 2200 vievieww ofof thethe anti-taifaanti-taifa mosqumosquee ulamaulama.. ThiThiss probleproblemm wilwilll bbee explaineexplainedd iinn greatergreater detaidetaill iinn ththee followinfollowingg section.section.

TheThe SecondarySecondary SourcesSources

TheThe twtwoo workworkss thathatt areare ththee startingstarting poinpointt foforr anyany inquiryinquiry intintoo ththee historyhistory ofof al-Andalual-Andaluss areare ReinharReinhartt Dozy'Dozy'ss Spanish Islam: A History of the Muslims in SpainSpain andand EE.. LevLevii Provencal'Proven<;al'ss Histoire de I'Espagnel'Espagne musulmane.27 27 Dozy'Dozy'ss worworkk iiss dateddated bubutt stillstill ververyy helpfuhelpfull ttoo anyoneanyone tryintryingg ttoo gaingain a workinworkingg understandinunderstandingg ooff thethe taiftaifaa kingkingss eraera.. EE.. LeviLevi Provencal'Proven<;al'ss Histoire de I'Espagnel'Espagne musulmane iiss somethingsomething ofof anan updateupdatedd revisiorevisionn ooff Dozy'Dozy'ss workwork.. Levi-Proven<;alLevi-Provencal hahadd mormoree sourcessources toto worworkk witwithh thathann DozyDozy,, andand,, asas a resultresult,, hihiss worworkk iiss mucmuchh mormoree detaileddetailed andand analyticaanalyticall thathann hihiss predecessor'spredecessor's.. IInn additionaddition,, Levi-Provencal'sLevi-Proven<;al's'' documentationdocumentation andand bibliographbibliographyy providprovidee excellentexcellent leadleadss forfor findinfindingg one'one'ss wawayy througthroughh primaryprimary sourcessources..

TheThe workworkss ooff botbothh DozyDozy anandd Levi-ProvencaLevi-Proven<;all areare basebasedd almostalmost exclusivelyexclusively oonn informatioinformationn gatheredgathered frofromm ththee chronicleschronicles.. Therefore,Therefore, ananyy researcheresearcherr whowho useusess theitheirr workworkss wilwilll inevitablinevitablyy taketake ththee poinpointt ofof viewview ooff thethe anti-taifanti-taifaa mosquemosque ulamulamaa aass hihiss startinstartingg pointpoint.. GivenGiven thethe factfact thathatt thesthesee twotwo workworkss araree mainstaymainstayss inin thethe canoncanon ooff WesterWesternn literatureliterature onon ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss eraera,, itit comecomess aass nnoo surprisesurprise thatthat

2277 ReinharReinhartt Dozy,Dozy, Spanish Islam: A History of the Muslims in Spain, transtrans.. FF.. GG.. StokesStokes (London(London:: FranFrankk CassCass,, 1972);1972); E.E. Levi-ProvencalLevi-Proven<;:a1,, Histoire de l'EspagneI'Espagne musulmane (Paris:(Paris: EditionsEditions G.-PG.-P.. MaisonneuveMaisonneuve,, 1953).1953). 2121 manymany ofof ththee secondarysecondary sourcessources areare jusjustt asas dominateddominated byby thethe poinpointt ofof vievieww ofof thethe anti-taifaanti-taifa mosquemosque ulamulamaa asas thosthosee ofof DozyDozy andand Levi-Proven<;al.Levi-Provengal. AsAs wilwilll bebe explainedexplained iinn thethe followingfollowing pagespages,, mostmost modernmodern researcherresearcherss havehave notnot questionedquestioned mucmuchh lessless distanceddistanced themselvesthemselves fromfrom thisthis poinpointt ooff view.view.

ThThee besbestt workworkss foforr ththee endend ofof ththee UmayyadUmayyad eraera areare HussainHussain Mones'Mones' EssaiEssai sur la chute du califat umayyade de Cordoue en 1009 andand PeterPeter C.C. Scales'sScales's The Fall ojof the Caliphate ofofCordoba. Cordoba?9, 28 La chute du califat umayyade de Cordoue isis mormoree usefuusefull forfor studyingstudying ththee latelate UmayyadUmayyad eraera thanthan Histoire de l'EspagneI'Espagne musulmane becausebecause

MoneMoness hahadd moremore sourcessources ttoo worworkk withwith thathann Levi-Proven<;alLevi-Provencal andand subsequentlysubsequently hishis worworkk isis moremore detailed.detailed. InIn additionaddition,, MoneMoness concentratesconcentrates onon thethe lastlast yearyearss ofof thethe caliphatecaliphate whereawhereass Levi-ProvencaLevi-Proven<;all coverscovers thethe eightheighth throughthrough eleventheleventh centuries.centuries.

Mones'Mones'ss worworkk isis a traditionaltraditional historicahistoricall narrativenarrative:: essentially,essentially, hehe paraphrasesparaphrases thethe informationinformation hhee findfindss inin ththee primarprimaryy sourcessources andand translatestranslates itit intointo French.French. LaLa chUtechute du califat umayyade de Cordoue isis a valuablvaluablee tootooll forfor workinworkingg witwithh thethe enormousenormous bodbodyy ofof primarprimaryy sourcesource materialmaterial becausbecausee iitt allowsallows ththee researcherresearcher toto dealdeal witwithh a summarysummary ooff thethe sourcessources ratheratherr thathann siftsift throughthrough everyevery singlesingle detaildetail andand digressiondigression foundfound inin ththee ArabiArabicc chronicles.chronicles.

Scales'Scales' approachapproach ttoo thethe fallfall ofof ththee UmayyaUmayyadd caliphatecaliphate isis moremore methodologicallymethodologically sophisticatedsophisticated thanthan thatthat ooff Mones.Mones. ScalesScales examinesexamines ththee endend ofof

2828 HussaiHussainn Mones,Mones, EssaiEssai sursur la chute du califat Umayyade de Cordoue (Cairo:(Cairo: ImprintImprint UniversiteUniversite FouadFouad,, 1948);1948); PeterPeter C.C. Scales,Scales, The Fall of the Caliphate of Cordoba (New(New YorkYork:: E.].E. J. BrillBrill 1994).1994). 2222 ththee UmayyaUmayyadd ereraa bbyy usinusingg sociasociall historicahistoricall methodologmethodologyy whereawhereass MoneMoness usesuses ththee traditionatraditionall politicapoliticall narrativenarrative.. ScaleScaless arrangearrangess hihiss chapterchapterss accordinaccordingg ttoo shi'iitshl'at oorr partiesparties.. HHee listlistss ththee Shi'aShi'att MarwaniyyaMarwaniyya,, ththee Shi'aShi'att BerberiyyaBerberiyya,, ththee SlU'atShTat

Saqalibiyya$aqalibiyya,, anandd ththee Shi'aShi'att IfranjiyyIfranjiyyaa aass ththee groupgroupss whicwhichh playeplayedd ththee mostmost decisivdecisivee roleroless iinn ththee falfalll ooff ththee caliphatcaliphatee ooff CordobaCordoba.. ThThee maimainn differencedifference betweebetweenn ththee workworkss ooff ScaleScaless anandd MoneMoness iiss thathatt The TallFall of the Caliphate of Cordoba isis interpretativinterpretativee whereawhereass La chute du califat umayyade de Cordoue iiss descriptivedescriptive.. TheThe contemporarcontemporaryy researcheresearcherr wilwilll probablprobablyy finfindd thathatt ththee besbestt wawayy ttoo ususee thesthesee twotwo workworkss iiss ttoo reareadd thethemm aass complementcomplementss ttoo eaceachh other.other.

BotBothh MoneMoness anandd ScaleScaless workworkss araree devotedevotedd ttoo ththee laslastt yearyearss ooff thethe

UmayyaUmayyadd caliphatecaliphate andand ththee firstfirst yearyearss ofof ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss eraera.. ThThee taiftaifaa systemsystem wawass nonott yeyett fullfullyy developedevelopedd atat thathatt time,time, bubutt ththee distinctiondistinction betweebetweenn mosqumosquee andand palacpalacee ulamulamaa wawass becominbecomingg mucmuchh clearerclearer thathann iitt hahadd beenbeen.. BotBothh MoneMoness andand

ScalesScales relrelyy heavilheavilyy oonn ththee chronicles,chronicles, anandd ththee poinpointt ooff vievieww ooff ththee anti-taifaanti-taifa mosquemosque ulamaulama cancan bebe seenseen iinn theirtheir works.works.

TheThe bestbest generalgeneral workwork forfor thethe taifataifa kingskings eraera isis DavidDavid Wasserstein'sWasserstein's TheThe

Rise and FallTall of the Party Kings.Kings?9 29 Wasserstein'sWasserstein's workwork isis a standardstandard politicalpolitical history,history, butbut hhee alsoalso includesincludes sectionssections aboutabout thethe variouvariouss ethnicethnic andand religiousreligious groupsgroups whichwhich werewere activeactive inin al-Andalusal-Andalus duringduring thethe taifataifa kingskings era.era. TheThe onlyonly shortcomingshortcoming ofof The Rise and Fall of the Party Kings isis thatthat itit lackslacks detaildetail andand

2929 DavidDavid Wasserstein,Wasserstein, The Rise and Fall of the Party Kings (Princeton:(Princeton: PrincetonPrinceton UniversityUniversity Press,Press, 1985).1985). 2323 directiodirectionn inin somsomee areasareas.. FoForr example,example, WassersteiWasser steinn doedoess nonott discusdiscusss anyany ofof thethe taiftaifaa kingdomkingdomss individuallyindividually,, andand ththee examplesexamples hehe useusess dodo nonott alwaysalways clearlyclearly illustrateillustrate ththee pointpointss hhee isis tryintryingg ttoo makemake.. NeverthelessNevertheless,, The Rise and TallFall of thethe

Party Kings iiss ththee mosmostt usefuusefull andand comprehensivecomprehensive recentrecent studstudyy ooff ththee taiftaifaa kingskings eraera..

WassersteiWassersteinn useusess thethe chronicleschronicles extensivelyextensively,, bubutt hhee alsoalso useusess manymany otherother sourcessources.. ThroughThrough exhaustiveexhaustive cross-referencincross-referencingg hhee attemptsattempts ttoo balancbalancee thethe pointpoint ooff vievieww ooff ththee anti-taifanti-taifaa mosqumosquee ulamulamaa withwith otheotherr perspectivesperspectives.. IInn factfact,, iinn thethe introductiointroductionn ttoo The Rise and TallFall of the Party Kings, WassersteiWassersteinn brieflbrieflyy alludealludess toto ththee limitelimitedd outlookoutlook ononee findsfinds iinn ththee chronicleschronicles.. UltimatelyUltimately,, howeverhowever,, WasserWasserstei steinn underestimateunderestimatess ththee effecteffectss whicwhichh ththee poinpointt ooff vievieww ooff ththee mosqumosquee ulamulamaa hahass onon

3D contemporarcontemporaryy understandinunderstandingg ofof thithiss period.period.30

AnotheAnotherr usefuusefull secondarsecondaryy sourcsourcee iiss MariaMaria JJ.. ViguerVigueraa MolinsMolfns'' Los reinos dede taifas y las invasiones Magrebies?Magrebfes.1 31 MolinMolfnss treatstreats alalll ofof ththee majomajorr taifataifass individuallyindividually whicwhichh makemakess heherr worworkk a ververyy convenienconvenientt referencreferencee source.source. InIn additioadditionn ttoo thethe taiftaifaa kingskings,, MolinMolfnss includeincludess historiehistoriess ooff ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss anandd AlmohadsAlmohads.. MolfnsMolins reliereliess oonn ththee chronicleschronicles mormoree thathann WassersteiWasser steinn doesdoes;; thuthuss ththee poinpointt ofof vievieww ofof thethe anti-taifanti-taifaa mosqumosquee ulamulamaa influenceinfluencess Los reinos de taifas ttoo a greatergreater extentextent thathann itit

3030 Ibid.Ibid.,13-4., 13-4. InIn thesthesee pagespages,, WassersteiWassersteinn remarkremarkss thathatt ththee chroniclechronicless offeroffer littllittlee insightinsight intintoo anythinanythingg otheotherr thathann politicapoliticall historyhistory.. HHee alsoalso mentionmentionss thathatt ththee biasebiasess ooff ththee writerwriterss affectaffect ththee sourcessources,, bubutt hhee doesdoes nonott explaiexplainn thithiss statement.statement.

3311 MariMariaa JJ.. ViguerVigueraa MolinsMolins,, Los reinos de taifas y las invasiones MagrebiesMagreb(es (Madrid:(Madrid: MAPFRE,1992).MAPFRE, 1992). 24 doedoess The Rise and Fall of the Party Kings.Kings,

IInn additionaddition ttoo thesthesee generagenerall worksworks,, manmanyy bookbookss havhavee beebeenn writtewrittenn whichwhich deadeall witwithh specifispecificc aspectaspectss ooff ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss eraera.. ThThee besbestt worworkk forfor ththee ulamulamaa ofof al-Andalusal-Andalus iinn thithiss perioperiodd iiss DominiquDominiquee Urvoy'Urvoy'ss heLe monde des uUmasulemas andalous dudu

V/XIV/Xl au VII/XIIIVII/XI11 siecle,siecIe, etude sociologique.32 32 UrvoUrvoyy useusess quantitativequantitative historiographicahistoriographicall methodologmethodologyy ttoo reacreachh hihiss conclusions.conclusions. HiHiss studstudyy ooff ththee ulamaulama ofof ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss eraera iiss usefuusefull becausbecausee itit condensescondenses ththee informationinformation foundfound iinn thethe biographicabiographicall dictionariedictionariess intintoo a useabluseablee formform.. EssentiallyEssentially,, UrvoUrvoyy studiestudiess everyevery entrentryy iinn ththee twtwoo mosmostt widely-usedwidely-used biographicabiographicall dictionariesdictionaries (thos(thosee ofof IbnIbn

BashkawaBashkawall anandd IbnIbn al-Abbar)al-Abbar),, recordrecordss ththee information,information, reducesreduces iitt ttoo chartchartss andand graphsgraphs,, anandd drawsdraws hihiss conclusionsconclusions.. ThThee shortCOmingshortcoming ofof hishis worworkk iiss thathatt itit reliesrelies almosalmostt exclusivelyexclusively upouponn IbIbnn Bashkawal'BashkawaI'ss Al-SilaAI-$ila andand IbnIbn al-Abbar'sal-Abbar's Takmila. TheThe informatioinformationn inin ththee chroniclechronicless anandd ththee otheotherr sourcesourcess isis mormoree oror leslesss ignoredignored,, aa flawflaw UrvoUrvoyy recognizerecognizess iinn hihiss introduction.introduction.3333

TheThe besbestt workworkss oonn ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss havhavee beebeenn writtewrittenn bbyy JacintoJacinto BoschBosch

VilVilaa andand VincenVincentt LagardereLagardere.. BoscBoschh Vila'Vila'ss Los AlmordvidesAlmoravides iiss perhapperhapss ththee mostmost widely-reawidely-readd historhistoryy ooff ththee AlmoravidsAlmoravids writtewrittenn iinn a EuropeaEuropeann language.language.3434

3232 DominiquDominiquee UrvoyUrvoy,, Les monde des ulemas andalous du VjXIV/XI au VII/XIlIVII/X1H siecle, etude sociologique (Geneva(Geneva:: LibrairiLibrairiee DrozDroz,, 1978)1978)..

3333 Ibid.Ibid.,, 13-1813-18..

3434 JacintJacintoo BoscBoschh VildVilli,, Los Almordvides,Almortivides, eded.. EE.. MolinMolinaa LopeLopezz (Madrid:(Madrid: MAPFRE,MAPFRE, 1990.)1990.) 2255

OriginallOriginallyy publishepublishedd iinn 19561956,, iitt hahass becombecomee ththee basibasiss ooff alalll AlmoraviAlmoravidd studiestudiess inin ththee seconsecondd halhalff ooff ththee twentiettwentiethh centurycentury.. LagarderLagarderee hahass publishepublishedd threthreee worksworks abouaboutt ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss sincsincee 19861986:: Les Almoravides: leIe djihad andalou,andaIou, Le vendredi dede al-Zallaqaal-Zalliiqa 23 octobre 1086, anandd Les Almoravides.35 35 EacEachh ooff thesthesee threthreee workworkss treatstreats a differendifferentt aspecaspectt ooff AlmoraviAlmoravidd historyhistory.. LagarderLagarderee iiss primarilprimarilyy interesteinterestedd inin politicapoliticall historyhistory,, bubutt hhee alsalsoo treattreatss ththee religioureligiouss ideologideologyy ooff ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss inin considerablconsiderablee detaildetail.. ThThee workworkss ooff Bosch-VilBosch-Vilaa anandd LagarderLagarderee araree colorecoloredd bbyy thethe poinpointt ooff vievieww ooff ththee anti-taifanti-taifaa mosqumosquee ulamaulama,, bubutt perhapperhapss thithiss comecomess aass nono surprissurprisee considerinconsideringg thathatt theitheirr workworkss araree devotedevotedd ttoo ththee Almoravids.Almoravids.

AAss iiss ththee cascasee witwithh primarprimaryy sourcessources,, secondarsecondaryy sourcesourcess foforr ththee taiftaifaa kingskings ereraa araree abundantabundant.. HoweverHowever,, liklikee ththee primarprimaryy sources,sources, ththee secondarysecondary sourcesourcess areare dominatedominatedd bbyy a single,single, unexamineunexaminedd poinpointt ofof viewview,, namelnamelyy thathatt ooff thethe anti-taifaanti-taifa mosqumosquee ulamaulama.. AAss waswas mentionementionedd aboveabove,, iitt iiss ththee purpospurposee ooff thithiss thesithesiss ttoo re-re­ examinexaminee multiplmultiplee pointpointss ofof vievieww iinn anan efforteffort toto arrivarrivee aatt a newnew understandinunderstandingg ofof thethe historyhistory ofof thethe taifataifa kingskings era.era.

SummarySummary

AsAs oneone cancan seesee fromfrom thisthis overviewoverview ofof thethe sources,sources, ththee taifataifa kingskings eraera hashas beenbeen amplyamply treatedtreated byby bothboth medievalmedieval andand modernmodern historians.historians. TheThe primaryprimary

3535 VincentVincent Lagardere,Lagardere, Le Vendredi de AI-Zallaqa:Al-Zalldqa: 2323 Octobre 1086 (Paris:(Paris: EditionsEditions l'Harmattan,l'Harmattan, 1986);1986); Les Almoravids (Paris:(Paris: EditionsEditions l'Harmattan,l'Harmattan, 1991);1991); Les Almoravides, Iele djihad Andalou 1106-1143 (Paris:(Paris: EditionsEditions I'Harmattan,l'Harmattan, 1998).1998). 2626 sourcesourcess forfor thithiss perioperiodd araree particularlparticularlyy richrich.. ThThee manmanyy genresgenres toto whicwhichh thethe sourcesource materialmaterialss belonbelongg makmakee ththee taiftaifaa kingskings ereraa aann especiallespeciallyy interestinginteresting periodperiod ooff AndalusAndalusii historyhistory.. ThThee secondarysecondary sourcessources alsoalso treattreat ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss eraera adequatelyadequately,, bubutt almosalmostt allall ofof ththee workworkss thathatt havhavee heretoforheretoforee beebeenn writtewrittenn aboutabout thithiss perioperiodd araree expositoryexpository.. ThisThis iiss ttoo sasayy thatthat almostalmost allall ooff thethemm taketake thethe

RankeaRankeann notionotionn ofof writinwritingg historhistory"y "a ass itit reallreallyy happenedhappened"" aass theitheirr poinpointt ofof departure.departure. ThThee tacitacitt assumptionassumption ththee authorsauthors ofof ththee secondarysecondary sourcessources makmakee isis thathatt ththee informatioinformationn iinn ththee primarprimaryy sourcessources accuratelyaccurately representrepresentss ththee historhistoryy ofof ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss eraera andand needneedss littlelittle analysisanalysis toto bbee explainedexplained.. MoreoverMoreover,, ththee pointpoint ofof vievieww containedcontained iinn ththee primarprimaryy sourcessources isis hardlhardlyy questioned.questioned.

I havhavee chosenchosen toto approachapproach thethe sourcessources fromfrom a moremore criticalcritical standpointstandpoint becausebecause I doubdoubtt thathatt ththee poinpointt ooff vievieww ooff ththee anti-taifaanti-taifa mosqumosquee ulamulamaa presentpresentss aa completcompletee picturpicturee ofof ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss era.era. AAss wilwilll bebe explainedexplained belowbelow,, therethere werewere otheotherr pointpointss ofof viewview.. I cannocannott discussdiscuss evereveryoney one ofof thesthesee divergendivergentt pointpointss ofof vievieww iinn thithiss thesisthesis.. HoweverHowever,, I cacann anandd willwill demonstratedemonstrate thathatt otherother pointpointss ofof vievieww existed.existed. FurthermoreFurthermore,, thesthesee pointpointss ofof vievieww existedexisted withiwithinn ththee mosquemosque ulamaulama.. CHAPTERCHAPTER IIII

HISTORICAHISTORICALL BACKGROUNDBACKGROUND

ThThee Arab-BerbeArab-Berberr ConquestConquest ooff IberiIberiaa andand

ththee UmayyaUmayyadd CaliphateCaliphate ofof CordobaCordoba

A neneww eraera ooff IberianIberian historyhistory begabegann iinn 711711 whewhenn TariqTariq ibnibn ZiyaZiyadd ledled anan armarmyy ofof ArabArabss anandd BerbersBerbers frofromm NortNorthh AfricAfricaa intintoo Spain.Spain. FroFromm ththee outsetoutset,, thethe

ArabArabss andand BerberBerberss werweree successfulsuccessful againstagainst ththee VisigothiVisigothicc KingdoKingdomm whicwhichh ruledruled ththee IberiaIberiann PeninsulaPeninsula.. BByy 714,714, Arab-BerbeArab-Berberr armiearmiess hahadd pushepushedd ththee VisigothVisigothss intointo

AsturiaAsturiass iinn ththee nortnorthh anandd hahadd gainegainedd controcontroll ooff larglargee portionportionss ooff ththee IberianIberian

PeninsulaPeninsula.. ThThee areaarea thathatt ththee ArabArab anandd BerberBerberss dominateddominated camecame ttoo bbee knowknownn asas al-Andalusal-Andalus..

TheThe threthreee maimainn ethniethnicc groupsgroups iinn al-Andalual-Andaluss iinn ththee eightheighth centurycentury werewere

ArabsArabs,, BerbersBerbers,, anandd nativnativee IberiansIberians.. AfteAfterr thetheyy hahadd securedsecured theitheirr positiopositionn inin

IberiaIberia,, ththee ArabArabss movemovedd intintoo towntownss andand citiecitiess whilwhilee ththee BerberBerberss settledsettled inin thethe countrysidecountryside.. A numbenumberr ofof nativnativee IberianIberianss becambecamee muwalinmuwaIin (clients)(clients) ofof ArabArab families.families. TheThe offsprinoffspringg thathatt resulteresultedd frofromm intermarriagintermarriagee betweebetweenn AraArabb andand

BerberBerberss anandd muwalimuwalinn werweree referrereferredd ttoo asas muwallads. AlthougAlthoughh ArabsArabs,, Berbers,Berbers, anandd nativnativee IberianIberianss intermarrieintermarriedd andand sharesharedd a commocommonn cultureculture,, frofromm timtimee toto 2288 timtimee ethnicethnic tensiontensionss camecame ttoo ththee surfacesurface anandd becambecamee minglemingledd witwithh politicalpolitical concernsconcerns..

BetweeBetweenn 714714 anandd 741,741, al-Andalusal-Andalus wawass ruleruledd bbyy memenn appointedappointed bbyy thethe

UmayyadUmayyad governorgovernorss ooff KairouanKairouan iinn modermodernn TunisiaTunisia.. ThThee governorgovernorss ofof

KairouanKairouan werewere,, ofof course,course, appointeappointedd bbyy ththee UmayyaUmayyadd caliphcaliphss inin DamascusDamascus.. Al­Al-

AndaluAndaluss begabegann ttoo exertexert itsits independencindependencee fromfrom KairouanKairouan iinn 747411 whewhenn ththee ArabsArabs andand BerberBerberss whwhoo hahadd settlesettledd iinn IberiIberiaa rejecterejectedd ththee mamann sensentt ttoo thethemm fromfrom

KairouaKairouann andand managedmanaged toto installinstall theirtheir owownn governor.governor. FoForr a timetime,, al-Andalusal-Andalus waswas ruleruledd byby locallocal notablenotabless andand wawass almosalmostt independentindependent ooff Damascus.Damascus.

BeforBeforee ththee UmayyadUmayyadss hahadd aann opportunityopportunity ttoo re-establisre-establishh theitheirr controlcontrol overover al-Andalus,al-Andalus, thetheyy werweree facedfaced witwithh a mucmuchh mormoree pressinpressingg concerconcernn iinn ththee East:East: ththe'e 'AbbasiAbbasid d Revolution.Revolution. ThThe'e 'AbbasiAbbasid d RevolutioRevolutionn begabegann iinn KhurasaKhurasann inin 747.747.

TheThe originoriginss ofof ththe'e 'Abbasi Abba sidd movemenmovementt araree stillstill a subjecsubjectt ooff debate,debate, bubutt scholarsscholars generallygenerally agreeagree thathatt anan anti-Umayyadanti-Umayyad movemenmovementt begabegann inin northeasternortheasternn PersiaPersia iinn 747477 andand movemovedd weswestt untiuntill iitt hahadd effectiveleffectivelyy destroyedestroyedd UmayyaUmayyadd powepowerr inin southwessouthwestt AsiAsiaa andand EgyptEgypt.. IInn 749749,, AbAbuu al-'Abbaal-' Abbass al-Saffahal-Saffah (d(d.. 754)754),, receivereceivedd thethe bay'a (oath(oath ofof allegiance)allegiance) fromfrom ththee partisanpartisanss ofof ththee movemenmovementt anandd becambecamee thethe

firstfirst 'AbbasiI Abbasidd caliphcaliph.. InIn 750750 thethe laslastt UmayyaUmayyadd caliphcaliph,, MarwaMarwann IIII,, wawass killekilledd inin

EgyptEgypt,, thuthuss bringinbringingg aann enendd ttoo ththee UmayyaUmayyadd caliphatecaliphate ooff Damascus.Damascus.

ThThe'e 'Abbasi Abbasidd RevolutioRevolutionn displacedisplacedd manmanyy familiesfamilies andand clansclans whwhoo hadhad directdirect tiesties toto ththee UmayyadUmayyadss ofof Damascus.Damascus. IInn a ververyy shortshort timetime,, al-Andalusal-Andalus waswas 2299 floodedflooded witwithh refugeerefugeess fromfrom ththee East,East, includingincluding manymany membermemberss ofof thethe BantiBanu

UmayyUmayyaa aass welwelll asas manmanyy UmayyaUmayyadd sympathizerssympathizers.. OneOne membermember ofof thethe BantiBanu

UmayyaUmayya,, 'Abd'Abd al-Ral:unanal-Rahman ibnibn Mu'awiyMu'awlyaa (d.(d. 788)788),, becamebecame ththee leaderleader ofof thethe familyfamily andand wawass eventuallyeventually ableable toto establishestablish UmayyaUmayyadd controlcontrol overover al-Andalus.al-Andalus.

NoNott allall ofof ththee ArabArabss andand BerbersBerbers inin al-Andalusal-Andalus immediatelyimmediately recognizedrecognized

'Ab'Abdd al-Ral).manal-Rahman aass theitheirr ruler.ruler. First,First, ththee BerberBerberss whwhoo hahadd livedlived inin SpainSpain sincesince thethe initialinitial conquestconquest rejecterejected'd 'AbAbd d al-Ra1:unanal-Rahman inin favorfavor ofof theirtheir ownown tribatriball leaders.leaders.

Second,Second, a smallsmall numbenumberr ooff ArabArabss soughsoughtt toto recognizerecognize the'the 'AbbasidAbbasids s asas thethe rightfulrightful rulersrulers ofof al-Andalus.al-Andalus. ThirdThird,, manymany ofof thethe powerfupowerfull AraArabb familiesfamilies endeavoreendeavoredd ttoo breabreakk fromfrom ththee EasEastt altogetheraltogether andand establishestablish theirtheir ownown kingdom.kingdom.

TheThe onlyonly groupsgroups whwhoo supported'supported 'AbAbd d al-Ral)manal-Rahman wholeheartedlwholeheartedlyy fromfrom thethe outsetoutset werewere recently-arriverecently-arrivedd refugeerefugeess fromfrom ththee East,East, a smallsmall numbernumber ofof AndaluslAndalusi

AraArabb familiefamiliess whwhoo stillstill recognizerecognizedd thethe UmayyadUmayyadss asas thethe rightfulrightful caliphs,caliphs, andand reHgious-rnindereligious-mindedd individualsindividuals whowho alsoalso acknowledgedacknowledged thethe righrightt ofof thethe UmayyadsUmayyads ttoo rule.rule.11

'Ab'Abdd al-Ral:unanal-Rahman spentspent hihiss entireentire reigreignn establishingestablishing UmayyadUmayyad powerpower inin al-al-

AndalusAndalus;. IInn a seriesseries ofof campaignscampaigns thathatt lastedlasted untiuntill hihiss deathdeath inin 788788,, 'Abd'Abd al-al-

RahmaRal)mann suppressedsuppressed bothboth thethe independence-mindedindependence-minded BerberBerberss andand thethe supporterssupporters ofof thethe 'Abbasids'Abbasids.. TheseThese victoriesvictories convincedconvinced manymany ooff ththee locallocal notablesnotables toto

1 HussainHussain Mones,Mones, "The"The RoleRole ofof MenMen ofof ReligionReligion inin thethe HistoryHistory ofof MuslimMuslim SpainSpain upup toto thethe EndEnd ofof thethe Caliphate,"Caliphate," inin The Formation of al-Andalus, eds.eds. MaribelMaribel FierroFierro andand JuliJulioo Sams6Samso (Brookfield:(Brookfield: Ashfield-VariorumAshfield-Variorum,, 1998),1998), 52-752-7.. 3030

abandonabandon theitheirr planplanss foforr self-rulself-rulee anandd follofolloww 'AbI Abdd al-Ral)man.al-Rahman. BByy ththee timtimee ooff hishis

deathdeath iinn 788788,, 'AbI Abdd al-RaJ.:unanal-Rahman hahadd builbuiltt ththee foundationfoundation ooff whawhatt woulwouldd becomebecome thethe UmayyaUmayyadd caliphatecaliphate ooff Cordoba.Cordoba.

ThThee yearyearss 788-822788-822 witnessewitnessedd furtherfurther centralizatiocentralizationn ooff UmayyaUmayyadd authority,authority, bubutt ththee nexnextt emiremir ooff notnotee waswas 'Abd'Abd al-RaJ::unanal-Rahman IIII (r(r.. 822-52),822-52), ththee great-grandsongreat-grandson ofof 'Abd'Abd al-Ral)manal-Rahman ibibnn Mu/awiya.Mu'awiya. 'Abd'Abd al-Rahmaal-Ral)mann IIII consolidateconsolidatedd UmayyadUmayyad powerpower bbyy reorganizinreorganizingg thethe bureaucracbureaucracyy andand embarkingembarking onon summersummer raidraidss ($a'ifat)(sa'ifat) againstagainst ththee Christians.Christians. ThThee AndalusiAndalusiss hadhad raideraidedd ththee nortnorthh mormoree oorr lessless

continuouslycontinuously sincesince 711,711, ssoo ththee :;;a'ifatsa'ifat ofof 'AbI Abdd al-Rahmaal-RaJ::unann IIII werweree nonott anan

innovationinnovation.. HoweverHowever,, 'AbI Abdd al-RaJ.:unanal-Rahman IIII undertooundertookk ththee raidraidss onon a largelargerr scalescale andand undeunderr ththee bannebannerr ofof jihadjihad.. SuccessfulSuccessful large-scallarge-scalee raidraidss increaseincreasedd ththee materialmaterial

wealtwealthh ofof 'AbI Abdd al-Ral)manal-Rahman IIII andand thethe militarymilitary leaderleaderss whwhoo raideraidedd witwithh himhim.. InIn addition,addition, undertakingundertaking ththee raidraidss iinn ththee namnamee ofof jihajihadd gavgavee 'Abd'Abd al-Rahmaal-Ral)mann II'sII's militarmilitaryy endeavorendeavorss (an(andd bbyy extensionextension hihiss reignreign)) a religioureligiouss raison d'etre.d'etre.21

'AbI Abdd al-Ra}:lmanal-Rahman IIII diediedd iinn 856856 anandd ththee fortunesfortunes ooff ththee AndalusAndalusii UmayyadsUmayyads begabegann ttoo wanwanee almostalmost immediately.immediately. HisHis threthreee successorssuccessors,, MuhammaMuhammadd I (d(d.. 886),886),

al-Mundhiral-Mundhir (d(d.. 888),888), andand I'Ab Abdd AllaAllahh (d(d.. 912912)) werweree nonott miHtary-mindemilitary-mindedd leaderleaderss inin

ththee wawayy thathatt 'AbI Abdd al-Rahmaal-Ral)mann IIII hahadd beenbeen.. ThesThesee threthreee emirsemirs werweree controllecontrolledd byby generalgeneralss anandd secretariesecretariess whwhoo persuadepersuadedd ththee caliphcaliphss ttoo grantgrant extensiveextensive powerpowerss toto localocall governors.governors. AAss a resultresult,, politicapoliticall powepowerr becambecamee dilutedilutedd anandd ththee strengthstrength ofof

2 Ibid.,Ibid., 57-64.57-64. 3131 ththee caliphatecaliphate wawass greatlgreatlyy reducedreduced.. IInn timetime,, localocall rulerrulerss begabegann ttoo breabreakk awayaway fromfrom ththee UmayyadUmayyadss anandd ttoo claiclaimm powepowerr foforr themselvesthemselves.. BByy 912,912, ththee UmayyadsUmayyads hahadd directdirect controcontroll overover littllittlee mormoree thathann ththee citycity ofof CordobaCordoba anandd ititss environs.environs.

IInn 912,912, 'AbI Abdd al-Ral:unanal-Rahman IIIIII,, ththee great-great-grandsogreat-great-grandsonn ooff I'Ab Abdd al-Ral:unanal-Rahman

II,II, becambecamee leadeleaderr ooff ththee BanBaniiu UmayyUmayyaa andand emiremir ooff Cordoba.Cordoba. SooSoonn afterafter hhee camecame

ttoo powerpower,, 'AbI Abdd al-Ral:unanal-Rahman IIIIII launchelaunchedd a seriesseries ooff militarmilitaryy campaigncampaignss againstagainst hishis enemiesenemies iinn al-Andalus.al-Andalus. TheThe goagoall ofof thesthesee campaigncampaignss wawass ttoo increasincreasee ththee landland undeunderr direcdirectt UmayyaUmayyadd controlcontrol.. HHee eventuallyeventually leledd hihiss campaignscampaigns fafarr beyondbeyond

Cordoba,Cordoba, anandd aass a resulresultt hhee regaineregainedd mosmostt ofof ththee landlandss thathatt ththee UmayyadUmayyadss hadhad controllecontrolledd aatt ththee timtimee ooff 'Abd'Abd al-Ral:unanal-Rahman II'II'ss death.death. InIn additionaddition,'Abd, 'Abd al-Ral:tmanal-Rahman

IIIIII successfullsuccessfullyy raideraidedd ChristiaChristiann territorieterritoriess andand therebtherebyy gainedgained bootbootyy aass wellwell asas famfamee aass a warriorwarrior.. 'Ab'Abdd al-Ral:tmanal-Rahman IIIIII alsoalso preventepreventedd ththee Sru/iShi'i FatimidFatiJnidss ofof

NortNorthh AfricAfricaa frofromm makinmakingg ideologicaideologicall anandd territoriaterritoriall advancesadvances againstagainst thethe

3 Umayyads. BByy 929299 'AbI Abdd al-Rahmaal-Ral:unann IIIIII feltfelt thatthat hihiss positiopositionn vis-a-vis botbothh thethe

IberiaIberiann ChristianChristianss anandd ththee NortNorthh AfricaAfricann Sru'iFatiJnidsShi'i Fatimids hahadd becombecomee sufficientlysufficiently securesecure ttoo taktakee ththee bolboldd stestepp ooff proclaiminproclaimingg himselhimselff emir al-mu'minin, ththee titletitle

3 TheThe FatimidsFatimids werweree Isma'iliIsma'ili Shi'lShi'i whowho establishedestablished anan empireempire inin TunisiaTunisia inin thethe earlyearly tenthtenth centurycentury.. IInn ththee coursecourse ooff ththee 900s900s thetheyy expandeexpandedd botbothh eastwareastwardd anandd westwardwestward.. TheyThey eventuallyeventually tootookk overover EgypEgyptt wherwheree thetheyy foundedfounded ththee citcityy ooff CairCairoo iinn 969969.. TheiTheirr advanceadvancess towartowardd ththee westwest werweree haltehaltedd bbyy 'AbI Abdd al-RahmaaI-RaDmann IIIIII iinn NortNorthh AfricaAfrica.. ThThee FatimiFatimidd leadersleaders claimeclaimedd ththee titltitlee ofof emiremir al-mu'minial-mu'minmn jusjustt aass ththee UmayyaUmayyadd caliphcaliphss ooff DamascuDamascuss anandd ththee 'Abbasi' Abbasidd caliphcaliphss ofof BaghdaBaghdadd hadhad donedone.. ItIt iiss generallgenerallyy thoughthoughtt thathat't 'Ab Abdd aI-RaDmanal-Rahman IIIIII assumeassumedd ththee titletitless andand trappingtrappingss ooff thethe caliphatcaliphatee mainlmainlyy aass a meanmeanss ofof counteringcountering FatimiFatimidd claimclaimss onon thathatt office.office. BByy ththee middlemiddle ooff thethe tenthtenth entryentry,, ththee 'Abbasi'Abbasidd caliphcaliphss werweree totooo militarilmilitarilyy weaweakk toto taktakee actionaction againsagainstt anyonanyonee iinn NorthNorth AfricAfricaa oorr ththee WestWest.. ThereforeTherefore,, thertheree werweree threthreee caliphcaliphss aatt thathatt timetime:: ththee 'Abbasids'Abbasids inin BaghdadBaghdad,, thethe FatimidFatimidss iinn KairouaKairouann anandd CairoCairo,, anandd ththee UmmayadUmmayadss iinn Cordoba.Cordoba. 3232 whicwhichh onlonlyy caliphscaliphs adopted.adopted. ThusThus,, ththee UmayyaUmayyadd caliphatecaliphate ofof CordobCordobaa formallyformally camcamee intintoo being.being.

'AbI Abdd al-Rahmaal-RaJ:unann IIIIII initiateinitiatedd a numbenumberr ofof militarmilitaryy reformreformss thathatt furtherfurther increaseincreasedd hihiss powerpower.. HeHe supplementedsupplemented ththee traditionatraditionall Arab-BerbeArab-Berberr armarmyy (jund){jund) witwithh saqaliba~aqaliba,, therebtherebyy creatingcreating a standinstandingg armarmyy thathatt wawass loyaloyall toto hihimm alone.alone.

PreviouslyPreviously,, ththee unitunitss ofof ththee Arab-BerbeArab-Berberr junjundd hahadd beebeenn loyalloyal onlyonly ttoo theirtheir generals.generals. ItIt wawass jusjustt aass easeasyy foforr ththee generalgeneralss ttoo opposopposee thethe UmayyadsUmayyads asas iitt waswas

forfor thethemm toto supportsupport themthem;; thereforetherefore,, 'AbI Abdd al-Ra1)man'sal-Rahman's predecessorpredecessorss hahadd toto grantgrant considerableconsiderable concessionsconcessions ttoo ththee generalgeneralss asas a meanmeanss ofof maintaininmaintainingg thethe

loyaltloyaltyy ofof ththee militarymilitary.. 'AbI Abdd al-RaJ:unanal-Rahman Ill'Ill'ss importationimportation ofof thethe saqalib~aqalibaa changedchanged thithiss situation.situation.

'AbI Abdd al-RaJ:unanal-Rahman IIIIII dieddied iinn 961961 anandd wawass followedfollowed bbyy hishis son,son, al-I:Iakamal-Hakam IIII al-Mustansiral-Musta~ir.. Al-HakaAI-I:Iakamm IIII continuecontinuedd almosalmostt allall ooff hishis father'father'ss policiepoliciess witwithh oneone

importanimportantt exceptionexception.. WhereaWhereass I'Ab Abdd al-Rahmaal-RaJ:unann IIIIII hahadd builbuiltt hishis personapersonall armyarmy witwithh saqaliba~aqaliba,, al-Hakaal-I;Iakamm IIII builbuiltt twtwoo personapersonall armies:armies: oneone thathatt wawass composecomposedd ofof saqalib~aqalibaa andand oneone thathatt wawass madmadee uupp ofof newly-importenewly-importedd BerbersBerbers.. ThThee purpospurposee ofof havinhavingg twtwoo ethnicallethnicallyy diversediverse armiesarmies wawass ttoo fostefosterr rivalrierivalriess betweebetweenn ththee twotwo groupsgroups anandd therebtherebyy prevenpreventt thethemm frofromm unitinunitingg againstagainst ththee caliphcaliph.. WhenWhen iitt waswas implementeimplementedd iinn ththee mimidd anandd latlatee tenttenthh centurycentury,, thisthis measurmeasuree musmustt havhavee seemedseemed liklikee a shrewshrewdd decisiondecision;; howeverhowever,, itit hahadd seriouseriouss repercussionrepercussionss onon thethe historhistoryy ooff al­al-

Andalus.Andalus. 3333

BeforBeforee beginninbeginningg ththee nexnextt section,section, itit isis necessarnecessaryy ttoo describdescribee changechangess inin ththee ethniethnicc diversitdiversityy ooff al-Andalusal-Andalus iinn ththee coursecourse ofof ththee tenthtenth centurycentury anandd ththee statestate ofof relationrelationss amonamongg ethnicethnic groupgroupss aatt ththee outsetoutset ooff ththee eleventeleventhh centurycentury.. First,First, thertheree werweree ththee nativnativee IberiansIberians.. ManManyy ofof thesthesee peoplpeoplee hahadd intermarrieintermarriedd withwith

ArabArabss anandd BerberBerberss andand werweree thereforthereforee assimilateassimilatedd intintoo AndalusAndalusii MusliMuslimm societysociety anan muwalladsmuwallads.. ThosThosee whwhoo hahadd nonott marriedmarried intintoo AraArabb oorr BerbeBerberr familiefamiliess andand whwhoo remaineremainedd ChristianChristian werewere neverthelesneverthelesss parpartt ooff AndalusAndalusii culture.culture.

Second,Second, thertheree werweree ththee AraArabb eliteselites.. SomeSome ofof thethemm hahadd comcomee durinduringg thethe initialinitial conquests,conquests, bubutt otherotherss hahadd arrivedarrived afteafterr ththee falfalll ofof ththee UmayyaUmayyadd caliphatcaliphatee ofof

DamascusDamascus.. ArabArab heritagheritagee carriecarriedd witwithh iitt somethingsomething akinakin ttoo patriciapatriciann statustatuss iinn al­al-

AndaluAndaluss becausbecausee ththee generalgeneralss whwhoo leledd ththee initialinitial conquestconquest werweree ArabsArabs.. AfteAfterr thethe conquestsconquests,, thesethese generalgeneralss anandd theitheirr offsprinoffspringg becambecamee urbaurbann eliteelitess botbothh inin

CordobCordobaa andand otheotherr citiescities.. IInn additionaddition,, ththee UmayyadsUmayyads,, ththee royaroyall familyfamily ofof al­al-

AndalusAndalus,, werweree ArabsArabs.. FurthermoreFurthermore,, ArabicArabic wawass ththee languagelanguage ooff religionreligion,, law,law, literature,literature, andand sciencescience inin al-Andalus.al-Andalus. Therefore,Therefore, AraArabb heritageheritage wawass associatedassociated withwith highighh culturculturee anandd societysociety iinn al-Andalus.al-Andalus.

Third,Third, therethere werweree thethe "old""old" BerberBerber familiefamiliess whwhoo hahadd comecome ttoo IberiaIberia duringduring ththee earlearlyy invasions.invasions. ManManyy ooff thesthesee familiesfamilies hahadd establishedestablished powepowerr basesbases awayaway fromfrom CordobCordobaa anandd therebtherebyy maintainemaintainedd a semi-independentsemi-independent statusstatus.. DespiteDespite theitheirr non-Aranon-Arabb originsorigins,, manmanyy ofof thethemm spokspokee ArabiArabicc anandd mingledmingled freelyfreely witwithh thethe

AraArabb eliteselites.. LikLikee thethe nativnativee IberiansIberians anandd ththee ArabsArabs,, thetheyy createcreatedd anandd sharedshared inin 34

AndalusAndalusii culture.culture.

TheThe neneww armiearmiess createcreatedd bby'y 'AbAbd d al-Rahmaal-Ral:unann IIIIII andand al-Hakaal-I:Iakamm introducedintroduced twtwoo neneww ethnicethnic groupgroupss intintoo al-Andalusal-Andalus.. TheThe firsfirstt ofof thesthesee werweree ththee "new""new"

BerberBerberss whowhom'm 'AbAbd d al-Ral:unanal-Rahman IIIIII broughbroughtt ttoo al-Andalual-Andaluss frofromm NortNorthh Africa.Africa.

ThThee neneww BerberBerberss werweree differendifferentt frofromm ththee ololdd BerberBerberss inin thathatt thetheyy hahadd nonott yetyet fullyfully assimilatedassimilated ttoo AndalusAndalusii societysociety bbyy ththee endend ofof ththee eleventeleventhh centurycentury.. TheThe newnew

BerberBer berss retaineretainedd theitheirr language,language, theitheirr tribatriball customscustoms,, andand theitheirr tribatriball leadersleaders therebtherebyy makinmakingg thethemm a distincdistinctt ethniethnicc grougroupp iinn al-Andalus.al-Andalus.

TheThe seconsecondd neneww ethniethnicc grougroupp wawass thethe saqaliba~aqaliba.. TheThe saqalib~aqalibaa dididd notnot assimilateassimilate ttoo AndalusAndalusii societsocietyy forfor threthreee reasonsreasons.. FirstFirst,, thetheyy werweree broughbroughtt ttoo al-al-

AndaluAndaluss ttoo serveserve ththee UmayyadUmayyadss (and(and thethenn ththee 'Amirids)'Amirids) aass leveragleveragee againstagainst thethe nativnativee elites.elites. Thus,Thus, ththee statestate encouragedencouraged thethemm ttoo maintainmaintain a separateseparate identity.4identity.4

Second,Second, foforr reasonreasonss whicwhichh remairemainn obscure,obscure, thethe saqalib~aqalibaa diddid nonott establisestablishh tietiess toto ththee AndalusAndalusii eliteelite throughthrough marriagemarriage.. MarriagMarriagee wawass ththee traditionatraditionall meanmeanss ofof establishinestablishingg tietiess betweebetweenn eliteelite families.families. FurthermoreFurthermore,, intermarriagintermarriagee wawass thethe primarprimaryy vehiclvehiclee througthroughh whicwhichh foreigforeignn groupgroupss assimilateassimilatedd ttoo AndalusAndalusii culture.culture.s5

Third,Third, ththee saqalib~aqalibaa werweree drawndrawn mainlmainlyy fromfrom eastereasternn EuropEuropee anandd thereforthereforee diddid

4 PeterPeter C.C. Scales,Scales, The Fall of the Caliphate of Cordoba (New(New YorkYork:: E.E. J.J. Brill,Brill, 1994),1994), 137-41.137-41.

5 ForFor a conciseconcise explanationexplanation ofof thethe importanceimportance ofof marriagemarriage inin al-Andalus,al-Andalus, seesee PierrePierre Guichard,Guichard, Al-Andalus:AI-Andalus: Estructura antropoldgicaantropo16gica de una sociedad isldmicaislamica en occidente (Granada:(Granada: EditoriaEditoriall UniversidaUniversidadd dede Granada,Granada, 1998),1998), 53-101.53-101. GuichardGuichard doedoess nonott addressaddress ththee ~aqalibasaqaliba directly,directly, bubutt hihiss worworkk provideprovidess ththee frameworkframework frofromm whicwhichh ththee conclusionconclusionss drawndrawn abovabovee areare made.made. 3535 nonott speakspeak ArabicArabic,, Berber,Berber, oorr ananyy ofof ththee variouvariouss RomancRomancee dialectsdialects whicwhichh werewere commocommonn iinn ththee IberianIberian Peninsula.6 Thus,Thus, liklikee ththee neneww BerbersBerbers,, ththee ~aqalibasaqaliba remainedremained a separatseparatee ethniethnicc group.group.

ThesThesee groupgroupss werweree nonott naturallnaturallyy friendlyfriendly towartowardd ononee another.another. TheThe nativenative

IberiansIberians,, ArabsArabs,, anandd ololdd BerberBerberss hahadd a historhistoryy ooff livinlivingg togethertogether;; therefore,therefore, ethnicethnic tensiontensionss amonamongg thethemm rarelrarelyy camcamee ttoo a heaheadd duringduring ththee UmayyaUmayyadd era.era.

HoweverHowever,, ththee introductionintroduction ofof ththee neneww BerberBerberss anandd ththee saqalib~aqalibaa iinn ththee latelate tenthtenth centurycentury createcreatedd neneww ethniethnicc divisionsdivisions anandd rekindlerekindledd ololdd onesones.. ThesThesee divisionsdivisions becambecamee ververyy importanimportantt iinn ththee politicapoliticall eventeventss ofof al-Andalual-Andaluss iinn ththee earlyearly eleventheleventh century.century.

ThThee RisRisee ooff ththe'e 'ArniridAmirids s anandd thethe FalFalll ofof ththee CaliphateCaliphate ofof CordobaCordoba

Al-HakaAI-I:Iakamm IIII dieddied iinn 979766 anandd hihiss sonson,, HishaHishamm IIII becambecamee caliphcaliph.. HishamHisham hahadd nonott yeyett reachereachedd majoritymajority;; thereforetherefore,, thertheree werweree legalegall precedentprecedentss whichwhich technicalltechnicallyy shoulshouldd havhavee preventepreventedd hihiss becominbecomingg caliphcaliph.. HoweverHowever,, Hisham'sHisham's tutortutor,, MuhammaMuhammadd ibibnn AbAbii 'Amir'Amir (d.(d. 1002),1002), useusedd hihiss connectionconnectionss withiwithinn ththee ulamaulama andand ththee AndalusAndalusii politicapoliticall elitelitee ttoo ensureensure thathatt hishis pupipupill receivereceivedd ththee bay'a andand therebythereby becambecamee caliphcaliph.. AfteAfterr a fefeww yearyearss ofof suppressingsuppressing attemptsattempts bbyy variousvarious

6 Ibid.,Ibid., 132-6.132-6. SomeSome saqalib~aqalibaa servedserved thethe statestate asas administratorsadministrators;; thereforetherefore,, theythey diddid learnlearn ArabicArabic.. ManyMany otheotherr powerfupowerfull saqalib~aqalibaa alsoalso learnelearnedd ArabiArabicc andand actuallyactually becambecamee patronpatronss ofof IslamiIslamicc studiestudiess durinduringg ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss eraera.. HoweverHowever,, becausbecausee thetheyy werweree closelcloselyy associateassociatedd withwith ththee statestate aass opponentopponentss ooff ththee nativnativee eliteelite,, thetheyy werweree unablunablee ttoo ususee theirtheir knowledgknowledgee ooff ArabiArabicc toto assimilateassimilate ttoo AndalusAndalusli culturculturee anandd society.society. 3636 factionsfactions ttoo placplacee a differentdifferent membememberr ooff ththee BanBanuu UmayyUmayyaa oonn ththee thronethrone,, IbnIbn AbiAbi

'AmiI A.mirr finallyfinally succeededsucceeded iinn establishingestablishing HishamHisham asas ththee recognizerecognizedd caliphcaliph ooff al­al-

AndalusAndalus.. AAss a rewarrewardd foforr hihiss efforts,efforts, IbIbnn AbAbii 'AmiI A.mirr tooktook ththee titltitlee ofof J;ajibhajib

(chamberlain)(chamberlain),, thuthuss effectivelyeffectively becominbecomingg ththee HishaHishamm II'II'ss regentregent.. LaterLater,, IbnIbn AbiAbi

'Amir'Amir addedadded ttoo hihiss namnamee thethe honorifihonorificc titltitlee ofof al-Mansual-Ma~Urr ~-- ththee Victorious.Victorious.

BetweenBetween 976976 andand 1002,1002, al-Mansual-Ma~urr reorganizereorganizedd ththee politicapoliticall structurestructure ofof al­al-

AndaluAndaluss althoughalthough hhee continuedcontinued manmanyy ofof ththee practicepracticess ooff 'AbI Abdd Al-RahmaAI-Ral:unann IIIIII andand al-l:fakamal-Hakam IIII.. ForFor example,example, hhee importedimported neneww saqalib~aqalibaa anandd BerberBerber mercenariesmercenaries

andand launchedlaunched summersummer raidraidss intintoo ChristianChristian territoryterritory.. LikLikee 'AbI Abdd al-Rahmaal-Ral:unann III,III, al­al-

MansuMan~urr conductedconducted thesthesee raidraidss inin ththee namnamee ooff jihad.jihad.

However,However, al-MaIl$ural-Mansur alsoalso diluteddiluted ththee powepowerr ofof ththee BaniiBanu UmayyaUmayya,, andand,, byby extension,extension, ththee caliphate.caliphate. Al-MansuAl-Mafi$Urr sasaww ththee UmayyaUmayyadd familyfamily aass a threathreatt becausebecause thetheyy werweree ththee caliphacaliphall familyfamily andand theitheirr supporsupportt woulwouldd havhavee beebeenn crucialcrucial toto anyoneanyone opposedopposed toto ththee caliphatecaliphate ofof HishamHisham IIII anandd ththee regencregencyy ofof al-Mansural-M~Ur.. InIn orderorder toto weakenweaken ththee BanBanuu UmayyaUmayya,, al-Mansual-MaIl$Urr preventepreventedd ititss membermemberss fromfrom attainingattaining highhigh officeoffice iinn ththee administrationadministration anandd ththee army.army. HeHe alsalsoo kepkeptt ththee BanuBanu

UmayyUmayyaa nearnear CordobaCordoba wherewhere hhee couldcould keekeepp a watchfuwatchfull eyeyee oonn themthem.. IInn thisthis way,way, al-Mansual-Ma~Urr preventepreventedd ththee UmayyadUmayyadss fromfrom rallyinrallyingg supporsupportt forfor a revoltrevolt againstagainst him.him.

ItIt remainsremains ttoo bbee seenseen ifif al-MaIl$Ural-Mansur wawass a genuingenuinee usurperusurper.. OOnn ththee oneone handhand,, accordingaccording ttoo alalll accounts,accounts, hhee wawass ththee mosmostt powerfupowerfull mamann inin al-Andalual-Andaluss inin 3737

ththee latlatee tenttenthh centurycentury.. AlthougAlthoughh HishaHishamm IIII wawass ththee recognizerecognizedd caliphcaliph,, al-Ma~Ural-Mansur wawass actuallactuallyy inin controlcontrol ofof al-Andalusal-Andalus.. ThereforeTherefore,, iitt seemseemss aass ifif al-Mansual-Man~Urr cacann bebe describeddescribed aass a usurperusurper.. OnOn ththee otherother handhand,, al-Mansual-Ma~iirr tootookk a somesome importantimportant actionsactions whicwhichh suggessuggestt thathatt thisthis wawass nonott thethe casecase.. FirstFirst,, al-Mansual-M~Urr remainedremained outwardlyoutwardly loyalloyal ttoo ththee caliphcaliph.. HHee neveneverr assumeassumedd a titltitlee mormoree prestigiouprestigiouss thanthan

1).ajib,hajib, andand hhee alwayalwayss affectedaffected anan aiairr ofof servilitservilityy whewhenn iinn Hisham'Hisham'ss presence.presence.

Second,Second, al-Mansual-Ma~iirr seemsseems ttoo havhavee beebeenn a devoutdevout MuslimMuslim.. HHee observeobservedd alalll ofof thethe majomajorr religioureligiouss requirementrequirementss and,and, aass wawass mentionementionedd aboveabove,, raideraidedd ChristianChristian territorterritoryy iinn ththee namnamee ooff jihad?jihad.7

Al-MansuAI-Mansiir. r diediedd iinn 1002.1002. HiHiss son,son, 'Ab' Abdd al-Malikal-Malik,, knowknownn aass aI-Muzaffar,al-Muzaffar. , tootookk hihiss father'father'ss placplacee aass chamberlainchamberlain ttoo HishaHishamm IIII.. Al-MuzaffaAI-Mu~affarr continuecontinuedd thethe raidraidss intointo ChristianChristian territorterritoryy anandd proveprovedd hihiss mettlmettlee aass a warriowarriorr anandd commandercommander inin ththee processprocess;; howevehoweverr hhee wawass nonott aass shrewdshrewd a statesmanstatesman asas hihiss fathefatherr hadhad beenbeen.. DurinDuringg al-Muzaffar'al-M~affar'ss tenuretenure asas 1).ajib,hajib, ththee newly-importenewly-importedd BerbersBerbers,, thethe saqaliba~aqaliba,, andand ttoo a lesserlesser extenextentt ththee traditionatraditionall ArabArab andand BerbeBerberr militarmilitaryy eliteselites obtaineobtainedd mormoree politicapoliticall powepowerr thathann al-Mansual-Ma~iirr hahadd beebeenn willinwillingg ttoo grangrantt them.them.

ThisThis wawass duduee mainlymainly toto ththee facfactt thatthat al-Muzaffaal-M~affarr wawass a mamann ooff ththee campcamp andand waswas thereforthereforee inclineinclinedd ttoo grangrantt politicapoliticall concessionconcessionss ttoo hihiss generalsgenerals.. NeverthelessNevertheless,, hehe diddid havhavee enoughenough politicapoliticall sensesense ttoo contentcontent himselhimselff witwithh ththee titletitle ooff 1).ajibhajib anandd toto leaveleave ththee titltitlee ooff caliphcaliph ttoo HishaHishamm II.II. Al-MuzaffaAl-M~affarr diediedd inin 10081008 andand hihiss half-half-

7 HussaiHussainn Mones,Mones, "Consideradones"Consideraciones sabresobre Iele epocaepoca dede loloss reyereyess dede taifas,"taifas," Al-Andalus 3131 (1966)(1966),305-328., 305-328. 3838 brotherbrother,, 'Abd'Abd al-Rahmaal-RaJ::unann SanchueloSanchuelo (al-Mansur'(al-Man~iir/ss sonson bbyy hihiss BasquBasquee wifewife)) becamebecame chamberlaichamberlainn ttoo HishaHishamm II.II.

SanchueloSanchuelo wawass neitheneitherr ththee shrewdshrewd politiciapoliticiann thathatt al-Mansual-Man~urr hahadd beebeenn nornor ththee talentetalentedd militarmilitaryy leadeleaderr thathatt al-MU?affaral-Muzaffar hahadd beenbeen.. FurthermoreFurthermore,, whereawhereass al­al-

MansuMa~Urr andand al-MU?affaral-Muzaffar hahadd beebeenn contencontentt ttoo servservee aass hajil:t.ajibb ttoo HishaHishamm II,II,

SanchueloSanchuelo endeavoredendeavored ttoo becombecomee calipcaliphh himselfhimself.. IInn 1009,1009, SanchueloSanchuelo forgeforgedd aa

QurayshQurayshii genealogygenealogy foforr himselhimselff anandd forceforcedd HishaHishamm IIII ttoo recognizrecognizee himhim aass heir­heir- apparentapparent ttoo ththee caliphatecaliphate.. ThiThiss movmovee arousedaroused enmitenmityy throughouthroughoutt al-Andalual-Andaluss forfor twtwoo reasonsreasons.. First,First, Sanchuelo'sSanchuelo's genealogygenealogy wawass obviouslyobviously falsefalse andand hhee thereforetherefore hahadd nnoo legitimatelegitimate claiclaimm ttoo ththee caliphate.caliphate. TheThe BanBanuu UmayyUmayyaa anandd ththee traditionaltraditional

AraArabb andand BerbeBerberr eliteselites resenteresentedd Sanchuelo'sSanchuelo's attemptedattempted usurpatiousurpationn ooff thethe caliphatcaliphatee anandd thetheyy planneplannedd ttoo overthrooverthroww himhim.. Second,Second, SanchueloSanchuelo favorefavoredd thethe neneww BerberBerberss overover ththee otherother ethniethnicc groupgroupss inin al-Andalusal-Andalus,, a preferencpreferencee thathatt hehe flaunteflauntedd bbyy wearinwearingg traditionatraditionall BerbeBerberr attirattiree iinn publicpublic.. TheThe ArabsArabs,, ololdd Berbers,Berbers, anandd saqalib~aqalibaa werweree offendedoffended bbyy ththee preferencpreferencee whicwhichh SanchueloSanchuelo showeshowedd towardtoward ththee neneww BerbersBerbers.. WitWithh ththee exceptioexceptionn ofof ththee neneww BerbersBerbers,, nnoo ethniethnicc grougroupp iinn al­al-

AndaluAndaluss supportedsupported Sanchuelo'sSanchuelo's rule.rule.

SanchuelSanchueloo leftleft CordobCordobaa ttoo campaigncampaign againstagainst ththee ChristianChristianss inin 1009.1009. AsAs soonsoon aass hhee entereenteredd ChristianChristian territoryterritory,, membermemberss ooff ththee UmayyaUmayyadd familyfamily anandd thethe

AraArabb populatiopopulationn ooff CordobaCordoba launchedlaunched a coucoupp againstagainst HishaHishamm IIII andand Sanchuelo.Sanchuelo.

TheThe instigatorinstigatorss ooff ththee coupcoup successfullysuccessfully deposeddeposed HishaHishamm andand replacereplacedd hihimm withwith 3939 anotheranother membememberr ofof ththee BantiBanu UmayyaUmayya,, MuhammadMuhammad IIII al-Mahdial-Mahdi (d.(d. 1010).1010).

SanchueloSanchuelo hurriehurriedd bacbackk towartowardd ththee capital,capital, bubutt hehe wawass apprehendeapprehendedd andand killedkilled beforbeforee hhee coulcouldd returnreturn.. FoForr a momentmoment,, iitt lookelookedd asas ifif ththee UmayyadUmayyadss hadhad regaineregainedd completecomplete controcontroll inin al-Andalus.al-Andalus.

HoweverHowever,, ththee UmayyadUmayyadss anandd theirtheir supporterssupporters werweree nonott ththee mostmost powerfupowerfull factionfaction inin AndalusAndalusii politicspolitics.. TheThe neneww BerberBerberss anandd ththee saqalib~aqalibaa hadhad mormoree militarmilitaryy resourceresourcess aatt theitheirr disposaldisposal thathann ththee Umayyads,Umayyads, whicwhichh enabledenabled thethemm ttoo assumassumee ththee rolrolee ofof king-makerking-maker.. TheThe neneww BerberBerberss movemovedd first.first. TheyThey abandonedabandoned HishaHishamm IIII andand choschosee anotheranother membememberr ooff ththee UmayyaUmayyadd family,family,

SulaymanSulayman al-Musta'ial-Musta'inn (d(d.. 1016),1016), aass theitheirr candidatecandidate foforr ththee caliphatecaliphate.. ThThee BerbersBerbers succeedesucceededd inin capturingcapturing CordobCordobaa andand establishingestablishing al-Musta'Ial-Musta'inn asas caliph,caliph, bubutt nono soonersooner hahadd thetheyy achievedachieved theitheirr goalsgoals thanthan a pro-Umayyapro-Umayyadd factiofactionn ofof thethe ~aqalibasaqaliba arrivearrivedd anandd forceforcedd thethemm fromfrom ththee capitalcapital.. TheThe !?aqalibasaqaliba restorerestoredd al-Mahdial-Mahdi ttoo thethe throne.throne. HoweverHowever,, ththee neneww BerberBerberss soonsoon returnedreturned andand lailaidd siegesiege ttoo CordobaCordoba forfor threthreee yearsyears.. WhenWhen theythey finallyfinally re-capturere-capturedd ththee citycity inin 1013,1013, ththee powepowerr ofof

CordobCordobaa aass ththee centercenter ooff AndalusAndalusii governmentgovernment andand politicpoliticss wawass broken.broken.

AlthougAlthoughh a numbenumberr ofof membermemberss ooff ththee BantiBanu UmayyUmayyaa woulwouldd laterlater bbee proclaimedproclaimed caliphcaliph bbyy variouvariouss factionsfactions,, ththee facfactt ofof ththee mattematterr wawass thathatt a unifieunifiedd caliphatecaliphate hadhad ceasedceased ttoo exist.8 WithouWithoutt a centralcentral governmentgovernment ttoo unitunitee it,it, al-Andalusal-Andalus fragmentedfragmented alongalong ethniethnicc lineslines.. LocaLocall magnatemagnatess assumedassumed powepowerr iinn towntownss andand

8 PeterPeter C.C. Scales,Scales, The Fall of the Caliphate of Cordoba (New(New York:York: E.J.E.J. Brill,Brill, 1994),38-110.1994), 38-110. 40 fortressesfortresses throughouthroughoutt MuslimMuslim SpainSpain anandd ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss ereraa ooff AndalusAndalusi! historyhistory began.. CHAPTERCHAPTER IIIIII

THETHE TAIFATAIFA SYSTEMSYSTEM 1013-1069:1013-1069: COMPETITIVECOMPETITIVE POLITICSPOLITICS

ThThee taifataifa systemsystem waswas basebasedd onon competitioncompetition forfor landland andand wealtwealthh amongamong smallsmall politicapoliticall entities.entities. ItIt iiss notnot overstatinoverstatingg ththee casecase ttoo sasayy thathatt afterafter ththee falfalll ooff thethe caliphatcaliphatee iinn 10131013 everyevery towtownn andand fortresfortresss becambecamee a kingdomkingdom untuntoo itselfitself forfor aa time.time. DuringDuring ththee earlyearly eleventeleventhh century,century, thertheree werweree nearlnearlyy fortyforty MusliMuslimm taifastaifas tryintryingg toto establisestablishh themselvethemselvess asas independenindependentt anandd stablestable kingdomkingdomss inin al­al-

AndalusAndalus.. IInn addition,addition, ththee ChristianChristian kingdomskingdoms ooff ththee NortNorthh werweree competingcompeting withwith eacheach otherother anandd thethe MuslimMuslim taifas.taifas. InIn all,all, thertheree werewere nearlynearly fiftyfifty independentindependent politicapoliticall entitieentitiess vyinvyingg forfor powepowerr inin ththee IberiaIberiann PeninsulaPeninsula.. WarfarWarfaree amongamong thesethese manmanyy stateletsstatelets wawass endemicendemic asas eacheach rulerulerr trietriedd ttoo taktakee lanlandd fromfrom hishis neighborsneighbors whilewhile defendingdefending thethe territoryterritory hhee hahadd alreadyalready acquired.acquired.

TheThe taifataifa kingdomskingdoms cancan bebe convenientlyconveniently divideddivided intointo threthreee categories:categories: saqaliba~aqaliba,, ArabArab,, andand BerbeBerberr taifas.1 TheThe saqalib~aqalibaa taifataifass werweree scatteredscattered allall overover al­al-

AndalusAndalus.. NonNonee ofof thesthesee taifataifass wawass larglargee oror importanimportantt exceptexcept foforr ValenciaValencia.. AsAs wawass mentionementionedd above,above, manmanyy ooff ththee saqalib~aqalibaa leadersleaders werweree eunuchseunuchs;; thereforetherefore,, thethe saqalib~aqalibaa werweree unableunable toto establishestablish familiesfamilies andand couldcould nonott passpass controlcontrol ofof theirtheir

1 HughHugh Kennedy,Kennedy, Muslim Spain and Portugal (New(New York:Longman,York:Longman, 1996),1996), 134-43.134-43. 4422

taifataifass frofromm generationgeneration ttoo generation.generation. InIn additionaddition,, ththee saqalib~qalibaa taifataifass dididd nonott havehave

enougenoughh monemoneyy ttoo importimport substantialsubstantial numbernumberss ooff neneww saqaliba~aqaliba.. BByy ththee endend ofof

ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss era,era, almostalmost alalll ofof ththee saqalib~aqalibaa taifataifass hahadd beebeenn capturecapturedd bbyy thethe largerlarger AraArabb anandd BerbeBerberr taifas.taifas.22

ThThee majomajorr AraArabb taifataifass werweree CordobaCordoba,, Seville,Seville, anandd ZaragozaZaragoza.. JahwaJahwarr ibnibn

MuhammadMuhammad ibnibn JahwarJahwar anandd hihiss descendantdescendantss ruleruledd CordobCordobaa frofromm 10311031 untiuntill 1069.1069.

ThThee JahwarJahwarii familfamilyy wawass ooff AraArabb descendescentt anandd wawass ononee ooff ththee mosmostt respectedrespected familiefamiliess iinn al-Andalusal-Andalus durinduringg ththee UmayyaUmayyadd eraera.. TheTheyy hahadd beebeenn faithfulfaithful supporterssupporters ooff ththee UmayyadUmayyadss andand thethenn ofof ththee 'Amirids'Amirids.. JahwaJahwarr ibnibn MuhammadMuhammad

(d.(d. 1031)1031) hahadd beebeenn ononee ooff Sanchuelo'sSanchuelo's secretaries,secretaries, bubutt hhee abandonedabandoned ththee 'Amirid'Arnirid causcausee shortlyshortly beforbeforee SanchueloSanchuelo wawass killedkilled.. JahwaJahwarr representerepresentedd ththee leadingleading ArabArab familiefamiliess ofof CordobaCordoba,, anandd witwithh theitheirr support,support, hhee wawass ablablee ttoo graduallgraduallyy ejecejectt thethe

BerberBerberss frofromm ththee citcityy inin ththee yearyearss afteafterr 1013.1013. IInn ordeorderr toto defenddefend CordobCordobaa againstagainst futurfuturee predationspredations,, JahwarJahwar andand hishis supporterssupporters organizedorganized a smallsmall bubutt effectiveeffective citizecitizenn militiamilitia.. However,However, duduee ttoo ththee smalsmalll sizesize ofof ththee CordobanCordoban militarymilitary,, JahwarJahwar hahadd ttoo adopadoptt a strictlystrictly defensivdefensivee militarmilitaryy policpolicyy anandd wawass unablunablee toto expanexpandd thethe borderborderss ooff CordobaCordoba.. TerritorialTerritorial expansioexpansionn wawass cruciacruciall ttoo survivalsurvival iinn ththee miliemilieuu ofof competitivcompetitivee politicspolitics.. NeverthelessNevertheless,, Jahwar'Jahwar'ss descendantsdescendants,, MuhammaMuhammadd ibnibn

JahwaJahwarr (d.(d. 1063)1063) anand'd 'AbAbd d al-Malikal-Malik ibnibn MuhammadMuhammad (d.(d. c.a.c.a. 1069),1069), madmadee nnoo efforteffort ttoo enlargeenlarge ththee CordobaCordobann militarmilitaryy anandd attempattemptt expansionexpansion.. OverOver timetime,, thethe

2 Ibid.,Ibid., 140-1.140-1. 4433 territorterritoryy undeunderr JahwarJahwarii rulrulee shranshrankk aass otheotherr taifataifass invadeinvadedd anandd tootookk overover

CordobaCordobann landslands.. IInn timetime,, ththee JahwariJahwariss rulrulee extendeextendedd nnoo farthefartherr thathann ththee wallwallss ofof ththee citcityy ooff CordobaCordoba.. TheiTheirr rulrulee camcamee ttoo aann enendd iinn 10610699 whewhenn SevillSevillee annexeannexedd thethe city.3

SevillSevillee wawass ruleruledd bbyy anotheanotherr AraArabb familyfamily,, ththee BanBantiu 'AbbadI Abbad.. ThThee I 'AbbadiAbbadiss claimeclaimedd thathatt thetheyy descendedescendedd frofromm ththee AraArabb tribtribee ooff LakhLakhmm anandd thathatt thetheyy hadhad comcomee ttoo al-Andalual-Andaluss iinn ththee eighteighthh century.century.44 ThThee firsfirstt membememberr ooff ththee familfamilyy toto

plaplayay a parpartt iinn rulinrulingg SevillSevillee wawass ththee qadqa<:iii Isma'IIsma/ill ibibnn 'AbbaI Abbadd whwhoo wawass ththee heaheadd ofof a councilcouncil ofof locallocal notablesnotables.. Isma/ilIsma'Il waswas followedfollowed bbyy hishis son,son, Muhammad,Muhammad, whowho

wawass considereconsideredd ththee foundefounderr ooff the'Abbadthe I Abbadii kingdokingdomm ooff SevilleSeville.. ShortlShortlyy afterafter succeedingsucceeding hihiss fatherfather,, MuhammadMuhammad disbandedisbandedd ththee councicouncill ofof notablenotabless andand

assumedassumed completcompletee controlcontrol ooff Seville.Seville. InIn ordeorderr ttoo legitimizelegitimize 'AbbadI Abbadii powepowerr inin

Seville,Seville, MuhammaMuhammadd claimedclaimed ttoo bbee rulinrulingg inin ththee namnamee ofof ththee long-deposelong-deposedd caliphcaliph

HishaHishamm IIII.. ThiThiss movemove wawass obviouslobviouslyy a fa<;adefacade designeddesigned toto legitimizlegitimizee ththee I 'AbbadAbbadii takeovertakeover ofof Seville:Seville: HishamHisham IIII hadhad disappeareddisappeared afterafter thethe BerberBerber sacksack ofof CordobaCordoba inin 10131013 andand waswas presumedpresumed dead.dead. Nevertheless,Nevertheless, manymany otherother taifataifa kingskings agreedagreed toto playplay alongalong withwith Muhammad'sMuhammad's ruseruse andand gavegave thethe bay/abay'a toto thethe phantomphantom HishamHisham

II.II. TheThe mainmain reasonreason thatthat theythey sworeswore anan oathoath ofof loyaltyloyalty toto ththee phantomphantom HishamHisham IIII

3 LisanLisan ai-DInal-Din ibnibn aI-Khatib,al-Khatib, Kitab a'mal wawa al-a'lam, ed.ed. E.E. Levi-Proven\aILeVi-Provencal (Beirut:(Beirut: DarDar al-Makchouf,al-Makchouf, 1956),1956), 145-51.145-51.

4 TheThe sourcessources dodo notnot saysay thatthat thisthis waswas thethe famousfamous LakhmLakhm tribetribe ofof northeasternnortheastern ArabiaArabia whichwhich waswas alliedallied withwith thethe SassanidSassanid PersianPersian Empire.Empire. However,However, itit seemsseems safesafe toto assumeassume thatthat thisthis was,was, inin fact,fact, thethe case.case. 44 wawass theitheirr neeneedd foforr theoreticatheoreticall legitimation.legitimation. SunnSunnii legalegall theortheoryy maintainemaintainedd thathatt a rulerulerr musmustt pledgpledgee allegiancallegiancee ttoo a calipcaliphh iinn ordeorderr foforr hihiss rulrulee ttoo bbee legitimate.55 InIn ordeorderr ttoo avoiavoidd pledginpledgingg allegiancallegiancee ttoo a reareall calipcaliphh whwhoo mighmightt havehave frustratedfrustrated theitheirr politicapoliticall ambitionambitionss (suc(suchh aass ththe'e 'Abbasi Abhisidd caliphcaliph iinn Baghdad)Baghdad),, manmanyy taifataifa kingkingss gavegave thethe bay'a ttoo ththee phantophantomm HishaHishamm II.II.

MuhammaMuhammadd diediedd iinn 10421042 andand wawass succeededsucceeded bbyy hishis sonson,, al-Mu'tadidal-Mu'tac,iid.. Al­Al-

Mu'tadiMu'tac,iidd decidedecidedd thathatt ththee mytmythh thathatt ththe'e 'AbbadiAbbadis s werweree actinactingg oonn behalbehalff ofof

HishaHishamm IIII hahadd servedserved ititss purposepurpose,, soso iinn 10591059 hhee hahadd Hisham'Hisham'ss namnamee removedremoved frofromm ththee FridaFridayy khutba andand diddid nonott replacreplacee itit.. Al-Mu'tadiAI-Mu'tac,iidd increaseincreasedd ththee wealthwealth anandd powepowerr ofof SevilleSeville bbyy capturingcapturing almostalmost alalll ooff ththee majomajorr towntownss anandd citiescities inin southwestersouthwesternn al-Andalus.al-Andalus. ItIt wawass durinduringg hihiss reigreignn thathatt SevilleSeville becambecamee ththee largestlargest anandd mosmostt powerfupowerfull ooff ththee taiftaifaa states.states. TheThe territorieterritoriess conquereconqueredd bbyy al-Mu'tac,iidal-Mu'tadid broughbroughtt greatgreat agriculturaagriculturall anandd commerciacommerciall wealtwealthh ttoo SevilleSeville aass welwelll aass a largelarge subjectsubject population.population.

Al-Mu'tadiAI-Mu'tac,iidd dieddied inin 10681068 anandd hihiss son,son, al-Mu'tamial-Mu'tamidd (d(d.. c.ac.a.. 1095),1095), becamebecame kingking.. Al-Mu'tamiAl-Mu'tamidd capturecapturedd CordobCordobaa inin 1069,1069, bubutt hhee wawass unablunablee ttoo expanexpandd thethe taiftaifaa kingdokingdomm ofof SevillSevillee anyany farther.farther. HiHiss reigreignn wilwilll bbee discusseddiscussed iinn detaildetail inin

ChapterChapter FiveFive.. FoForr ththee timtimee beingbeing,, lelett iitt sufficesuffice ttoo sasayy thathatt hihiss reigreignn witnessedwitnessed

6 botbothh ththee zenitzenithh andand nadinadirr ooff 'Abbad'Abbadii powepowerr inin al-Andalus.al-Andalus.6

5 MoreMore willwill bbee saidsaid aboutabout SunniIegaiSunni legal theortheoryy regardinregardingg thethe caliphatecaliphate inin ChapterChapter VI.VI.

6 IbnIbn aI-Khatib,al-Khatib, KitiibKitab ii'mala'mal wa al-ii'liim,al-a'lam, 152-70.152-70. 4545

ZaragozaZaragoza waswas ruleruledd bbyy ththee ArabArab TujibiTujibi familyfamily untiluntil 1039.1039. TheThe TujibisTujibis hadhad governegovernedd ZaragozaZaragoza sincesince thethe beginninbeginningg ofof thethe tenttenthh century.century. TheyThey werewere virtuallvirtuallyy independentindependent ooff Cordoba,Cordoba, althoughalthough thetheyy diddid recognizerecognize thethe UmayyadUmayyad caliphscaliphs.. WitWithh a fewfew minominorr exceptions,exceptions, ththee TujibisTujibis diddid notnot involvinvolvee themselvethemselvess inin ththee politicapoliticall strugglesstruggles ooff southersouthernn al-Andalus.al-Andalus. TheyThey ruleruledd ZaragozaZaragoza untiuntill 10391039 whewhenn theythey werweree ousteoustedd bbyy SulaymanSulayman ibibnn HiidHud al-Judhamial-Judhami al-Musta'in?al-Musta'in.7

IbnIbn Hud'Hiid'ss familyfamily descendeddescended fromfrom ththee AraArabb tribetribe ooff JudhamJudham.. IbnIbn HiidHud and.and hihiss descendantsdescendants werweree mormoree interestedinterested iinn maintaininmaintainingg ZaragozZaragozaa andand defendingdefending itit againstagainst ththee ChristiansChristians thathann becominbecomingg entangledentangled inin ththee affairsaffairs ofof ththee otherother taifataifa kingdomskingdoms.. ThThee HudisHiidis'' mainmain adversariesadversaries werewere ththee ChristiaChristiann kingdomskingdoms ofof

NavarrNavarree andand Le6n-Castile.Leon-Castile. TheThe HiidisHudis successfullysuccessfully defendeddefended theitheirr realmrealm againstagainst thethe ChristianChristianss throughoutthroughout thethe taiftaifaa kingkingss era,era, butbut inin 11101110 theythey werweree obligedobliged toto recognizrecognizee ththee AlmoravidsAlmoravids andand becombecomee theitheirr clients.clients. AAss a resultresult ofof theirtheir cooperatiocooperationn witwithh ththee Almoravids,Almoravids, thethe HiidisHudis werweree permittedpermitted ttoo remairemainn titulartitular rulerrulerss ofof Zaragoza.Zaragoza. TheyThey maintainedmaintained theitheirr positionposition untiuntill 11181118 whewhenn ZaragozaZaragoza wawass capturedcaptured bbyy AlfonsAlfonsoo ththee BattlerBattler ofof AragonAragon (d.(d. 1134).81134).8

TheThe BerbeBerberr taiftaifaa kingdomskingdoms ofof al-Andalusal-Andalus werewere Toledo,Toledo, Badajoz,Badajoz, andand

Granada.Granada. ToledoToledo waswas thethe mostmost importantimportant citycity ofof thethe middlmiddlee marchmarch andand waswas ruleruledd bbyy ththee BaniiBanu DhiiDhu al-Niin.al-Nun. TheThe BaniiBanu DhiiDhu al-Niinal-Nun werewere ofof BerbeBerberr originorigin andand

7 Ibid.,Ibid., 170,170,186-7 186-7..

8 Ibid.,Ibid., 170-5.170-5. 4466 hahadd beebeenn inin al-Andalual-Andaluss sincesince ththee initiainitiall MusliMuslimm conquesconquestt ofof IberiaIberia;; thusthus,, theythey werweree amonamongg ththee ololdd BerberBerberss mentionementionedd aboveabove.. ThroughouThroughoutt ththee UmayyaUmayyadd eraera thetheyy hahadd beebeenn aann importanimportantt familyfamily inin ththee countrysidcountrysidee arounaroundd Toledo.Toledo. ThThee BaniiBanu

DhDhiiu al-Nual-Niinn camecame ttoo powepowerr iinn ToledToledoo iinn 10181018 whewhenn ththee peoplpeoplee anandd noblenobless ofof

ToledoToledo selectedselected Isma'JlIsma'Il ibibnn DhDhiiu al-Nual-Niinn ttoo rulrulee ttoo citycity.. WheWhenn Isma'IIsma'Jll dieddied iinn 1043,1043, hhee wawass succeededsucceeded bbyy hihiss YahyYa:Q.yaa ibibnn Isma'IIsma'Jll al-Ma'mual-Ma'miinn (d.(d. 1075).1075). AI-Ma'miin'sAl-Ma'mun's reigreignn markemarkedd ththee highighh poinpointt ooff ththee powepowerr ofof ththee BanBaniiu DhDhiiu al-Nual-Niinn iinn al-Andalus.al-Andalus.

DurinDuringg hihiss reignreign,, ToledToledoo battlebattledd SevilleSeville forfor preeminencpreeminencee amonamongg thethe taifataifa kingdomskingdoms.. ThThee DhDhliu al-Nunial-NUnlss gainegainedd ththee uppeupperr hanhandd foforr a shortshort timtimee iinn 10751075 whewhenn thetheyy wrestewrestedd controlcontrol ofof CordobCordobaa fromfrom the'the 'AbbadisAbbadis. . HoweverHowever,, iinn thatthat samesame yearyear,, al-Ma'miinal-Ma'mun dieddied anandd hihiss grandson,grandson, al-Qadir,al-Qadir, becambecamee kinkingg ooff Toledo.Toledo.

Al-QadiAI-Qadirr abandoneabandonedd ththee policiepoliciess ooff hihiss grandfathegrandfatherr witwithh negativnegativee resultsresults forfor thethe DhDhiiu al-Niinis.al-Nunis. Al-QadiAl-Qadirr replacereplacedd al-Ma'mun'al-Ma'miin'ss veteraveterann advisoradvisorss andand administratoradministratorss witwithh hihiss owownn booboonn companionscompanions whwhoo hahadd littlelittle oror nnoo experienceexperience inin governmentgovernment.. ThroughThrough theitheirr inexperienceinexperience anandd extravagantextravagant spendinspendingg thetheyy quicklyquickly emptieemptiedd ththee royaroyall treasurytreasury.. ThThee notablenotabless ooff ToledToledoo objectedobjected ttoo al-Qadir'sal-Qadir's rule,rule, anandd thetheyy madmadee mormoree thathann ononee attempattemptt ttoo ousoustt himhim.. InIn ordeorderr ttoo staystay inin power,power, al-Qadial-Qadirr soughtsought militarmilitaryy assistanceassistance iinn ththee forformm ofof mercenariemercenariess frofromm AlfonsAlfonsoo VIVI ooff Le6n-Castile.Leon-Castile. BByy 1085,1085, al-Qadial-Qadirr coulcouldd nnoo longelongerr holholdd ththee citycity oonn hihiss ownown,, andand

AlfonsAlfonsoo annexeannexedd ToledoToledo anandd ththee middlmiddlee marcmarchh ttoo ththee kingdokingdomm ooff Le6n-Castile.Leon-Castile.

AlfonsAlfonsoo compensatecompensatedd al-Qadiral-Qadir bbyy makinmakingg hihimm kinkingg ofof ValenciaValencia.. HoweverHowever,, al-al- 4477

QadirQadir wawass nnoo mormoree populapopularr iinn ValenciValenciaa thathann hhee hahadd beebeenn iinn ToledToledoo —-- hehe waswas

killekilledd iinn a populapopularr revolrevoltt thertheree iinn 1092.1092.99

BadajoBadajozz waswas ruleruledd bbyy ththee BanBaniiu al-Aftasal-Aftas frofromm 10221022 untiuntill 1094.1094. LittlLittlee isis

knowknownn aboutabout ththee originsorigins ooff ththee AftasiAftasiss otheotherr thathann thathatt thetheyy werweree Berbers.Berbers.

BadajoBadajozz controllecontrolledd ththee strategistrategicc positiopositionn ooff ththee lowelowerr march.march. TheThe maimainn enemiesenemies

ooff BadajozBadajoz werweree ththee ChristianChristian kingdokingdomm ofof GaiiciGaliciaa (which(which wawass controllecontrolledd byby

Leon-CastileLe6n-Castile)) andand ththee MusliMuslimm taiftaifaa ooff Seville.Seville. TheThe firsfirstt AftasAftasii leadeleaderr ttoo assumeassume

controlcontrol ooff BadajoBadajozz wawas's 'AbAbd d AllaAllahh ibibnn al-Aftasal-Aftas (d(d.. 1045).1045). HHee wawass followefollowedd bbyy hishis

. son,son, MuhammadMuhammad whwhoo wawass knowknownn aass al-Muzaffaral-Mu+affar.. Al-MuzaffaAI-Mu+affarr (r(r.. 1045-1068)1045-1068)

successfullysuccessfully defendeddefended ththee kingdomkingdom againsagainstt the'the 'AbbadiAbbadis s ooff Seville,Seville, bubutt hhee lostlost

groundground ttoo ththee ChristiansChristians.. HHee wawass succeededsucceeded bbyy hihiss sonssons YahyYal:tyaa andand 'Umar.'Umar.

ShortlyShortly afteafterr ththee deatdeathh ooff al-Muzaffaral-Mu+affar,, YahyYal:tyaa andand 'Umar'Umar engagedengaged iinn a successionsuccession

strugglestruggle iinn whicwhichh YahyYal:tyaa soughsoughtt ththee helhelpp ofof ththee BanBanuu DhDhuu aI-NUnal-Nun ofof ToledoToledo andand

'Uma'Umarr alliedallied himselhimselff witwithh ththee Banu'AbbaBanu ' Abbadd ooff Seville.Seville. ThThee fightinfightingg lastelastedd untiluntil

Yal:tyaYahya dieddied inin 10681068 aatt whicwhichh timtimee 'Umar'Umar becambecamee kinkingg bbyy defauldefaultt anandd tootookk thethe

titltitlee ooff al-Mutawwakil.1010 Al-Mutawwakil'Al-Mutawwakil'ss reigreignn wilwilll bbee discusseddiscussed iinn greatergreater

detaildetail inin ChapterChapter V.V.

9 Ibid.,Ibid., 172-80.172-80.

1010 Ibid.,Ibid., 182-9182-9.. 4848

TheThe BanuBanu ZirLrriruledi ruled ththee taiftaifaa kingdomkingdom ooff Granada.II11 ThThee foundefounderr ofof thethe

dynastydynasty waswas ZawiZawi ibibnn ZirLrrii (d.(d. 1019?).1019?). ZawZawii wawass ththee leadeleaderr ofof a BerbeBerberr militarymilitary

contingencontingentt whicwhichh al-Mu+affaral-Muzaffar broughbroughtt ttoo al-Andalual-Andaluss duringduring hihiss tenurtenuree aass l;tajib.hajib.

ThereforeTherefore,, ththee ZiriLrriss werewere amongamong ththee neneww BerberBerberss discusseddiscussed aboveabove.. ZawiZawi

returnereturnedd ttoo hihiss nativnativee lanlandd ofof AlgeriAlgeriaa inin 10191019 andand lefleftt hihiss nephewnephew,, HabbuI:Iabbuss ibnibn

MaksaMaksann ibnibn LrriZiri (d.(d. 1038)1038) inin chargecharge ofof GranadaGranada.. HabbuJ:Iabbuss andand hishis sosonn BadiBadiss (d.(d.

1073)1073) increaseincreasedd ththee lanlandd underunder LrriZiri controlcontrol inin ththee firsfirstt fewfew decadedecadess ooff ththee taifataifa kingkingss era,era, bubutt ththee familyfamily wawass unablunablee ttoo enlargenlargee ititss kingdokingdomm significantlysignificantly

thereafterthereafter.. HabbuJ:Iabbuss wawass succeedesucceededd bbyy hihiss grandson,grandson, 'Ab'Abdd AllaAllahh ibibnn BuluggiBulugginn (d.(d.

c.ac.a.. 1100),1100), aboutabout whomwhom muchmuch mormoree wilwilll bbee saidsaid inin ChapteChapterr VI.VI.

TToo summarize,summarize, ththee firstfirst five-and-a-halffive-and-a-half decadedecadess ofof ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss ereraa sawsaw a nearlnearlyy constantconstant strugglestruggle forfor lanlandd anandd wealtwealthh amonamongg ththee taiftaifaa kingskings.. EverEveryy kingking wawass tryintryingg ttoo seizeseize territorterritoryy fromfrom hihiss neighborneighborss andand prevenpreventt thethemm frofromm doingdoing r'' thethemm samsamee toto himhim.. PresumablyPresumably,, ththee taifataifa kingkingss useusedd ththee idealidealss establisheestablishedd iinn thethe

"mirrors"mirrors ofof princesprinces"" literaturliteraturee aass guidelineguideliness forfor survivalsurvival inin ththee atmospheratmospheree ofof

competitivcompetitivee politics.politics.

AAss wilwilll bbee explaineexplainedd inin ChapterChapter VV,, ththee taiftaifaa systesystemm shiftedshifted fromfrom competitivecompetitive politicpoliticss ttoo reluctantreluctant cooperatiocooperationn afteafterr 1069.1069. ThaThatt wawass ththee yeayearr inin

n11 ZiiwiZawi bb.. ZirZITii waswas relaterelatedd ttoo ththee ZirZITii rulerrulerss ofof centralcentral NortNorthh AfricaAfrica.. ZiiwiZawi anandd hihiss menmen attemptedattempted a revolrevoltt againstagainst ththee rulingruling familyfamily ofof ththee ZirZITii dynastdynastyy anandd failedfailed.. ThusThus,, thetheyy flefledd westwest anandd eventualleventuallyy enteredentered ththee serviceservice ofof ththe'e 'Amirid Amiridss iinn al-Andalusal-Andalus.. ForFor a concisconcisee accountaccount ooff thethe BanBaniiu LITiZiri seesee AndrewAndrew Handler,Handler, The Zirids of Granada (Coral(Coral GablesGables,, FLFL:: UniversitUniversityy ooff MiamiMiami PressPress,, 1974)1974).. 4949 whichwhich SevilleSeville annannexeexed CordobaCordoba andand thertherebebyy becamebecame thethe largestlargest andand mostmost powerfulpowerful taifataifa. InIn orderorder toto stemstem the tidetide ofof ''AbbadAbbadii expansion,expansion, somesome ofof he ototheherr taifataifa familiesfamilies bandedbanded togethertogether inin a tenuoustenuous alliance.alliance. However,However, beforebefore discussingdiscussing thisthis alliancealliance andand itsits eveneventuatuall collapse,collapse, itit isis nnecessarecessaryy toto looklook atat thethe variousvarious externalexternal pressurespressures tha t affectedaffected the taiftailaa system.system. CHAPTERCHAPTER IVIV

EXTERNAEXTERNALL PRESSURESPRESSURES ONON THTHEE TAlFATAIFA SYSTEM:SYSTEM: ALFONSALFONSOO VIVI

OOFF LEON-CASTILLEON-CASTILEE ANANDD IBIBNN TASHUFlN,TASHUFlN,

THTHEE ALMORAVIALMORA VIDD EMIREMIR

Leon-CastilLe6n-Castilee iinn ththee EleventEleyenthh CenturyCentury:: AlfonsAlfonsoo VTVI'ss RisRisee ttoo PowerPower

ThThee Arab-BerbeArab-Berberr invasioinvasionn ooff SpainSpain iinn 711711 destroyeddestroyed ththee VisigothicVisigothic

KingdoKingdomm whicwhichh hahadd dominateddominated IberiIberiaa sincesince ththee fiftfifthh centurcenturyy anandd forceforcedd itsits remnantremnantss ttoo flefleee nortnorthh ttoo AsturiasAsturias.. FoForr almosalmostt threthreee centuriescenturies thereaftethereafterr thethe

ChristianChristianss werweree weaweakk anandd divideddivided,, bubutt bbyy ththee beginninbeginningg ooff ththee eleventeleventhh century,century, ththee kingdomkingdomss ofof AragonAragon,, CastileCastile,, GaliciaGalicia,, LeonLeon,, andand NavarrNavarree hahadd emergedemerged asas viablviablee anandd independentindependent politicapoliticall entitiesentities.. AAtt ththee beginninbeginningg ooff ththee eleventheleventh centurycentury,, thesthesee kingdomkingdomss werweree oonn mormoree oorr leslesss equalequal termtermss althougalthoughh NavarreNavarre seemeseemedd ttoo bbee ththee mosmostt powerfupowerfull ooff themthem.. ThiThiss statestate ooff affairaffairss changedchanged iinn thethe seconsecondd quarterquarter ofof ththee eleventeleventhh century.century.

TheThe perioperiodd 1029-10651029-1065 witnessewitnessedd ththee unificatiounificationn ooff CastileCastile,, GaliciaGalicia,, andand

LeoLeonn undeunderr ththee rulrulee ofof FernandFernandoo I ooff CastileCastile (d.(d. 1065).1065). ThThee neneww kingdokingdomm ofof

Le6n-CastileLeon-Castile (whic(whichh includedincluded GaliciaGalicia aass a provinceprovince)) wawass ththee mosmostt powerfupowerfull ofof thethe

ChristiaChristiann kingdomkingdomss inin SpainSpain duringduring ththee lastlast halhalff ofof ththee eleventeleventhh century.century. 5151

FernandoFernando diediedd inin 10651065 afterafter dividindividingg hishis realmrealm amongamong hishis threethree sons,sons, Garcia,Garcia,

Sancho,Sancho, andand AlfonsoAlfonso.. Garcia,Garcia, thethe youngesyoungestt son,son, waswas givengiven Galicia,Galicia, Sancho,Sancho, thethe eldesteldest son,son, receivereceivedd Castile,Castile, andand Alfonso,Alfonso, reportedreported toto bebe thethe king'king'ss favorite,favorite, inheriteinheritedd Le6n.Leon.11

AlmostAlmost immediatelyimmediately afterafter Fernando'sFernando's death,death, thethe threethree brothersbrothers beganbegan fightingfighting forfor controlcontrol ofof ththee entirentiree kingdomkingdom.. FoForr a timetime itit lookedlooked asas ifif Fernando'sFernando's workwork woulwouldd bbee undoneundone.. However,However, bbyy 10711071 SanchoSancho hadhad strippedstripped GarciaGarcia ofof allall reareall powerpower andand re-incorporatedre-incorporated GaliciaGalicia intointo hishis ownown realm.realm. SanchoSancho thenthen turnedturned againsagainstt LeoLe6nn andand forcedforced AlfonsAlfonsoo toto seekseek refugrefugee inin thethe MuslimMuslim taifataifa kingdomkingdom ofof

Toledo.Toledo. BByy 1072,1072, SanchoSancho wawass iinn controlcontrol ofof Castile,Castile, LeonLe6n,, andand Galicia,Galicia, andand hadhad fullfullyy restorerestoredd Fernando'sFernando's kingdom.2kingdom.2

However,However, SanchoSancho waswas murderemurderedd atat ZamoraZamora iinn 1072.1072. TheThe assassin'sassassin's motivesmotives werweree neveneverr determineddetermined witwithh certainty,certainty, bubutt itit waswas rumorerumoredd thathatt hehe actedacted onon orderorderss fromfrom Alfonso.Alfonso. AlfonsAlfonsoo immediatelyimmediately returnereturnedd fromfrom exileexile inin ToledoToledo andand trietriedd ttoo assumeassume controlcontrol ofof hihiss brother'sbrother's realmrealm.. TheThe firstfirst tasktask atat handhand wawass toto securesecure ththee allegianceallegiance ofof thethe knightsknights whwhoo hadhad beebeenn loyalloyal toto Sancho.Sancho. ManManyy ofof

Sancho'sSancho's followersfollowers demandeddemanded thathatt AlfonsoAlfonso taketake anan oathoath swearingswearing thatthat hhee hadhad notnot arrangearrangedd Sancho'sSancho's assassinationassassination beforbeforee thetheyy woulwouldd acknowledgeacknowledge hihimm asas theitheirr kingking.. AlfonsAlfonsoo tootookk thethe oath,oath, andand Sancho'sSancho's supporterssupporters werewere satisfied.satisfied. ByBy

1 BernardBernard F.F. Reilly,Reilly, TheThe Kingdom ofLe6n-Castillaof Ledn-Castilla UnderUnder King Alfonso VIVI1065-1109 1065-1109 (Princeton,(Princeton, NJNJ:: PrincetoPrincetonn UniversitUniversityy PressPress,, 1988),1988), 3-13.3-13.

2 Ibid.,Ibid., 64-7.64-7. 5252 ththee endend ooff 1072,1072, AlfonsAlfonsoo wawass firmlfirmlyy establisheestablishedd aass kinkingg ofof Leon-CastilLeon-Castilee anandd tooktook ththee titltitlee ooff AlfonsAlfonsoo VI.VI.33

AlfonsAlfonsoo VPVI'ss policpolicyy towartowardd al-Andalual-Andaluss wawass reconquistareconquista.. ThThee earliestearliest evidenceevidence ofof ththee ideaidea ooff a reconquesreconquestt ofof VisigothicVisigothic landlandss datesdates ttoo ththee BattlBattlee ofof

CovadongaCovadonga (717)(717) whewhenn aann Arab-BerbeArab-Berberr reconnaissancreconnaissancee partyparty wawass ambusheambushedd andand defeateddefeated bbyy ChristianChristian forcesforces.. ThThee ChristiansChristians ofof IberiIberiaa regarderegardedd thithiss skirmisskirmishh asas theitheirr firstfirst significantsignificant victorvictoryy overover ththee Arab-BerbeArab-Berberr invaders.invaders. PriorPrior ttoo thethe eleventeleventhh centurycentury,, ththee reconquistreconquistaa hahadd consisteconsistedd ooff smallsmall raidraidss andand minorminor campaigncampaignss inin whicwhichh thethe ChristiansChristians gainegainedd relativelrelativelyy littllittlee landland.. AlfonsAlfonsoo VIVI changedchanged thethe complexioncomplexion ofof ththee reconquistreconquistaa bbyy expandinexpandingg ththee endeavoendeavorr toto includincludee nonmilitarnonmilitaryy actionsactions.. ThThee foufourr componentcomponentss ooff AlfonsAlfonsoo VI'sVPs reconquistareconquista werweree settlementsettlement ooff thethe Trans-DueroTrans-Duero,, strengthenedstrengthened tietiess betweebetweenn Leon-CastilLeon-Castilee andand ththee CatholicCatholic ChurcChurchh iinn RomeRome,, militarmilitaryy raidsraids,, andand aann alliancalliancee withwith thethe DhDhuu al­al-

NuniNfuiiss ofof Toledo.Toledo.

ThThee firsfirstt parpartt ooff AlfonsAlfonsoo VPVI'ss reconquistreconquistaa wawass thethe settlementsettlement ooff ththee Trans­Trans-

DueroDuero.. ThThee Trans-DuerTrans-Dueroo wawass a largelarge expansexpansee ooff landland locatedlocated oonn ththee southernsouthern sideside ooff ththee RiveRiverr DueroDuero.. TheThe regioregionn hahadd limitelimitedd agriculturalagricultural resourceresourcess anandd waswas largelylargely uninhabiteduninhabited.. FoForr centuriescenturies iitt hahadd beebeenn a buffer-zonbuffer-zonee betweebetweenn ChristianChristian

SpainSpain anandd MuslimMuslim al-Andalus.al-Andalus. AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII wawass ableable ttoo settlsettlee somsomee ooff hihiss subjectssubjects iinn thithiss regioregionn becausbecausee ththee populatiopopulationn ofof Leon-CastilLeon-Castilee gregreww substantiallsubstantiallyy inin thethe

3 Ibid.,Ibid., 65-92.65-92. 53 eleventheleventh century.century. ImprovedImproved agriculturaagriculturall technologtechnologyy wawass thethe maimainn reasoreasonn forfor thithiss riserise inin population.population. OverOver ththee centuries,centuries, ththee ChristiansChristians hahadd adoptedadopted MuslimMuslim irrigationirrigation devicesdevices sucsuchh aass thethe waterwheelwaterwheel (noria) andand potchaipotchainn (saqiyya).4(saqiyya).* TheseThese technologicaltechnological improvementsimprovements graduallygradually allowedallowed ththee ChristiansChristians toto increaseincrease thethe landland thetheyy hahadd underunder cultivation.cultivation. TheThe resultsresults werweree increasedincreased agriculturalagricultural productionproduction andand a subsequentsubsequent riserise inin ththee populationpopulation.. AlfonsoAlfonso VIVI movedmoved muchmuch ofof thethe surplussurplus populatiopopulationn ofof Leon-CastileLeon-Castile toto thethe Trans-Duero,Trans-Duero, therebythereby convertingconverting thethe no-man'no-man'ss lanlandd ttoo a ChristiaChristiann province.province.s5

TheThe secondsecond componentcomponent ofof AlfonsoAlfonso VPVI'ss reconquistareconquista wawass a strengthenedstrengthened relatiorelationn betweebetweenn Leon-CastileLeon-Castile andand ththee RomanRoman CatholicCatholic Church.Church. TheThe eleventheleventh centurycentury wawass a perioperiodd ofof reforreformm inin ththee Church.Church. ParPartt ofof thithiss reforreformm wawass a re­re- assertionassertion ofof papapapall prerogativeprerogativess iinn ththee politicapoliticall affairsaffairs ofof WesterWesternn Europe.Europe.

AlfonsAlfonsoo VI'sVPs challengchallengee wawass toto resisresistt ththee Church'sChurch's claimsclaims onon hishis landslands andand appearappear ttoo bbee a devoutdevout CatholicCatholic atat ththee samesame timetime.. AlthoughAlthough hhee refuserefusedd toto letlet PopePope

GregoryGregory VIIVII (d(d.. 1085)1085) claimclaim Leon-CastilLeon-Castilee asas a papapapall domain,domain, AlfonsAlfonsoo VIVI maintainemaintainedd relativelyrelatively cordiacordiall relationrelationss withwith Rome.Rome. HHee diddid thithiss byby establishingestablishing especiallyespecially closclosee tietiess witwithh ththee abbotsabbots ofof ththee monasterymonastery ofof Cluny.Cluny. AlfonsoAlfonso VIVI gavegave monemoneyy andand giftsgifts toto ththee monastermonasteryy andand maintainedmaintained OuniacCluniac representativerepresentativess iinn hishis

4 BernardBernard F.F. Reilly,Reilly, The Medieval Spains (Ne(Neww YorkYork:: CambridgeCambridge UniversityUniversity Press,Press, 1993),1993), 91-391-3..

5 Reilly,Reilly, The Kingdom ofofLedn-Castilla, Le6n-Castilla, 117-24.117-24. 5454 retinueretinue.. IInn returnreturn,, ththee CluniacsCluniacs acteactedd oonn hishis behalbehalff inin ChurchChurch politics.66

MilitaryMilitary actionsactions werweree ththee thirthirdd facetfacet ooff AlfonsoAlfonso VPVI'ss reconquista.reconquista.

AlthougAlthoughh ththee populatiopopulationn ooff Leon-CastilLe6n-Castilee wawass risingrising,, ititss wealtwealthh remainedremained relativelrelativelyy static.static. AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII dididd nonott havhavee ththee fundfundss necessarnecessaryy ttoo equiequipp aann armyarmy larglargee enoughenough ttoo attemptattempt a full-scalefull-scale invasioinvasionn andand occupationoccupation ooff al-Andalus;al-Andalus. InIn factfact,, hhee dididd nonott havhavee a state-sponsoredstate-sponsored standingstanding army.army. HiHiss forceforcess consistedconsisted mainlmainlyy ofof militarmilitaryy aristocratsaristocrats andand theitheirr retainerretainerss whwhoo owneownedd theitheirr ownown equipment.equipment. ThesThesee militarmilitaryy aristocrataristocratss sworsworee loyaltyloyalty ttoo hihimm anandd thereforthereforee theythey werweree hishis vassals,vassals, bubutt ththee powerpower hhee hahadd overover thethemm wawass neveneverr absolute.absolute.

RatheRatherr thathann invadinvadee al-Andalusal-Andalus witwithh ththee objecobjectt ooff occupyingoccupying itit,, AlfonsAlfonsoo VIVI launchedlaunched raidraidss intintoo MusliMuslimm territorterritoryy foforr ththee purpospurposee ooff damagingdamaging ththee AndalusiAndalusi economyeconomy.. HiHiss raidinraidingg partiepartiess consisteconsistedd ofof fiftyfifty ttoo threthreee hundrehundredd heavheavyy cavalrycavalry trooptroopss whwhoo coulcouldd covecoverr nearlnearlyy thirty-fivthirty-fivee kilometerkilometerss inin a dayday.. WhilWhilee thethe

ChristiansChristians useusedd heavheavyy cavalrycavalry inin ththee middlmiddlee ooff thethe eleventheleventh centurycentury,, ththee MuslimMuslim armiesarmies werweree stilstilll comprisedcomprised ofof hordehordess ooff infantrinfantryy accompanieaccompaniedd bbyy smallsmall numbersnumbers ooff lightly-armorelightly-armoredd mountemountedd archersarchers.. IInn a pitchepitchedd battlebattle,, ththee MuslimMuslimss coulcouldd stillstill carrcarryy ththee day,day, bubutt thetheyy werweree unablunablee ttoo countecounterr ththee hit-and-ruhit-and-runn tactictacticss ofof AlfonsoAlfonso

VPVI'ss raiders?raiders.7

TheseThese raidraidss hahadd a devastatingdevastating effecteffect oonn ththee AndalusiAndalusi economyeconomy.. OliveOlive

6 Ibid.,Ibid., 93-11593-115..

7 BernardBernard FF.. Reilly,Reilly, The Medieval Spains (New(New York:York: CambridgeCambridge UniversitUniversityy PressPress,, 1993),1993), 94.94. 5555 grovesgroves andand vineyardvineyardss tooktook decadedecadess toto cultivatecultivate,, bubutt thetheyy coulcouldd bbee destroyedestroyedd iinn a mattematterr ooff daysdays bbyy ononee ooff AlfonsAlfonsoo VPVI'ss raidinraidingg partiesparties.. WaterwheelWaterwheelss andand potchainpotchainss werweree expensiveexpensive ttoo builbuildd andand maintainmaintain,, bubutt relativelrelativelyy easeasyy ttoo destroy.destroy. 88

AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII offereofferedd ththee taifataifa kingkingss twtwoo choiceschoices:: thetheyy couldcould eitheeitherr suffersuffer hishis raidsraids oorr thetheyy coulcouldd papayy hihimm tributetribute.. TheThe taiftaifaa kingkingss usuallusuallyy chosechose ttoo papayy tributtributee ratherrather thathann faceface ththee ChristianChristian raidinraidingg partiesparties.. ThesThesee tributtributee paymentpaymentss ofteoftenn amountedamounted ttoo moremore thathann 10,00010,000 goldgold dinardinarss peperr annum,annum, a considerableconsiderable sum. 9 ThThee tributetribute ensureensuredd thathatt AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII woulwouldd nonott invadinvadee ththee landlandss ooff thosthosee kingkingss whwhoo paipaidd it.it.

AAtt ththee samesame timetime,, ththee pariapariass provideprovidedd fundsfunds thathatt AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII useusedd ttoo papayy andand maintaimaintainn hishis military.military.

ThThee laslastt parpartt ooff AlfonsAlfonsoo VPVI'ss reconquistreconquistaa wawass hihiss alliancalliancee witwithh ththee DhDhuu al­al-

NuniNiiniss ooff Toledo.Toledo. AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII establisheestablishedd tietiess ttoo ththee BanBanuu DhDhuu al-NuaI-NUnn whewhenn hehe wawass anan exileexile inin ToledToledoo inin 1071-2.1071-2. InIn 10741074 AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII alliealliedd himselhimselff witwithh al­al-

Ma'munMa'mUn,, thethe MuslimMuslim kinkingg ofof Toledo,Toledo, foforr ththee purpospurposee ooff weakeninweakeningg ththee taifataifa kingdomkingdomss ooff ththee south,south, especiallespeciallyy Seville.Seville. IInn thathatt yearyear,, ththee combinedcombined forcesforces ooff al­al-

Ma'muMa'mUnn andand AlfonsoAlfonso VVII launchelaunchedd a campaigncampaign againsagainstt SevilleSeville andand Granada.Granada. TheThe resultresultss ooff thisthis campaigncampaign werweree thathatt al-Ma'mUnal-Ma'mun tootookk CordobCordobaa frofromm al-Mu'tamial-Mu'tamidd ofof

SevilleSeville andand thatthat AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII wawass ableable ttoo exacexactt tributetribute paymentpaymentss frofromm 'AbI Abdd AllahAllah ibibnn BuluggiBulugginn ofof GranadaGranada.. Al-Ma'muAl-Ma'mUnn dididd nonott controcontroll CordobCordobaa forfor lonlongg ~-- hehe

8 Ibid.,Ibid., 9595..

9 Ibid.,Ibid., 9696.. 5656 dieddied iinn 10751075 anandd shortlshortlyy thereaftethereafterr ththee citcityy wawass re-takere-takenn bbyy al-Mu'tamidal-Mu'tamid ofof

Seville.Seville. HoweverHowever,, AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII continuedcontinued ttoo receivreceivee tributtributee paymentpaymentss fromfrom

Granada.lO10

AfteAfterr al-Ma'miin'sal-Ma'mun's deathdeath,, AlfonsAlfonsoo VI'VI'ss tietiess ttoo ththee DhDhliu al-Niinisal-Nunis becamebecame closercloser.. AAss wawass mentionementionedd above,above, ththee notablenotabless ofof ToledoToledo fomentefomentedd resistancresistancee toto al-QadiaI-Qadirr whicwhichh looseneloosenedd ththee DhDhliu al-NUnis'al-Nunis' grigripp oonn ththee city.city. IInn ordeorderr ttoo maintainmaintain controcontroll ofof ththee citycity,, al-QadiaI-Qadirr hirehiredd mercenariemercenariess fromfrom AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII anandd hihiss vassalsvassals and,and, iinn time,time, becambecamee entirelyentirely dependentdependent upouponn thethemm ttoo maintainmaintain hishis holholdd onon

Toledo.Toledo.

IInn 1079,1079, ththee notablesnotables ooff ToledoToledo oustedousted al-QadiraI-Qadir,, forcedforced himhim ttoo fleeflee,, andand proclaimeproclaimedd al-Mutawwakilal-Mutawwakil ofof BadajoBadajozz asas theirtheir kingking.. Al-MutawwakiAI-Mutawwakill thethenn wentwent ttoo ToledoToledo ttoo acceptaccept ththee crown.crown. AlfonsoAlfonso VVII movemovedd hishis forcesforces betweebetweenn ToledToledoo andand

Badajoz,Badajoz, therebythereby cuttingcutting al-Mutawwakil'al-Mutawwakil'ss communicatiocommunicationn andand supplysupply lines.lines.

AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII thenthen conspireconspiredd witwithh al-Mu'tamidal-Mu'tamid ofof SevilleSeville ttoo launchlaunch aann attackattack onon

Badajoz.Badajoz. Al-MutawwakiAI-Mutawwakill diddid nonott havhavee ththee militarmilitaryy resourceresourcess necessarnecessaryy toto maintaimaintainn controlcontrol ofof botbothh BadajoBadajozz andand Toledo.Toledo. IInn 1080,1080, afteafterr rulingruling botbothh BadajozBadajoz andand ToledToledoo forfor a fewfew monthsmonths,, al-Mutawwakilleftal-Mutawwakil left ToledToledoo andand returnereturnedd toto

BadajoBadajozz wherwheree hhee preparepreparedd foforr ththee impendingimpending attackattack frofromm Seville.Seville. AlfonsAlfonsoo VIVI thethenn movemovedd intintoo ToledToledoo anandd helpehelpedd reinstatreinstatee al-Qadiral-Qadir asas kingking.. IInn ththee meantime,meantime, al-Mu'tamial-Mu'tamidd ofof SevilleSeville cancelecanceledd hishis planplanss ttoo attackattack BadajozBadajoz.. ApparentlyApparently,, al-al­

10io ReillyReilly,, The Kingdom ofLedn-Castilla,ofLe6n-Castilla, 117-118117-118.. 5757

MutawwakiTMutawwakil'ss defensdefensee preparationpreparationss werweree successfulsuccessful andand madmadee al-Mu'tarnidal-Mu'tamid reconsiderreconsider hishis planplanss ttoo attackattack Badajoz.llBadajoz.11

ThThee conflictsconflicts ooff 1079-801079-80 hahadd dondonee nothinnothingg ttoo makmakee ananyy ofof ththee taiftaifaa kingskings significantlsignificantlyy strongestrongerr thathann ththee othersothers.. AlfonsoAlfonso VVII alonealone emergeemergedd victoriousvictorious frofromm ththee affairaffair.. Al-QadiAI-Qadirr showeshowedd hihiss gratitudgratitudee toto AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII bbyy grantinggranting himhim ththee fortressefortressess ofof ZoritZoritaa anandd CanturiasCanturias.. TheseThese fortressefortressess alloweallowedd AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII toto controcontroll movemenmovementt towartowardd ToledToledoo frofromm botbothh easteast anandd westwest.. AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII alsoalso demandeddemanded thathatt al-Qadiral-Qadir papayy anan indemnitindemnityy botbothh foforr thethe costcostss incurreincurredd durinduringg thethe fightingfighting andand foforr maintenancmaintenancee ooff ththee twtwoo fortressesfortresses.. InIn addition,addition, AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII stillstill receivereceivedd pariapariass frofromm Badajoz,Badajoz, GranadaGranada,, anandd Seville.Seville. ThusThus,, whilwhilee almosalmostt allall ooff thethe majomajorr taiftaifaa statesstates weakeneweakenedd militarilmilitarilyy anandd financiallfinanciallyy durinduringg 1079-80,1079-80, AlfonsAlfonsoo VIVI strengthenestrengthenedd himself.himself.1212

BetweeBetweenn 10801080 andand 10831083 AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII continuedcontinued ttoo populatpopulatee ththee Trans­Trans-

DueroDuero,, strengthenstrengthen hihiss tietiess ttoo ththee RomaRomann CatholiCatholicc ChurchChurch,, anandd demanddemand tributetribute paymentpaymentss fromfrom ththee taiftaifaa kingskings.. InIn 1083,1083, AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII launchelaunchedd a majomajorr campaigncampaign againstagainst al-Mu'tamial-Mu'tamidd ofof Seville.Seville. Al-Mu'tamiAI-Mu'tamidd hahadd refuserefusedd ttoo makmakee hihiss paymentspayments andand hadhad gonegone soso fafarr asas ttoo imprisonimprison anandd executeexecute membermemberss ofof ththee delegationdelegation whicwhichh AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII hahadd sentsent ttoo colleccollectt ththee moneymoney.. InIn responseresponse,, AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII raidedraided ththee taiftaifaa kingdokingdomm ooff Seville.Seville. ThiThiss campaigncampaign hahadd twotwo purposes:purposes: firstfirst,, ttoo shoshoww thethe

11«Ibid. Ibid.,, 124-7124-7..

1212 Ibid.Ibid.,, 128-32.128-32. 5858 taifataifa kingkingss thathatt AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII coulcouldd marcmarchh anywhereanywhere iinn al-Andalusal-Andalus witwithh impunity;impunity; andand,, second,second, ttoo punispunishh al-Mu'tamial-Mu'tamidd forfor nonott payinpayingg ththee pariasparias.. AlfonsAlfonsoo VIVI ravageravagedd ththee SevillianSevillian countrysidecountryside andand turned-bacturned-backk onlonlyy afteafterr ridinridingg hihiss horsehorse intointo ththee sursurff aatt ththee StraitsStraits ofof GibraltarGibraltar,, demonstratingdemonstrating ththee easeease witwithh whicwhichh hehe coulcouldd paspasss througthroughh al-Andalus.al-Andalus.1313

ThThee successsuccess ofof thithiss campaigncampaign seemseemss ttoo havhavee inspireinspiredd AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII ttoo taketake

ToledoToledo forfor himselhimselff aass soonsoon asas ththee opportunitopportunityy presentepresentedd itselfitself.. TheThe eventevent thatthat provideprovidedd ththee pretexpretextt foforr AlfonsAlfonsoo VPVI'ss annexationannexation ooff ToledToledoo wawass ththee formatioformationn ofof anan alliancalliancee betweebetweenn AbAbuu BakBakrr ofof ValenciValenciaa (d.(d. 1085)1085) anandd al-Mu'tamial-Mu'taminn ooff Zaragoza,Zaragoza, whoswhosee maimainn purpospurposee wawass ttoo forformm a commocommonn defensdefensee againsagainstt Leon-CastileLeon-Castile andand

Toledo,Toledo, althougalthoughh iitt isis alsalsoo possiblpossiblee thathatt thethe twotwo kingkingss hahadd designsdesigns oonn ToledoToledo

1414 itself. AfteAfterr allall,, al-Mutawwakial-Mutawwakill ooff BadajoBadajozz hahadd becombecomee kinkingg thertheree withoutwithout reallreallyy intendinintendingg ttoo dodo soso.. <(

HoweverHowever,, inin ththee sprinspringg ofof 1085,1085, AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII slowlslowlyy movemovedd hihiss troopstroops towartowardd Toledo,Toledo, presumablpresumablyy undeunderr ththee pretexpretextt ooff defendingdefending al-Qadial-Qadirr frofromm AbuAbu

BakBakrr anandd al-Mu'taminal-Mu'tamin.. AlthougAlthoughh thetheyy probablprobablyy coulcouldd havhavee defeatedefeatedd al-Qadir'sal-Qadir's mercenariemercenariess inin battlebattle,, neitheneitherr AbAbuu BakBakrr nonorr al-Mu'tamial-Mu'taminn hahadd ththee militarymilitary wherewithawherewithall ttoo confronconfrontt AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII successfullysuccessfully.. OnceOnce AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII hahadd hihiss troopstroops inin placplacee neanearr ToledoToledo,, ththee citycity wawass hihiss foforr ththee takingtaking.. DespitDespitee ththee facfactt thathatt al-Qadiral-Qadir

1313 ibid.Ibid.,, 166166..

1414 Ibid.Ibid.,, 169169.. 59 andand AlfonsoAlfonso VIVI werewere allies,allies, itit waswas hardlyhardly likelylikely thatthat aI-Qadiral-Qadir wouldwould simplysimply turnturn controlcontrol ofof ToledoToledo overover toto AlfonsoAlfonso VI.VI. However,However, al-Qadiral-Qadir diddid notnot havehave thethe militarymilitary resourcesresources necessarynecessary toto resistresist AlfonsoAlfonso VIVI becausebecause byby 10851085 mostmost ofof thethe troopstroops inin hishis serviceservice hadhad beenbeen hiredhired fromfrom Le6n-Castile.Leon-Castile. AI-QadirAl-Qadir couldcould hardlyhardly hopehope thatthat thesethese mercenariesmercenaries wouldwould supportsupport himhim inin anyany conflictconflict withwith AlfonsoAlfonso VI.VI.

AtAt thethe samesame time,time, thethe taifataifa kingdomskingdoms ofof southwesternsouthwestern IberiaIberia werewere tootoo weakweak andand tootoo engrossedengrossed inin theitheirr ownown affairsaffairs toto offeroffer anyany assistanceassistance toto al-Qadir.al-Qadir.

OnOn 6 MayMay 10851085 ToledoToledo surrenderedsurrendered toto AlfonsoAlfonso VI'sVI's forcesforces withoutwithout offeringoffering muchmuch resistanceresistance.. OnOn 2525 May,May, thethe kingking ofof Leon-CastileLeon-Castile formallyformally enteredentered thethe city.IScity.15

AlfonsoAlfonso VVII nonoww controlledcontrolled thethe citycity ofof Toledo,Toledo, thethe middlemiddle marchmarch,, andand thethe Trans­Trans-

DueroDuero asas welwelll asas Leon-CastileLe6n-Castile.. HiHiss realrealmm wawass ththee largeslargestt ooff ananyy rulerulerr iinn thethe

IberiaIberiann Peninsula.Peninsula.

AfteAfterr conqueringconquering ToledoToledo,, AlfonsoAlfonso VVII stoppedstopped brieflbrieflyy ttoo regrouregroupp hishis forcesforces anandd toto plaplann ththee administratioadministrationn ooff hihiss newlnewlyy acquireacquiredd territoryterritory.. FortunatelFortunatelyy forfor

AlfonsAlfonsoo VIVI,, AbAbuu BakBakrr diediedd iinn JunJunee 10851085 anandd ththee thronthronee ooff ValenciValenciaa wawass leftleft vacantvacant.. AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII acteactedd quicklquicklyy anandd madmadee al-QadiaI-Qadirr kinkingg ooff ValenciaValencia.. Al-QadirAl-Qadir wawass accompanieaccompaniedd bbyy AlvaAlvarr HanezHanez,, ononee ooff AlfonsAlfonsoo VI'VI'ss mosmostt trustetrustedd generals.generals.

Hafiez'Hanez'ss missiomissionn wawass ttoo protecprotectt al-Qadir'al-Qadir'ss positiopositionn aass kinkingg anandd ttoo colleccollectt tributetribute paymentpaymentss frofromm ValenciValenciaa anandd ththee minominorr taiftaifaa kingdomkingdomss ooff ththee LevantLevant.. HHee waswas alsalsoo thertheree ttoo creatcreatee a militarmilitaryy barriebarrierr betweebetweenn ZaragozZaragozaa anandd ththee MusliMuslimm taifataifa

1155 Ibid.Ibid.,, 170170.. 6060 kingdomskingdoms ofof thethe south.south.1616

AlfonsoAlfonso VIVI allowedallowed thethe MuslimsMuslims ofof ToledoToledo toto practicepractice theirtheir religion,religion, butbut hehe alsoalso rebuiltrebuilt churcheschurches andand reestablishedreestablished thethe archbishopricarchbishopric ofof Toledo.Toledo. TheThe reestablishmentreestablishment ofof thethe archbishopricarchbishopric waswas obviouslyobviously a movemove calculatedcalculated toto strengthenstrengthen relationsrelations withwith thethe RomanRoman CatholicCatholic ChurchChurch --~ thethe ChristianChristian populationpopulation ofof ToledoToledo waswas comprisedcomprised mainlymainly ofof MozarabsMozarabs whowho followedfollowed theirtheir ownown ArabicArabic rite.1717

InIn thethe springspring ofof 1086,1086, AlfonsoAlfonso VIVI beganbegan a siegesiege ofof Zaragoza.Zaragoza. Al-Mu'tamin,Al-Mu'tamin, thethe kingking ofof ZaragozaZaragoza hadhad dieddied inin 10851085 shortlyshortly afterafter AbuAbu BakrBakr ofof Valencia.Valencia. WhenWhen al-Mu'tamin'sal-Mu'tarnin's son,son, al-Musta'inal-Musta'in IIII becamebecame kinkingg ofof Zaragoza,Zaragoza, hehe attemptedattempted toto fostefosterr ValenciaValenciann oppositionopposition ttoo al-Qadial-Qadirr andand AlfonsAlfonsoo VIVI.. HHee alsoalso refuserefusedd ttoo paypay thethe pariasparias whicwhichh AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII demanded.demanded. InIn alalll likelihoodlikelihood,, AlfonsAlfonsoo VI'VI'ss siegsiegee ofof

ZaragozZaragozaa waswas intendeintendedd ttoo teacteachh al-Musta'lnal-Musta'in a lessolessonn anandd forceforce hihimm toto papayy thethe pariapariass ratheratherr thathann ttoo actuallyactually capturecapture ththee city.city. However,However, iinn JulJulyy 10861086 thethe

AlmoravidAlmoravidss arrivearrivedd iinn al-Andalual-Andaluss frofromm NortNorthh AfricAfricaa anandd AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII hahadd toto abandoabandonn ththee siegsiegee ooff ZaragozZaragozaa iinn ordeorderr ttoo confronconfrontt thithiss neneww threat.threat.

1166 Ibid.Ibid.,, 176176..

1177 Ibid.Ibid.,, 172172.. 6161

TheThe AlmoravidsAlmoravids andand IbIbnn Tashufin'Tashufm'ss JihadTihad

ThThee AlmoraviAlmoravidd landinlandingg atat AlgeciraAlgecirass iinn 10810866 markemarkedd ththee beginninbeginningg ofof thethe endend ooff ththee taiftaifaa kingskings eraera.. ThThee AhnoravidsAlmoravids dididd nonott originalloriginallyy comecome ttoo al-Andalusal-Andalus toto conquer,conquer, bubutt ratheratherr ttoo helhelpp ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss defendefendd themselvethemselvess againsagainstt AlfonsoAlfonso

VIVI.. ThThee factfact thathatt ththee AlmoravidAhnoravidss waitedwaited untiuntill 10901090 ttoo begibeginn theitheirr conquestconquest ooff thethe taiftaifaa kingdomkingdomss proveprovess this.this. ItIt wawass onlyonly afteafterr IbIbnn TashufiTashufmn anandd ththee AlmoravidsAlmoravids becamebecame convincedconvinced thathatt ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss couldcould nonott defendefendd theitheirr realmrealmss thathatt theythey decideddecided ttoo incorporatincorporatee al-Andalusal-Andalus intintoo theitheirr empire.empire.

ThThee AlmoraviAlmoravidd movemenmovementt begabegann iinn NortNorthh AfricAfricaa inin ththee middlmiddlee ooff thethe

eleventeleventhh centurcenturyy initiateinitiatedd bbyy ththee religioureligiouss scholarscholar 'AbI Abdd AllaAllahh ibibnn YasiYasinn (d(d.. 1059).1059).

IbIbnn YasinYasin wawass a followerfollower ooff ththee ooff ththee MalikMaIikii madhab (schoo(schooll ooff religiousreligious law)law) andand .* his adherence to this school of law was characterized by strict interpretation of his adherence to this school of law was characterized by strict interpretation of the Qur' an and devotion to the what were believed to be the traditions of the the Qur'an and devotion to the what were believed to be the traditions of the Medinan companions of the Prophet Muhammad. Ibn Yasin's movement began Medinan companions of the Prophet Muhammad. Ibn Yasin's movement began as an effort to bring the various Berber tribes of North Africa into the fold of as an effort to bring the various Berber tribes of North Africa into the fold of (what he perceived of as) Sunni orthodoxy. Ibn Yasin's message was not well- (what he perceived of as) Sunni orthodoxy. Ibn Yasin's message was not well- received by the tribes to which he first preached, but he finally found an received by the tribes to which he first preached, but he finally found an agreeable audience in the Lamruna clan of the $anhaja tribe. Through a agreeable audience in the Lamtuna clan of the Sanhaja tribe. Through a combination of Ibn Yasin's religious-ideological vision and the military prowess combination of Ibn Yasin's religious-ideological vision and the military prowess of the Lamruna, the Ahnoravid movement eventually conquered the entire of the Lamtuna, the Almoravid movement eventually conquered the entire region from Tunisia in the east to Morocco in the west and Mauritania in the region from Tunisia in the east to Morocco in the west and Mauritania in the 6262 south.1south.18

ThThee hierarchhierarchyy ofof ththee AlmoravidAlmoravid movemenmovementt consistedconsisted ofof imams andand tribaltribal chieftains.chieftains. ThThee AlmoravidAlmoravid imamsimams providedprovided ththee movemenmovementt withwith religioureligiouss andand ideologicalideological leadershileadershipp whichwhich alloweallowedd mosmostt ofof ththee clansclans ofof thethe $anhajaSanhaja toto uniteunite andand confrontconfront theirtheir enemiesenemies.. TheThe $anhajaSanhaja chieftainchieftainss ledled ththee AlmoravidAlmoravid armiesarmies inin battlebattle.. IInn ththee daydayss ofof IbnIbn Yasln,Yasin, thethe imamsimams helheldd supremesupreme authorityauthority --— onon oneone occasionoccasion IbIbnn YaSlnYasin subjectedsubjected anan AlmoravidAlmoravid militarymilitary leaderleader ttoo ththee bastinadobastinado forfor failurfailuree ttoo perforperformm oneone ofof ththee fivefive dailydaily prayers.prayers.1199 HoweverHowever,, IbnIbn YaslnYasin wawass killedkilled inin combacombatt inin 10591059 andand ththee imamsimams whwhoo succeededsucceeded hihimm asas ththee religioureligiouss leadersleaders ofof thethe AlmoravidAlmoravid movementmovement werewere unableunable ttoo commandcommand comparablecomparable respectrespect.. ByBy thethe timtimee ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss camecame toto al-Andalus,al-Andalus, ththee militarmilitaryy leadersleaders ooff ththee movementmovement seemeseemedd ttoo havhavee mormoree powerpower thanthan thethe imams.2020 Nevertheless,Nevertheless, religionreligion remainedremained thethe drivingdriving forcforcee behinbehindd thethe AlmoravidAlmoravid movement.movement.

TheThe firsfirstt AlmoraviAlmoravidd militarmilitaryy leaderleader toto travetravell ttoo al-Andalusal-Andalus wawass YusuYiisuff ibnibn

Tashuf"mTashufin (d.(d. 1106).1106). IbnIbn Tashuf"mTashufin wawass thethe cousincousin ooff AbuAbu BakrBakr ibibnn 'Vmar'Umar (d.(d. 1086),1086), thethe firsfirstt militarmilitaryy leaderleader ooff thethe AlmoravidsAlmoravids.. InIn 1071,1071, anan uprisinuprisingg ofof non-Sanhajanon-Sanhaja

BerberBerberss inin thethe southernsouthern SaharaSahara threatenedthreatened ttoo endend AlmoraviAlmoravidd controlcontrol ofof thethe

1818 HH.. T.T. NorrisNorris,, "New"New EvidencEvidencee onon ththee LifeLife ofof 'AbI Abdd AllaAllahh ibnibn YasiYaslnn andand thethe OriginsOrigins ofof ththee AlmoravidAlmoravid Movement,"Movement/' Journal of African History XII (1972),255-9.(1972), 255-9.

1919 Ibid.Ibid.,, 264264..

2020 VincentVincent Lagardere,Lagardere, LesLes AlmoravidesAlmoravides (Paris:(Paris: EditionsEditions l'Harmattan,l'Harmattan, 1989),61-76.1989), 61-76. 6363 regionregion.. AAtt ththee timetime,, controlcontrol ooff ththee SaharaSahara wawass cruciacruciall ttoo ththee successsuccess ooff thethe

AlmoraviAlmoravidd movemenmovementt becausbecausee iitt wawass througthroughh ththee SaharaSahara thatthat ththee AlmoravidsAlmoravids transportetransportedd golgoldd thathatt wawass mineminedd iinn WesWestt AfricAfricaa bbyy ththee localocall blacblackk population.2lpopulation.21

AbAbuu BakBakrr wenwentt soutsouthh ttoo restorrestoree AlmoraviAlmoravidd controcontroll overover ththee regionregion andand lefleftt IbnIbn

TashufiTashtlimn ttoo inin commancommandd ooff AlmoraviAlmoravidd affairaffairss inin ththee northnorth.. IbIbnn TashufiTashtliIDn seizedseized ththee opportunityopportunity ofof hihiss cousin'cousin'ss absencabsencee ttoo gaingain fulfulll controlcontrol oveoverr ththee AlmoravidAlmoravid movement.2222 WheWhenn AbAbuu BakBakrr returnereturnedd toto ththee AlmoraviAlmoravidd capitalcapital ooff MarrakeshMarrakesh iinn 1072,1072, hhee founfoundd thathatt IbnIbn TashtliIDTashufin hahadd quietlyquietly replacereplacedd hihimm asas leadeleaderr ooff thethe

AlmoraviAlmoravidd movementmovement.. RatherRather thathann confronconfrontt hihiss cousicousinn oonn ththee battlefielbattlefieldd andand therebtherebyy dividdividee ththee AlmoraviAlmoravidd movementmovement,, AbAbuu BakrBakr returnereturnedd ttoo ththee soutsouthh andand oversaoversaww AlmoraviAlmoravidd activitieactivitiess thertheree untiuntill hishis deatdeathh inin 1087.1087.2323

ItIt isis difficuldifficultt ttoo determindeterminee preciselpreciselyy whewhenn ththee AlmoravidsAlmoravids firstfirst becamebecame interestedinterested iinn al-Andalusal-Andalus.. SomSomee historianhistorianss sasayy thathatt ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss beseechebeseechedd thethe

AlmoravidAlmoravidss forfor helhelpp aass earlearlyy aass 10771077 whereawhereass otherotherss claimclaim thathatt itit waswas onlyonly afterafter ththee falfalll ooff ToledToledoo iinn 10851085 thathatt ththee AndalusiAndalusi kingkingss askedasked ththee AlmoravidsAlmoravids forfor aid.aid.2424

2211 RonaldRonald A.A. Messier,Messier, "The"The Almoravids:Almoravids: WestWest AfricanAfrican GoldGold andand thethe GoldGold CurrencyCurrency ofof thethe MediterraneaMediterraneann Basin/Basin,"' Journal of Economic and Social History of the Orient XVIXVIII (1974)(1974),, 31-41.31-41.

2222 AbAbuu BakBakrr actuallactuallyy divorcedivorcedd hihiss wifwifee ZaynaZaynabb beforbeforee hehe lefleftt anandd askedasked IbnIbn TashufiTashufinn toto marrmarryy herher.. ItIt wawass apparentlapparentlyy duduee ttoo heherr manipulatiomanipulationn ooff heherr neneww husbanhusbandd thathatt hhee decidedecidedd toto taktakee powepowerr foforr himselfhimself.. KennedyKennedy,, Muslim Spain and Portugal, 159159..

2233 JacintJacintoo BoscBoschh VildVila,, Los AlmordvidesAlmonivides (Granada:(Granada: UniversidadUniversidad ddee Granada,Granada, 1998),1998), 103103-- 127;127; LagardereLagardere,, Les Almoravides, 80,80,84 84..

2244 ReillyReilly,, The Kingdom ofLe6n-Castilla,ofLedn-Castilla, 166-7166-7.. 6464

WhatWhat isis clearclear isis thathatt ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss hadhad nnoo planplanss ttoo invadeinvade al-Andalual-Andaluss priopriorr toto

1086.1086. ItIt wawass onlonlyy afterafter thethe AlmoravidAlmoravidss hahadd beenbeen ttoo al-Andalusal-Andalus anandd determineddetermined thathatt thertheree werewere weaknessesweaknesses inin ththee taiftaifaa systemsystem thathatt thetheyy decideddecided toto absorbabsorb thethe regioregionn intintoo theitheirr domain.domain.

InIn 10831083 ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss capturedcaptured thethe NortNorthh AfricaAfricann taifataifa ofof Ceuta,Ceuta, thethe lastlast majomajorr fortressfortress inin westernwestern NortNorthh AfricaAfrica ttoo resistresist theitheirr advances.advances. FoForr ththee nextnext threethree yearsyears,, IbnIbn TashmmTashufin andand thethe AlmoravidAlmoravidss consolidatedconsolidated andand fortifiedfortified theirtheir

NortNorthh AfricaAfricann possessionspossessions.. AlthougAlthoughh itit isis nonott possiblpossiblee toto determinedetermine whewhenn thethe taiftaifaa kingskings firsfirstt sentsent emissariesemissaries toto ththee AlmoravidsAlmoravids,, thethe delegationdelegation sentsent fromfrom

Badajoz,Badajoz, GranadaGranada,, andand SevilleSeville inin 1085-61085-6 wawass certainlycertainly ththee mosmostt effectiveeffective inin elicitinelicitingg militarymilitary assistanceassistance fromfrom ththee AlmoravidsAlmoravids.. OneOne possiblpossiblee reasonreason forfor thisthis successsuccess mighmightt havhavee beenbeen thathatt thethe AlmoravidAlmoravidss feltfelt thatthat theitheirr positiopositionn inin NorthNorth

AfricAfricaa hahadd becombecomee sufficientlysufficiently strongstrong ttoo allowallow themthem toto involveinvolve themselvethemselvess inin thethe affairsaffairs ooff IberiaIberia.. AnotherAnother possiblpossiblee reasonreason mightmight havehave beebeenn thathatt ththee emissariesemissaries sensentt inin 1085-61085-6 werewere mosqumosquee ulamulamaa ratherrather thanthan secularsecular representatives.representatives. TheThe mosquemosque ulamaulama convincedconvinced IbnIbn TashmmTashufin thatthat hishis comingcoming ttoo al-Andalusal-Andalus waswas aa religiousreligious asas welwelll aass a politicapoliticall matter.matter. BByy appealingappealing toto AlmoravidAlmoravid religiousreligious sensibilities,sensibilities, ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss madmadee itit incumbentincumbent upouponn IbnIbn TashmmTashufin toto comecome toto theitheirr aid.aid.2525

Whatever the reason, the Almoravids set out for al-Andalus in July 1086 .. Whatever the reason, the Almoravids set out for al-Andalus in July 1086.

25 Bosch Vila, Los Almoravides, 129-30, 132; Lagardere, Les Almoravides, 101-8. 25 Bosch Vila\ Los Almordvides, 129-30,132; Lagardere, Les Almoravides, 101-8. 6655

BeforBeforee hhee woulwouldd landland iinn al-Andalusal-Andalus,, IbnIbn Tashuf"mTashufin demandedemandedd thathatt ththee taiftaifaa kingskings

abandonabandon ththee porportt citycity ooff AlgeciraAlgecirass ssoo thathatt hhee couldcould ususee iitt asas hishis personapersonall basbasee ofof

operationsoperations.. Al-Mu'tamiAl-Mu'tamidd ofof SevilleSeville controlledcontrolled AlgeciraAlgecirass aatt thathatt timetime,, anandd hehe

balkebalkedd atat ththee AlmoraviAlmoravidd emir'emir'ss demanddemand.. HoweverHowever,, beforbeforee al-Mu'tamidal-Mu'tamid couldcould

reactreact,, ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss sentsent anan advancadvancee guarguardd thathatt capturedcaptured ththee city.city. ShortlyShortly

thereafterthereafter,, ththee maimainn bodbodyy ooff ththee AlmoraviAlmoravidd armarmyy crossecrossedd ththee StraitsStraits ofof

Gibraltar.2626

AfteAfterr arrivinarrivingg safelysafely atat AlgecirasAlgeciras,, IbnIbn TashufiTashuf"mn organizedorganized hihiss armyarmy andand

marchemarchedd nortnorthh towartowardd Seville.Seville. AAtt Seville,Seville, ththee AlmoraviAlmoravidd armyarmy wawass joinejoinedd bbyy thethe

forceforcess ooff al-Mu'tamidal-Mu'tamid ofof SevilleSeville and'and 'AbAbd d AllaAllahh ibibnn BuluggmBuluggin ofof GranadaGranada.. FromFrom

Seville,Seville, ththee combinecombinedd forceforcess marchemarchedd nortnorthh towartowardd BadajoBadajozz wherwheree theythey joinedjoined

ththee forceforcess ooff al-Mutawwakil.al-Mutawwakil. TheThe largelarge MusliMuslimm armyarmy thethenn marchemarchedd towardtoward

ToledoToledo..

AAtt thithiss timetime,, AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII wawass engageengagedd iinn ththee siegesiege ofof Zaragoza,Zaragoza, whicwhichh waswas

mentionementionedd abovabovee oonn pagpagee 6060.. WhenWhen newnewss ooff ththee AlmoraviAlmoravidd landinglanding reachedreached

himhim,, hhee immediatelimmediatelyy lifteliftedd ththee siegsiegee andand turnedturned hihiss attentionattention southward.southward.

AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII gatheregatheredd hishis trooptroopss iinn ToledToledoo andand thethenn ledled thethemm oonn a marchmarch intointo

southwesternsouthwestern IberiaIberia.. HHee encountereencounteredd ththee MusliMuslimm armiesarmies aatt al-Zallaqaal-Zallaqa nonott farfar fromfrom Badajoz.Badajoz.

TheThe twtwoo forceforcess dididd nonott meemeett iinn combatcombat immediatelyimmediately.. IbIbnn Tashuf"mTashufin wrotewrote

2266 BoscBoschh VilaVilc1,\ Los Almordvides,Almoravides, 135-7135-7;; Lagardere,Lagardere, Les Almoravides, 110110.. 6666 toto AlfonsoAlfonso VIVI andand invitedinvited himhim toto convertconvert toto IslamIslam andand thusthus sparespare himselfhimself defeatdefeat andand humiliation.humiliation. AlfonsoAlfonso VIVI repliedreplied thatthat hehe hadhad dealtdealt withwith thethe MuslimsMuslims ofof al.:al-

AndalusAndalus farfar tootoo longlong toto putput muchmuch stockstock inin suchsuch threats.threats. TheThe twotwo leadersleaders thenthen attemptedattempted toto arrangearrange thethe datedate ofof battle.battle. OnOn Thursday,Thursday, 2222 OctoberOctober 1086,1086, AlfonsoAlfonso

VIVI suggestedsuggested thatthat thethe twotwo armiesarmies shouldshould meetmeet onon thethe follOwingfollowing MondayMonday becausebecause

FridayFriday waswas thethe MuslimMuslim holyholy day,day, SaturdaySaturday waswas thethe JewishJewish holyholy day,day, andand SundaySunday waswas thethe holholyy dayday ofof thethe Christians.Christians. IbnIbn TashwmTashufin agreed.agreed.2727

However,However, AlfonsoAlfonso VIVI diddid notnot waitwait forfor thethe appointedappointed dayday ofof battle.battle. OnOn thethe morningmorning ofof Friday,Friday, 2323 OctoberOctober hehe organizedorganized hishis troopstroops inin battlebattle formationformation andand launchedlaunched whatwhat hehe mustmust havehave thoughthoughtt wouldwould bebe a surprisesurprise attackattack onon thethe MuslimMuslim campcamp.. However,However, IbnIbn TashwmTashufin mustmust havhavee suspectedsuspected thathatt AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII mightmight makemake suchsuch a movemove becausbecausee hhee wawass alreadyalready preparepreparedd forfor thethe attack.attack. HeHe arrangedarranged thethe combinedcombined MuslimMuslim forceforcess ssoo thatthat ththee AndalusiAndalusiss werweree inin ththee vanguardvanguard whilewhile thethe

AlmoraviAlmoravidd forceforcess remainedremained inin ththee rearrear.. TheThe AndalusiAndalusiss thethenn tooktook ththee fieldfield andand engageengagedd ththee enemyenemy.. HoweverHowever,, ththee armiearmiess ooff ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss werweree nnoo matcmatchh forfor

AlfonsAlfonsoo VI'VI'ss heavheavyy cavalrcavalryy anandd foforr a momentmoment,, iitt lookedlooked aass iiff ththee MuslimMuslimss wouldwould bbee routedrouted.. TheThenn IbIbnn TashufiTashwmn orderedordered somsomee ooff hihiss memenn ttoo reinforcreinforcee ththee AndaluslAndalusi trooptroopss whilwhilee hhee movemovedd arounaroundd ththee flankflankss ttoo attacattackk AlfonsAlfonsoo VI'VI'ss rearrear.. ThThee tactictactic workedworked.. AlfonsAlfonsoo VI'VI'ss camcampp wawass lightllightlyy defendedefendedd anandd ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss quicklyquickly overtooovertookk itit.. IbIbnn TashufiTashwmn thethenn leledd hihiss memenn iinn aann attacattackk oonn AlfonsAlfonsoo VI'VI'ss rear-rear-

2277 VincenVincentt LagardereLagardere,, heLe Vendredi de Zallaqa 23 Octobre 1086 (Paris(Paris:: EditionEditionss l'Harmattan,l'Harmattan, 1989)1989),118-119., 118-119. 67 guard.guard. AlfonsAlfonsoo VI'VI'ss forcesforces werweree nonoww trappetrappedd betweebetweenn twtwoo MusliMuslimm armies.armies.

AfteAfterr sufferinsufferingg heavheavyy losseslosses,, AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII andand ththee remainderemainderr ooff hihiss memenn retreatedretreated andand escaped.escaped.2828

IbIbnn TashutmTashufin returnereturnedd ttoo MoroccMoroccoo shortlyshortly afterafter thethe BattlBattlee ofof al-Zallaqa.al-Zallaqa.

HHee lefleftt somesome trooptroopss anandd commandercommanderss behinbehindd iinn al-Andalusal-Andalus,, bubutt apparentlapparentlyy hadhad nnoo interesinterestt inin stayingstaying thertheree himselfhimself.. ItIt iiss uncleaunclearr whwhyy hhee dididd nonott staystay iinn IberiaIberia afteafterr ththee battlebattle.. ItIt mighmightt havhavee beebeenn ththee cascasee thathatt hhee fearefearedd thathatt someonesomeone wouldwould replacreplacee hihimm iinn MoroccMoroccoo jusjustt aass hhee hahadd replacereplacedd AbAbuu BakBakrr yearyearss beforebefore.. ItIt mightmight alsoalso havhavee beebeenn ththee casecase thathatt hhee hahadd nnoo interesinterestt inin annexinannexingg al-Andalusal-Andalus aatt thethe timetime.. PerhapPerhapss IbIbnn TashufiTashutmn felfeltt thathatt iinn defeatingdefeating AlfonsAlfonsoo VIVI,, hhee hahadd dondonee hishis religioureligiouss dutdutyy andand shouldshould returreturnn ttoo hihiss ownown realmrealm.. RegardlesRegardlesss ofof hishis intentionsintentions towartowardd al-Andalual-Andaluss afteafterr al-Zallaqaal-Zallaqa,, IbIbnn TashutmTashufin returnereturnedd ttoo MoroccMoroccoo anandd leftleft somesome ofof hihiss commandercommanderss ttoo helhelpp ththee AndalusiAndalusiss restorrestoree ordeorderr ttoo theitheirr land.land.

IbnIbn TashutmTashufin travelletravelledd ttoo al-Andalual-Andaluss foforr ththee seconsecondd timtimee inin 1088.1088. TheThe purpospurposee foforr thithiss journejourneyy acrosacrosss ththee StraitsStraits ofof GibraltaGibraltarr wawass ththee removaremovall ofof aa

ChristiaChristiann garrisogarrisonn whicwhichh AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII hahadd beebeenn ableable ttoo placplacee inin ththee fortressfortress ofof

AledAledoo iinn south-centrasouth-centrall al-Andalusal-Andalus.. TheThe presencpresencee ofof AlfonsAlfonsoo VI'VI'ss trooptroopss iinn AledoAledo wawass nonott a direcdirectt threathreatt ttoo ththee AlmoravidsAlmoravids,, bubutt iitt wawass a sourcsourcee ooff greagreatt concernconcern toto ththee al-Mu'tamidal-Mu'tamid ofof SevilleSeville anand'd 'AbAbd d AllaAllahh ibibnn BulugginBuluggin ooff Granada,Granada, botbothh ofof whowhomm werweree tributariestributaries ooff AlfonsAlfonsoo VIVI.. WitWithh AlfonsAlfonsoo VI'VI'ss trooptroopss ssoo neanearr aatt hand,hand,

2288 Ibid.Ibid.,, 124-125,193-224.124-125,193-224. 6688 ththee kingkingss ofof GranadGranadaa anandd SevillSevillee woulwouldd havhavee greagreatt difficultdifficultyy inin avoidingavoiding paymenpaymentt ooff ththee parias.2929 OnceOnce again,again, ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss appealedappealed ttoo IbnIbn Tashufm'sTashufin's religioureligiouss sensibilitiessensibilities anandd persuadepersuadedd hihimm ttoo comecome ttoo al-Andalual-Andaluss toto aiaidd hihiss co­co­ religionistsreligionists..

However,However, IbIbnn TashufmTashufin spentspent mormoree timtimee actingacting aass arbitearbiterr amonamongg ththee taifataifa kingkingss thathann hhee dididd tryintryingg ttoo forceforce ththee ChristianChristianss ououtt ooff AledoAledo.. AAtt thathatt timetime,, ,'Ab Abdd

AllaAllahh ibibnn BuluggiBulugginn wawass aatt oddoddss witwithh hihiss brotherbrother,, Tamim,Tamim, whwhoo ruleruledd ththee smallsmall taiftaifaa ooff Malaga.Malaga. ThThee ZirLITIi brotherbrotherss presentepresentedd theitheirr grievancegrievancess ttoo IbIbnn TashufinTashufin

3D30 whwhoo founfoundd theitheirr bickerinbickeringg distasteful. Al-Mu'tamiAl-Mu'tamidd ofof SevilleSeville alsalsoo askeaskedd IbnIbn

TashufmTashufin ttoo settlesettle a personapersonall disputedispute.. Al-Mu'tamiAl-Mu'tamidd wawass engagedengaged iinn a quarrelquarrel withwith ththee governorgovernor ooff MurciaMurcia,, a towtownn neanearr AledAledoo overover whicwhichh ththe'e 'Abbadi Abbad'iss hadhad nominanominall controlcontrol.. MurciMurciaa wawass crucialcrucial ttoo ththee successuccesss ooff ththee MusliMuslimm siegsiegee ooff AledoAledo

3131 becausebecause iitt wawass frofromm thertheree thathatt ththee besieginbesiegingg armiesarmies werweree supplied. AfterAfter consultingconsulting witwithh somesome ofof ththee mosqumosquee ulamaulama,, IbIbnn TashufmTashufin decidedecidedd thathatt al­al-

Mu'tamidMu'tamid hahadd ththee bettebetterr casecase andand ordereorderedd ththee governogovernorr ttoo surrendersurrender.. TheThe peoplpeoplee ofof MurciMurciaa thethenn revolterevoltedd iinn supportsupport ofof theitheirr governorgovernor andand refuserefusedd toto supplysupply provisionprovisionss ttoo ththee besiegerbesiegerss aatt Aledo.3232 IbIbnn TashufiTashufmn apparentlyapparently becamebecame

2929 BoscBoschh VilaVila,, Los Almordvides,Almonivides, 142-3;142-3; LagardereLagardere,, Les Almoravides, 121121..

3300 BoscBoschh VildVila,, Los Almordvides,Almoravides, 146-7;146-7; LagardereLagardere,, Les Almoravides, 125125..

3131 Lagardere,Lagardere, Les Almoravides, 124124..

3232 Ibid.,Ibid., 125125.. 6969

disgusteddisgusted witwithh ththee behaviobehaviorr ooff ththee AndalusiAndalusiss anandd returnedreturned toto NortNorthh AfricaAfrica

withouwithoutt havinhavingg defeateddefeated ththee ChristianChristianss atat Aledo.Aledo.

IInn 1090,1090, IbIbnn TashufiTashutmn crossedcrossed ththee StraitsStraits ooff GibraltarGibraltar onconcee againagain,, bubutt thisthis

timtimee hhee camcamee ttoo conqueconquerr ththee taiftaifaa kingdomkingdomss ratheratherr thathann ththee defenddefend them.them.

ApparentlyApparently,, hihiss previoupreviouss twtwoo visitvisitss hahadd convincedconvinced himhim thathatt ththee taifataifass werewere wouldwould

bbee easyeasy conquests.conquests. HeHe legitimizelegitimizedd hishis actionactionss againsagainstt ththee taiftaifaa kingskings bbyy claimingclaiming

thathatt hhee wawass takintakingg overover al-Andalual-Andaluss inin orderorder ttoo savesave ttoo foforr ththee DorDlir al-Islam.al-lslatn.33 33 TheThe firstfirst taiftaifaa ttoo falfalll ttoo ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss wawass GranadGranadaa wherwheree ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss werweree ableable

ttoo forcforcee ththee BanuBanu ZirLrrii ttoo surrendesurrenderr withouwithoutt offerinofferingg ananyy resistance.resistance. AfteAfterr thethe

AlmoraviAlmoravidd capturcapturee ooff GranadaGranada,, IbIbnn TashutmTashufin returnereturnedd ttoo NortNorthh AfricaAfrica.. HeHe leftleft

substantiasubstantiall forceforcess inin al-Andalual-Andaluss undeunderr ththee commandcommand ofof hihiss nephew,nephew, SirSir ibnibn AbuAbu

BakrBakr.. SiS-rrr ibibnn AbAbuu BakBakrr wawass responsiblresponsiblee foforr ththee capturecapture ofof SevilleSeville iinn 10911091 andand

BadajoBadajozz iinn 1094,1094, anandd foforr ththee administrationadrninistration ofof al-Andalusal-Andalus thereafter.thereafter. IbnIbn

TashufiTashutmn returnereturnedd ttoo al-Andalual-Andaluss iinn 10971097 andand 11021102 ttoo surveysurvey hihiss newly-acquirednewly-acquired domains,domains, bubutt hhee lefleftt hishis generalgeneralss anandd administratoradministratorss inin chargchargee ooff AlmoravidAlmoravid interestinterestss therethere.. WheWhenn IbnIbn TashufiTashutmn dieddied inin 1106,1106, ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss controlledcontrolled allall ofof ththee ololdd taiftaifaa kingdomkingdomss witwithh ththee exceptionexception ooff Zaragoza.Zaragoza. BByy thathatt timetime,, ththee taifataifa kingkingss ereraa hahadd comcomee ttoo aann end,end, andand ththee AlmoraviAlmoravidd perioperiodd ooff AndalusAndalusii historyhistory waswas inin fullfull bloom.bloom.

3333 KitabKitiib al-Hulla al-Mawshiyya.al-Mawshivva. 71-77. 7070

SummarSummaryy

ExternaExternall forceforcess playeplayedd anan importanimportantt rolerole iinn weakeninweakeningg ththee taiftaifaa kingdoms.kingdoms.

AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII ooff Leon-CastilLeon-Castilee raideraidedd ththee taifastaifas,, forceforcedd pariapariass frofromm ththee kingskings,, andand eventualleventuallyy conquereconqueredd oneone ofof ththee mostmost powerfupowerfull taifastaifas.. IbIbnn TashufiTashuf"ffin anandd thethe

AlmoravidAlmoravidss firsfirstt aidedaided ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss bubutt thethenn decideddecided ttoo annexannex al-Andalusal-Andalus.. InIn orderorder ttoo comprehencomprehendd fullyfully hohoww andand whwhyy ththee taiftaifaa systesystemm crumbled,crumbled, iitt isis necessarnecessaryy ttoo looklook aatt ththee lastlast twenty-fivtwenty-fivee yearyearss ofof ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss ereraa durinduringg andand ththee internainternall factorfactorss whicwhichh enableenabledd AlfonsoAlfonso VVII anandd IbIbnn Tashuf"ffiTashufin ttoo conqueconquerr thethe taiftaifaa kingdoms.kingdoms. CHAPTERCHAPTER VV

THETHE TAIFATAIFA SYSTEMSYSTEM 1069-1086:1069-1086: FROMFROM COMPETITIONCOMPETITION

TTOO RELUCTANRELUCTANTT COOPERATIONCOOPERATION

ThThee InformalInformal AllianceAlliance ofof BadajozBadajoz,, GranadaGranada,, andand ToledToledoo 1069-741069-74

BByy ththee middlmiddlee ooff thethe eleventeleventhh century,century, ththee fivfivee mosmostt powerfupowerfull taifataifass werewere

BadajozBadajoz,, Granada,Granada, Seville,Seville, ToledoToledo,, andand Zaragoza.1 TheThe naturnaturee ooff competitivecompetitive politicpoliticss changedchanged inin 10691069 whewhenn SevillSevillee annexedannexed ththee taiftaifaa ooff Cordoba.Cordoba. TheThe additionaddition ooff CordobaCordoba ttoo Seville'sSeville's alreadalreadyy considerablconsiderablee territorieterritoriess increaseincreasedd ititss commercialcommercial andand agriculturalagricultural wealtwealthh ttoo sucsuchh anan extenextentt thathatt SevillSevillee assumeassumedd a placplacee ofof preeminencpreeminencee amongamong ththee taiftaifaa kingdomskingdoms.. InIn ordeorderr ttoo prevenpreventt ththe'e 'AbbadiAbba diss ofof

SevilleSeville frofromm expandingexpanding further,further, ththee AftasiAftasiss ofof BadajozBadajoz,, ththee ZiriZlriss ooff GranadaGranada,, andand ththee DhiiDhu al-Niinisal-Nunis ofof ToledToledoo forgedforged anan informainformall alliance.alliance. TheThe formatioformationn ooff thisthis anti-'Abbadanti-I Abbadii coalitioncoalition markedmarked a shiftshift frofromm constantconstant competitiocompetitionn ttoo reluctantreluctant cooperationcooperation amongamong somsomee ofof ththee taiftaifaa kingdomskingdoms.. AlthougAlthoughh ththee alliancalliancee lastedlasted onlonlyy untiuntill 1074,1074, ththee tendenctendencyy towartowardd cooperatiocooperationn amonamongg ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss thathatt itit

1 TheThe taifastaifas thatthat werewere stillstill independentindependent inin 10691069 werewere Albarracin,Albarracin, Almeria,Almeria, Alpuente,Alpuente, Badajoz,Badajoz, BazaBaza,, CeutaCeuta,, DeniaDenia,, Granada,Granada, LeridaLerida,, MajorcaMajorca,, MurciaMurcia,, ToledoToledo,, ValenciaValencia,, VilchesVilches,, andand Zaragoza.Zaragoza. OOff thesethese,, ththee largestlargest anandd mostmost powerfupowerfull werweree BadajozBadajoz,, Granada,Granada, SevilleSeville,, ToledoToledo,, andand ZaragozaZaragoza.. / 7272

representedrepresented waswas anan importanimportantt featurefeature ofof taiftaifaa politicspolitics througthroughh ththee arrivalarrival ofof thethe

AlmoravidAlmoravidss inin 1086.1086.

ThThee Badajoz-Granada-ToledBadajoz-Granada-Toledoo alliancealliance wawass fragilefragile becausbecausee itsits membersmembers

werweree suspicioussuspicious ofof oneone anotheranother,, hardenedhardened bbyy yearyearss ofof competitivecompetitive politics.politics.

NeverthelessNevertheless,, ththee membersmembers ofof thethe alliancealliance werewere willingwilling toto trustrustt eacheach otherother ttoo aa

limitedlimited extentextent inin ththee faceface ofof SevillianSevillian expansioexpansionn andand ever-increasingever-increasing pressurepressure fromfrom Leon-Castile.Leon-Castile. Badajoz,Badajoz, Granada,Granada, andand ToledoToledo eacheach playedplayed a specialspecial rolerole inin

maintainingmaintaining thethe alliance.alliance. BadajozBadajoz wawass thethe mosmostt importantimportant citycity ofof ththee lowerlower marchmarch.. ItIt serveservedd asas a buffebufferr betweebetweenn southwestersouthwesternn al-Andalusal-Andalus andand territoryterritory controlledcontrolled bbyy Leon-CastileLeon-Castile inin northwesnorthwestt andand nortnorthh centralcentral Iberia.Iberia. BadajoBadajozz alsoalso haltehaltedd Seville'sSeville's attemptsattempts toto expandexpand northwardnorthward.. GranadaGranada wawass situatedsituated betweenbetween . . SevilleSeville inin ththee weswestt andand thethe smallesmallerr taiftaifaa kingdomkingdomss ofof easterneastern al-Andalus.al-Andalus. ItsIts rolerole inin thethe alliancalliancee wawass toto prevenpreventt SevillianSevillian expansionexpansion eastward.eastward. Toledo'sToledo's dutyduty waswas toto holdhold andand protectprotect thethe middlemiddle marchmarch.. AfterAfter Seville,Seville, iitt waswas ththee largestlargest andand wealthieswealthiestt taiftaifaa kingdomkingdom.. LikeLike BadajozBadajoz,, iitt preventedprevented ChristianChristian invasionsinvasions fromfrom thethe nortnorthh andand likelike GranadaGranada iitt impededimpeded SevillianSevillian advancesadvances fromfrom ththee west.west.

ThThee informalinformal alliancealliance ofof Badajoz,Badajoz, Granada,Granada, andand ToledToledoo crumbledcrumbled inin 10741074 whenwhen al-Ma'mlinal-Ma'mun ofof ToledoToledo alliedallied witwithh AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII ofof Leon-CastileLeon-Castile inin orderorder toto attackattack Seville.Seville. Al-Ma'muAl-Ma'mlinn sacrificedsacrificed hishis ZirZirii alliesallies inin GranadaGranada toto AlfonsoAlfonso VVII inin returnreturn forfor helphelp againstagainst al-Mu'tamidal-Mu'tamid ofof Seville.Seville. Al-Ma'muAl-Ma'mlinn dieddied inin 10751075 andand hehe wawass followedfollowed bbyy hishis grandsongrandson al-Qadiral-Qadir whwhoo wawass a personalpersonal allyally ofof AlfonsAlfonsoo VI.VI. 7373

Al-QadirAl-Qadir reliedrelied onon mercenariesmercenaries hiredhired fromfrom AlfonsoAlfonso VIVI toto maintainmaintain controlcontrol overover

Toledo.Toledo. Therefore,Therefore, itit waswas unlikelyunlikely thatthat al-Qadiral-Qadir wouldwould opposeoppose anyany actionaction thatthat

AlfonsoAlfonso VIVI mightmight taketake againstagainst thethe otherother taifataifa kingskings andand thethe establishmentestablishment ofof thethe

Badajoz-Granada-Badajoz-Granada-ToledToledoo alliancealliance becomebecome nearlynearly impossible.impossible.

BetweenBetween 10751075 andand 1085,1085, itit waswas ofof littlelittle consequenceconsequence thatthat thethe Badajoz­Badajoz-

Granada,ToledoGranada,Toledo alliancealliance hadhad fallenfallen apart.apart. BadajozBadajoz andand GranadaGranada hadhad littlelittle toto fearfear inin thethe wayway ofof anan attackattack fromfrom ToledoToledo becausebecause aI-Qadiral-Qadir waswas pre-occupiedpre-occupied withwith internalinternal problems,problems, butbut thethe situationsituation changedchanged abruptlyabruptly inin 10851085 whenwhen AlfonsoAlfonso VIVI annexedannexed ToledoToledo andand sentsent al-Qadiral-Qadir toto Valencia.Valencia. AtAt thatthat timetime itit becamebecame allall tootoo apparentapparent thatthat Le6n-CastileLeon-Castile waswas byby farfar thethe mostmost powerfulpowerful politicalpolitical entityentity inin thethe

IberianIberian Peninsula.Peninsula. OOff course,course, thethe powepowerr ofof Le6n-CastileLeon-Castile hadhad beebeenn understoounderstoodd byby ththee taifataifa kingkingss aass a seriousserious threathreatt beforbeforee thatthat time,time, bubutt itit hahadd neveneverr beenbeen establishedestablished inin suchsuch a frighteninfrighteningg manner.manner. AlfonsoAlfonso VVII hahadd raideraidedd ththee taifastaifas inin thethe pastpast,, bubutt ToledToledoo wawass thethe firstfirst oneone hhee actuallyactually annexed.annexed. AlmosAlmostt overnightovernight Le6n­Leon-

CastilCastilee doubledoubledd ititss sizsizee anandd populationpopulation.. IInn additionaddition,, iitt nonoww controllecontrolledd ththee middlemiddle marcmarchh anandd areaareass iinn ththee westerwesternn al-Andalus.al-Andalus.

AlfonsAlfonsoo VI'VI'ss capturcapturee ooff ToledToledoo completelcompletelyy disruptedisruptedd anandd alterealteredd ththee taifataifa systemsystem.. NonNonee ooff ththee taiftaifaa statestatess coulcouldd ddoo anythinanythingg ttoo reversreversee ththee situation.situation.

ZaragozZaragozaa wawass nonoww surroundesurroundedd bbyy ChristiaChristiann kingdomkingdomss anandd isolateisolatedd frofromm thethe resrestt ooff al-Andalusal-Andalus.. GranadGranadaa wawass totooo weaweakk ttoo refusrefusee ttoo papayy ththee pariapariass mucmuchh lessless attacattackk AlfonsAlfonsoo VIVI.. IInn additionaddition,, onconcee ththee middlmiddlee marcmarchh wawass iinn AlfonsAlfonsoo VI'VI'ss hands,hands, 7474

GranadaGranada wawass mucmuchh mormoree vulnerablevulnerable ttoo attackattack thathann itit hahadd beenbeen.. BadajoBadajozz couldcould nonott sparespare ththee militarmilitaryy oror economiceconomic resourcesresources ttoo confrontconfront AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII iinn battlebattle.. InIn addition,addition, ththee AftasiAftasiss hahadd ttoo bbee ever-waryever-wary ofof SevilleSeville anandd ththee expansionisexpansionistt designsdesigns ooff the'Abbadisthe' Abbad'is.. ThThee AftasiAftasiss hahadd littllittlee choicechoice otherother thathann ttoo settlsettlee iinn anandd prepareprepare forfor ththee worst.worst.

SevilleSeville itselfitself wawass threatenedthreatened bbyy ththee ChristianChristian capturcapturee ofof Toledo.Toledo. WithoutWithout

ToledoToledo ttoo standstand guarguardd againsagainstt ChristianChristian movemenmovementt iinn ththee middlmiddlee marchmarch,, thethe roaroadd ttoo SevilleSeville wawass allall butbut openopen ttoo AlfonsAlfonsoo VIVI.. MoreoverMoreover,, becausbecausee ooff theirtheir expansionistexpansionist historyhistory,, thethe 'Abbadi'Abbadiss couldcould hardlhardlyy councountt oonn helhelpp frofromm ththee otherother taifataifa kingdomkingdomss iinn ththee eventevent ofof a ChristiaChristiann attack.attack. ThereforeTherefore,, afterafter yearyearss ofof fightingfighting thethe otheotherr taifastaifas,, SevilleSeville wawass compellecompelledd ttoo abandonabandon ititss expansionistexpansionist designsdesigns anandd joijoinn thethe otherother taifataifass iinn anan efforteffort ttoo stostopp AlfonsAlfonsoo VI.VI.

InIn 1085-61085-6 al-Mutawwakilal-Mutawwakil ofof BadajozBadajoz,, 'Ab'Abdd AllaAllahh ibnibn BuluggiBulugginn ofof Granada,Granada, anandd al-Mu'tamidal-Mu'tamid ooff SevilleSeville forgedforged a neneww informainformall alliancalliancee iinn ordeorderr ttoo defenddefend themselvesthemselves againstagainst AlfonsAlfonsoo VIVI ofof Leon-Castile.Leon-Castile. TheseThese threthreee kingkingss decidedecidedd thatthat ththee besbestt coursecourse ofof actionaction wawass toto seekseek helhelpp frofromm ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss ofof NortNorthh Africa.Africa.

TheyThey organizeorganizedd anandd dispatchedispatchedd a delegationdelegation ooff mosqumosquee ulamulamaa ttoo pleapleadd witwithh thethe

AlmoravidAlmoravidss forfor assistanceassistance.. ThThee AndalusAndalusli mosqumosquee ulamulamaa arguedargued theitheirr casecase successfully,successfully, andand iinn 10861086 aann AlmoraviAlmoravidd forceforce sesett ououtt foforr al-Andalus.al-Andalus.

TheThe arrivalarrival ofof thethe AlmoravidAlmoravidss effectivelyeffectively broughbroughtt ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss eraera ofof

AndalusAndalusli historhistoryy ttoo anan endend.. FromFrom thathatt timtimee onward,onward, ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss diddid mormoree toto 7575 shapeshape ththee historhistoryy ofof al-Andalual-Andaluss thanthan ththee taiftaifaa kings.kings. NeverthelessNevertheless,, ththee taifataifa systemsystem itselfitself continuedcontinued ttoo existexist untiluntil 10941094 whenwhen ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss capturedcaptured badajoz,badajoz, ththee lastlast majomajorr taiftaifaa kingdomkingdom inin al-Andalus.al-Andalus. TheThe followingfollowing casecase historieshistories areare aann detailedetailedd descriptiondescription atat ththee lastlast yearyearss ooff thethe taiftaifaa system.system.

CaseCase HistoriesHistories

,'AbAbd d AllaAllahh ibnibn BuluggmBuluggin (d.(d. afterafter 1095)1095)

'Ab'Abdd AllaAllahh ibibnn BuluggiBulugginn ruleruledd thethe taiftaifaa ofof GranadaGranada fromfrom 10731073 untiuntill hishis depositiondeposition atat ththee handshands ofof thethe AlmoravidsAlmoravids inin 1090.1090. HisHis family,family, thethe BanBanuu Zirl,Ziri, hadhad comecome ttoo al-Andalusal-Andalus durinduringg thethe reigreignn ofof al-M\l:?affaral-Muzaffar ibnibn AbAbl'i 'AmiAmir r al-Ma~Ural-Mansur

(1002-8).(1002-8). TheyThey werewere membersmembers ofof anan importantimportant BerbeBerberr tribtribee inin westernwestern Algeria,Algeria, butbut thetheyy werewere forcedforced toto fleeflee theitheirr homelanhomelandd becausbecausee ofof intratribaintratriball disputes.disputes. TheyThey foundfound a neneww homhomee iinn al-Andalusal-Andalus wherewhere al-M\l:?affarlmaintainedal-Muzaffar/maintained anan armyarmy ofof saqalib~aqalibaa anandd BerbeBerberr mercenariesmercenaries forfor hishis foraysforays againsagainstt thethe ChristianChristian North.North.

TheThe BanBanuu ZirZ"rrli establishedestablished themselvesthemselves asas ththee rulerrulerss ofof GranadaGranada sometimesometime afteafterr 1013.1013. TheTheyy werewere originallyoriginally basebasedd inin thethe towtownn ofof ElviraElvira,, bubutt theythey movemovedd toto ththee mormoree defensibldefensiblee sitsitee ofof Granada.Granada. ZawlZawi ibnibn Z"1I1Ziri (d(d.. ca.ca. 1019)1019) foundedfounded thethe dynastydynasty,, bubutt leftleft al-Andalusal-Andalus inin 10191019 andand diddid nonott return,return, andand hishis nephew,nephew, J:IabbusHabbus ibnibn MaksaMaksann ibnibn ZirZ"rrli (d.(d. 1038)1038) becambecamee thethe leaderleader ofof ththee BanuBanu Z"1I1Ziri inin Granada.Granada.

HabbuJ:Iabbtiss andand hihiss sonson BadiBad'iss (d.(d. 1063)1063) engagedengaged inin thethe competitivecompetitive politicspolitics thatthat characterizedcharacterized ththee earlyearly taiftaifaa kingkingss era.era. TheyThey addedadded territoryterritory toto ththee Z"rrlZiri domaindomain 76 durinduringg ththee firsfirstt fefeww decadesdecades ofof ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss eraera,, bubutt thetheyy werweree eventuallyeventually hemmehemmedd iinn bbyy mormoree powerfupowerfull taifataifass suchsuch aass SevilleSeville andand ToledoToledo thatthat werweree moremore

successfusuccessfull iinn theitheirr efforteffortss ttoo expanexpandd thathann Granada.Granada. BByy ththee timtimee 'AbI Abdd AllahAllah becambecamee kinkingg iinn 1073,1073, GranadGranadaa hahadd nonott madmadee anyany majormajor gaingainss iinn mormoree thanthan

twenttwentyy yearsyears.. FurthermoreFurthermore,, durinduringg thosthosee twtwoo decadesdecades,, ththee 'AbbadiI Abbadiss ofof SevilleSeville hahadd managemanagedd ttoo taktakee oveoverr severalseveral LITIZiri possessiopossessionn inin southwestersouthwesternn al-Andalus.al-Andalus.22

MorMoree thathann ththee otheotherr taifastaifas,, GranadaGranada hadhad a greatgreat interestinterest iinn buildinbuildingg andand maintaininmaintainingg alliancesalliances witwithh ititss neighborsneighbors.. FirstFirst,, ththee ZiriZiriss werweree newcomernewcomerss ttoo al­al-

AndalusAndalus.. WhereaWhereass BerbeBerberr familiesfamilies sucsuchh asas ththee DhliDhu al-NuaI-NUnn hahadd beebeenn iinn al­al-

AndaluAndaluss sincesince ththee originaoriginall MusliMuslimm invasioninvasion,, ththee ZirisZiris hahadd beebeenn thertheree onlyonly sincesince ththee firstfirst decaddecadee ofof ththee eleventheleventh century.century. ThereforeTherefore,, thetheyy dididd nonott havhavee a traditionatraditionall powepowerr basbasee iinn al-Andalusal-Andalus andand lackedlacked aann extensiveextensive networnetworkk ofof clientsclients amonamongg ththee otheotherr groupgroupss alreadyalready iinn IberiaIberia.. IInn addition,addition, ththee ZirLITIi diddid nonott fullyfully assimilatassimilatee ttoo AndalusAndaiusli cultureculture anandd societsocietyy untiuntill ththee mid-eleventmid-eleventhh century.century.

Essentially,Essentially, ththee ZirLITii ruleruledd GranadaGranada asas a foreignforeign militarmilitaryy elite.elite.

Second,Second, ththee powepowerr ooff ththee ZiriLITiss resterestedd solelysolely iinn theitheirr militarmilitaryy mightmight.. TheThe

BerberBerberss whwhoo werweree alliealliedd ttoo ththee BanBanuu ZirLrrii numberenumberedd aboutabout oneone thousandthousand atat thethe beginninbeginningg ofof ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss era,era, makinmakingg uupp a forceforce larglargee enougenoughh ttoo enableenable thethe

LITisZiris ttoo carvecarve a kingdokingdomm foforr themselvethemselvess inin al-Andalusal-Andalus.. HoweverHowever,, thesthesee troopstroops werweree tietiedd ttoo ththee ZirLITIi bbyy tribatriball bondbondss ooff 'a$abiyya,'asabiyya, thathatt sensesense ooff solidaritysolidarity thathatt IbnIbn

2 'AbI Abdd AllahAllah ibnibn Buluggin,Buluggin, The Tibyan, 48-7848-78.. 7777

KhalduKhaldiinn laterlater ascribeascribedd toto alalll nomadinomadicc warriowarriorr groups.3groups.3 However,However, afteafterr ththee firstfirst generatiogenerationn ofof BerbeBerberr warriorwarriorss retireretiredd oror died,died, anandd aass ththee ZiriLITiss themselvethemselvess beganbegan ttoo assimilateassimilate toto urbaurbann courtlcourtlyy societysociety,, ththee bondbondss ofof 'asabiyy'a~abiyyaa betweebetweenn ththee LITisZiris andand ththee armyarmy weakenedweakened.. ThThee ZirilITiss hirehiredd BerbeBerberr mercenariemercenariess ttoo whowhomm thetheyy hadhad nnoo priopriorr connectioconnectionn ttoo filfilll thethe rankrankss ofof theitheirr militarymilitary.. TheseThese mercenariemercenariess werewere

nonott bounboundd ttoo thethe ZITisZiris bbyy bondbondss ooff 'asabiyyaI a~abiyya,, ssoo thetheyy werweree loyalloyal onlyonly ssoo lonlongg asas ththee Ziriliriss paipaidd themthem.. WithouWithoutt a connectionconnection toto ththee militarmilitaryy basebasedd oonn 'a~abiyya,'asabiyya, thetheyy foundfound iitt difficultdifficult ttoo controcontroll andand commandcommand thethe troopstroops aatt theitheirr disposal.44 ThisThis problem was especially acute in 'Abd Allah's reign by which time the Ziris had problem was especially acute in I Abd Allah's reign by which time the LITis had no tribal connection whatsoever to their army. 'Abd Allah needed alliances with no tribal connection whatsoever to their army. I Abd Allah needed alliances with otheotherr taiftaifaa kingkingss inin ordeorderr ttoo reducreducee hihiss dependencdependencee oonn aann armyarmy thathatt wawass onlyonly marginallmarginallyy loyalloyal ttoo himhim.. AllianceAlliancess witwithh ththee otherother taiftaifaa kingdomkingdomss helpehelpedd alleviatealleviate ththee strainstrain createdcreated bbyy ththee ZirilITiss becominbecomingg distancedistancedd frofromm ththee army.army.

Third,Third, GranadaGranada wawass mormoree vulnerablvulnerablee ttoo attacattackk frofromm SevilleSeville thathann ththee otherother

taifastaifas.. TheThe ZiriLITiss successfullysuccessfully defendedefendedd GranadGranadaa againstagainst ththee 'AbbadiI Abbadjss ofof SevilleSeville

andand werweree capablcapablee ofof slowingslowing'Abbad I Abbadji expansionexpansion eastwareastwardd ttoo somesome anan appreciableappreciable degreedegree.. HoweverHowever,, GranadaGranada wawass totooo smalsmalll ttoo stostopp SevillSevillee completelycompletely,, andand iinn thethe

mid-eleventhmid-eleventh centurcenturyy ththee ZiriLITiss lostlost territorterritoryy toto ththee 'AbbadisI Abbadis.. GranadaGranada reliereliedd onon

ToledoToledo anandd BadajoBadajozz ttoo helhelpp holholdd SevilleSeville iinn check.check. ThrougThroughh mostmost ooff ththee taifataifa

3 IbnIbn Khaldiin,Khaldun, The Muqadimmah: An Introduction to History, trans.trans. FranzFranz Rosenthal,Rosenthal, ed.ed. nn.. JJ.. DawooDawoodd (Princeton(Princeton:: PrincetoPrincetonn UniversitUniversityy PressPress,, 1989),33-44,1989), 33-44,91-122 91-122..

4 'Abd'Abd AllahAllah ibnibn Buluggln,Buluggin, The Tibyiin,Tibyan, 78-92.78-92. 78

kingskings eraera GranadaGranada enjoyedenjoyed closeclose andand cordialcordial relationsrelations withwith Toledo/butToledo, but thisthis

changedchanged inin 10741074 whenwhen al-Ma'miinal-Ma'mun ofof ToledoToledo alliedallied withwith AlfonsoAlfonso VIVI ofof Le6n­Leon-

Castile.s5 'Abd'Abd AllahAllah couldcould stillstill relyrely onon thethe AftasIs-toAftasis to somesome extent,extent, butbut BadajozBadajoz

andand GranadaGranada couldcould not,not, byby themselves,themselves, halthalt thethe expansionexpansion ofof SevilleSeville andand Le6n­Leon-

Castile.Castile. TheThe dissolutiondissolution ofof thethe informalinformal alliancealliance betweenbetween Badajoz,Badajoz, Granada,Granada, andand

ToledoToledo greatlygreatly weakenedweakened thethe LITisZiris vis-a.-visvis-a-vis the'the 'Abbadi Abbadiss ofof Seville.Seville.

Finally,Finally, GranadaGranada coveredcovered thethe leastleast amountamount ofof territoryterritory ofof anyany ofof thethe majormajor

taifataifa kingdomskingdoms.. InIn a timetime whenwhen thethe AndalusiAndalusi economyeconomy wawass basedbased largellargelyy onon

agriculture,agriculture, controlcontrol ofof arablearable landland waswas allall importanimportantt toto financialfinancial success.success. GranadaGranada hadhad thethe leastleast amountamount ofof land;land; thereforetherefore,, itsits agriculturalagricultural revenuerevenuess werewere smallersmaller

thathann thosthosee ofof ththee largelargerr taiftaifaa statesstates.. IInn additionaddition,, thertheree werweree fefeww towntownss ooff anyany

considerablconsiderablee sizsizee undeunderr ZirLITii controcontroll andand Granada'Granada'ss populatiopopulationn wawass relativelyrelatively

small.small. DuDuee ttoo ititss limitelimitedd financialfinancial resourcesresources,, GranadGranadaa wawass ththee taiftaifaa kingdomkingdom whicwhichh coulcouldd leasleastt afforaffordd ttoo papayy botbothh larglargee mercenarmercenaryy armiesarmies andand parias.parias.

ThereforeTherefore,, iitt needeneededd ttoo maintaimaintainn ititss alliancealliancess witwithh otheotherr taifataifass iinn ordeorderr ttoo makemake uupp foforr ititss smalsmalll sizsizee anandd limitelimitedd economieconomicc resources.resources.66

'Ab'Abdd AllaAllahh ibibnn Buluggin'Buluggin'ss mosmostt threateninthreateningg enemieenemiess werweree al-Mu'tamial-Mu'tamidd ofof

SevillSevillee anandd AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII ooff Leon-CastileLeon-Castile.. Al-Mu'tamiAl-Mu'tamidd trietriedd ttoo expanexpandd iinn thethe directiodirectionn ooff GranadGranadaa manmanyy timestimes.. HiHiss conquesconquestt ooff CordobCordobaa iinn 1069-71069-700 wawass a

5 Ibid.Ibid.,, 87-887-8..

6 Ibid.Ibid.,, 87,87,92-4 92-4.. 79 majomajorr threathreatt ttoo ththee BanBaniiu ZiriLITi?. Al-Mu'tamiAl-Mu/tamidd alsalsoo useusedd diplomacydiplomacy ttoo undermineundermine

'Abd'Abd AllahAllah.. FoForr exampleexample,, shortlyshortly afteafterr 'Abd'Abd AllaAllahh becambecamee kinkingg inin 1073,1073, AlfonsoAlfonso

VVII offeredoffered ttoo makmakee aann alliancalliancee witwithh ththee ZirLITii kinkingg againsagainstt Seville.Seville. ThThee termtermss ofof thethe

alliancalliancee werweree thathatt 'AbI Abdd AllaAllahh woulwouldd papayy AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII 20,0020,0000 dinardinarss iinn returreturnn forfor

militarmilitaryy assistanceassistance.. WhenWhen 'AbI Abdd AllaAllahh declineddeclined AlfonsAlfonsoo VI'VI'ss offer,offer, al-Mu/tamidal-Mu'tamid sentsent ononee ooff hihiss advisoradvisorss ttoo intercepinterceptt AlfonsAlfonsoo VI'VI'ss envoyenvoy beforbeforee hhee returnereturnedd toto

Le6n-Castile.Leon-Castile. Al-Mu'tamiAI-Mu/tamidd instructeinstructedd hihiss ownown envoenvoyy ttoo offeofferr ttoo papayy 50,00050,000 dinarsdinars foforr aann alliancalliancee witwithh AlfonsAlfonsoo VIVI,, whicwhichh AlfonsAlfonsoo VI'VI'ss envoyenvoy acceptedaccepted.. Al-Al-

Mu/tamidMu'tamid andand AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII werweree neveneverr ablablee ttoo organizeorganize a full-scalfull-scalee attacattackk ofof

GranadaGranada,, ssoo ththee alliancalliancee camecame ttoo nothing.s8 NeverthelessNevertheless,, itit iiss a googoodd examplexamplee ofof ththee machinationmachinationss amonamongg 'Abd'Abd Allah'Allah'ss maimainn enemies.enemies.

GivenGiven ththee facfactt thathatt alliancesalliances betweebetweenn MusliMuslimm taiftaifaa kingskings andand ChristianChristian

kingkingss werweree nonott unusualunusual,, ononee mighmightt wondewonderr whwhyy 'AbI Abdd AllaAllahh refuserefusedd AlfonsAlfonsoo VI'sVI's

9 offer. 'AbI Abdd AllaAllahh givegivess ththee followinfollowingg explanationexplanation inin The Tibyiin:Tibyan:

ThThee promisepromisess fillefilledd ththee ChristianChristian witwithh greagreatt cupiditcupidityy anandd hehe saidsaid ttoo himselfhimself:: "Thi''Thiss iiss a gamblgamblee whicwhichh I cannotcannot faifaill ttoo winwin.. WhatWhat benefibenefitt ddoo I getget frofromm givingivingg ththee citcityy ooff oneone ttoo ththee otheotherr exceptexcept strengtheninstrengtheningg hihimm againstagainst meme?? ThThee mormoree rebelrebelss thertheree areare,, anandd thethe mormoree rivalrrivalryy thertheree iiss amonamongg themthem,, alalll ththee bettebetterr foforr me.me."" HHee thenthen camcamee witwithh ththee intentiointentionn ooff takintakingg monemoneyy frofromm botbothh sidesidess andand crushincrushingg theitheirr headheadss againsagainstt ononee anotheranother.. ItIt wawass nonott hihiss hophopee toto

7 Ibid.,Ibid., 65,65,67,88,93-4 67, 88, 93-4..

8 Ibid.,Ibid., 87-9.87-9.

9 SeSeee ChaptersChapters IIII andand V.V. 8080

seizeseize ththee countrcountryy foforr himselfhimself,, forfor hhee hahadd pondereponderedd ththee mattematterr andand saidsaid ttoo himself:himself: ""II aamm nonott ooff theitheirr faith,faith, andand allall ththee inhabitantsinhabitants hatehate meme.. OnOn whawhatt basibasiss shoulshouldd I aspiraspiree ttoo taktakee it?it? BByy submissionsubmission?? No,No, that'that'ss impossibleimpossible.. BByy combatcombat?? NoNo,, mmyy memenn wilwilll perishperish,, mmyy moneymoney .. wilwilll disappeadisappearr andand mmyy losselossess wilwilll bbee greatergreater thathann ananyy benefibenefitt I coulcouldd hophopee ttoo derivderivee shoulshouldd ththee citycity falfalll intintoo mmyy handhands.s ... TheThe bestbest planplan,, indeeindeedd thethe onlyonly planplan,, iiss ttoo threatethreatenn ononee witwithh ththee otherother andand toto taktakee theitheirr monemoneyy alalll ththee timtimee untiuntill theitheirr citiecitiess areare impoverisheimpoverishedd andand weakened.weakened."" ThiThiss wawass whawhatt actuallyactually happenehappenedd iinn ththee casecase ofof Toledo.iToledo.10o

ThisThis sobersober assessmenassessmentt ofof ChristiaChristiann realpolitirealpolitikk revealrevealss hohow'w 'AbAbd d AllahAllah understoounderstoodd AlfonsAlfonsoo VI'VI'ss aimsaims.. BByy takingtaking ToledoToledo,, AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII disrupteddisrupted thethe balancbalancee ooff powepowerr betweebetweenn ChristiaChristiann anandd MusliMuslimm kingkingss iinn IberiaIberia.. OncOncee thethe

ChristiansChristians hahadd gainegainedd ththee uppeupperr handhand,, ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss ooff al-Andalusal-Andalus werweree hardlyhardly ablablee ttoo defenddefend themselvethemselvess againstagainst AlfonsAlfonsoo VI.VI.

AAss wawass mentionementionedd above,above, 'Ab'Abdd AllaAllahh wawass mormoree dependendependentt onon thethe

Badajoz-Granada-ToledBadajoz-Granada-Toledoo alliancealliance thathann ththee otheotherr taiftaifaa kingskings,, anandd thusthus hahadd moremore interestinterest iinn askinaskingg ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss ttoo interveneintervene iinn al-Andalusal-Andalus afteafterr ththee fallfall ofof

ToledoToledo.. AAtt thathatt timetime,, itit musmustt havhavee seemedseemed aass ifif ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss werweree ththee onlyonly forceforce whicwhichh mighmightt bbee ableable ttoo savesave GranadaGranada frofromm eithereither Leon-CastilLe6n-Castilee oror Seville.Seville.

ThThee AlmoravidsAlmoravids diddid savsavee GranadGranadaa foforr a timetime,, bubutt ththee alliancealliance upouponn whichwhich

GranadaGranada dependeddepended foforr ititss survivasurvivall couldcould nonott bbee restorerestoredd asas lonlongg asas ToledoToledo wawass inin

ChristianChristian hands.hands.

WitWithh nnoo meanmeanss ofof defendindefendingg itselitselff independently,independently, GranadGranadaa wawass anan easyeasy targetargett foforr ththee aspirationaspirationss ooff al-Mu'tamid,al-Mu'tamid, AlfonsAlfonsoo VIVI,, andand IbIbnn TashufinTashufin.. TheThe

1010 'Ab'Abdd AllaAllahh ibibnn BulugginBuluggm,, The Tibyiin"Tibyan,, 89-9089-90.. 81

AlmoraviAlmoravidd emiremir wawass ththee firsfirstt ttoo actact.. IInn ththee fallfall ofof 1090,1090, YusuYusuff ibibnn TashufmTashufin marchemarchedd towartowardd GranadGranadaa foforr ththee purpospurposee ofof deposindeposing'g 'Ab Abdd AllahAllah.. 'Ab'Abeld AllahAllah

surrenderedsurrendered ththee citycity withouwithoutt offerinofferingg ananyy resistance.resistance. AfteAfterr enduringenduring somesome

humiliatiohumiliationn aatt ththee handhandss ooff hihiss captorscaptors,, 'AbI Abeld AllaAllahh anandd hishis familyfamily werweree deporteddeported

1111 ttoo AghmaAghmatt inin MoroccoMorocco.. HHee diediedd thertheree sometimsometimee afterafter 1095. .

Al-Mu'tamiAI-Mu'tamidd ibibn'n 'Abba Abbadd (d.(d. caca.. 1097)1097)

Al-Mu'tamiAI-Mu'tamidd ibibn'n 'Abba Abbadd becambecamee kinkingg ofof ththee taiftaifaa ooff SevilleSeville afterafter ththee deathdeath ooff hihiss fatherfather,, al-Mu'tadidal-Mu'ta<;iid,, inin 10691069 aatt whicwhichh timtimee ththee taiftaifaa kingdokingdomm ooff SevilleSeville waswas perhapperhapss ththee mosmostt solidsolid ofof alalll ooff ththee taiftaifaa statesstates inin termtermss ooff wealtwealthh andand power.12power.12

ThThee BanBanu'u 'Abbad Abbad,, ttoo whowhomm al-Mu'tamial-Mu'tamidd belongedbelonged,, werweree a localocall notablnotablee familfamilyy ofof

AraArabb originorigin whicwhichh tracetracedd ititss genealoggenealogyy bacbackk ttoo ththee YememYemeni tribtribee ofof Lakhm.Lakhm. TheThe firsfirstt membememberr ofof ththee BanBanu'u 'Abba Abbadd ttoo rulrulee SevillSevillee waswas ththee qadiqa<;ii,, Isma'iIsma'TIl ibibn'n 'Abba Abbadd

(d(d.. 1019).1019). Isma'iIsma'ill wawass reportedlreportedlyy a goodgood statesmanstatesman,, administrator,administrator, anandd alim.alim.1313

HHee ruleruledd SevilleSeville aass ththee heaheadd ooff a triumvirattriumviratee ooff localocall notables.notables. HoweverHowever,, hishis sonson anandd successorsuccessor,, MuhammaMuhammadd (d(d.. 1042),1042), whwhoo hahadd alsoalso beebeenn trainetrainedd asas a religiousreligious scholarscholar,, dididd nonott sharsharee hihiss father'father'ss enthusiasenthusiasmm foforr religioureligiouss learninglearning.. AfterAfter

Isma'il'Isma'il'ss death,death, MuhammaMuhammadd disbandedisbandedd ththee triumvirattriumviratee andand quicklquicklyy tootookk powerpower

1111 Ibid.Ibid.,, 19-2919-29..

1212 IbIbnn BassamBassam.,, al-Dhakhira, 41-4241-42..

1313 IbIbnn al-KhatibaI-Khatib,, Kitab d'mdlii'miil wa al-a'lam, 152152.. 8282

1414 foforr himself. IItt wawass undeunderr hishis aegiaegiss thathatt ththee BanBanuu 'Abba'Abbadd consolidateconsolidatedd theirtheir powepowerr inin SevillSevillee andand establishedestablished themselvethemselvess firmlfirmlyy amonamongg ththee rulinrulingg familiesfamilies ofof al-Andalusal-Andalus..

TheThe nexnextt membememberr ooff ththee BanBanuu 'Abba'Abbadd ttoo assumassumee ththee thronthronee ofof SevilleSeville waswas

'Abbad'Abbad ibibnn MuhammaMuhammadd al-Mu'tadial-Mu'ta<;iidd (d(d.. 1069)1069) whwhoo expandedexpanded ththee borderborderss ofof

SevilleSeville mormoree thathann anyany other'other 'AbbadAbood! i kingking.. DurinDuringg al-Mu'tadid'al-Mu'ta<;iid'ss reignreign,, allall ofof southwesternsouthwestern al-Andalusal-Andalus becambecamee parpartt ooff ththee taiftaifaa ooff Seville:Seville: MertolMertolaa fellfell iinn 1044,1044, followedfollowed bbyy NieblNieblaa inin 1051,1051, SaltesSaltes andand HuelvHuelvaa inin 1052,1052, andand SilvesSilves inin 1062.1062. AI­Al-

Mu'tadiMu'ta<;iidd thethenn turneturnedd furthefurtherr south.south. HHee capturedcaptured AlgeciraAlgecirass inin 1055,1055, Ronda,Ronda,

MoronMoron,, CarmonaCarmona inin 1066,1066, anandd AcroAcross inin 1068-9.1068-9. BByy ththee timtimee ooff al-Mu'ta<;iid'sal-Mu'tadid's deathdeath inin 1069,1069, SevilleSeville controllecontrolledd ththee entireentire southwesternsouthwestern endend ooff ththee IberianIberian

PeninsulPeninsulaa anandd hahadd madmadee significansignificantt advancesadvances eastward.eastward.1515

Al-Mu'tadid'Al-Mu'ta<;iid'ss sonson,, al-Mu'tamidal-Mu'tamid,, becambecamee kinkingg iinn 1069.1069. Seville'sSeville's expansionexpansion sloweslowedd somewhatsomewhat duringduring ththee reigreignn ooff al-Mu'tamidal-Mu'tamid.. AlthougAlthoughh al-Mu'tamidal-Mu'tamid continuecontinuedd ttoo campaigncampaign againsagainstt hishis neighborsneighbors,, hhee wawass rarelrarelyy ablablee ttoo maintaimaintainn hishis acquisitionacquisitionss foforr long.long. HiHiss armiesarmies venturedventured asas farfar frofromm SevillSevillee asas ValenciaValencia (which(which thetheyy capturedcaptured brieflbrieflyy inin 1078),1078), bubutt thetheyy rarelrarelyy managemanagedd toto holholdd onon ttoo ththee gainsgains theythey mademade.. Al-Mu'tamid'Al-Mu'tamid'ss mosmostt enduringenduring conquestconquest wawass thathatt ofof Cordoba.Cordoba. HeHe capturedcaptured CordobaCordoba iinn 10691069 anandd helheldd itit throughouthroughoutt hihiss reigreignn exceptexcept foforr a briefbrief

1414 Ibid.Ibid.,, 153-5153-5..

1515 Ibid.,Ibid., 155-7.155-7. 8383 periodperiod inin 10751075 whenwhen itit waswas takentaken andand controlledcontrolled byby thethe BanuBanu DhuDhu aI-Nunal-Nun ofof

Toledo.Toledo. AI-Mu'tamidAl-Mu'tamid returnedreturned thethe laterlater thethe samesame year,year, re-capturedre-captured Cordoba,Cordoba,

1616 andand controlledcontrolled thethe citycity untiluntil 10911091 whenwhen itit waswas takentaken byby thethe Almoravids.Almoravids.

Al-Mu'tamidAl-Mu'tamid diddid notnot failfail toto expandexpand hishis bordersborders becausbecausee hehe lackedlacked ambitionambition oror militarymilitary skill.skill. TheThe reasonreason thatthat hehe diddid notnot conquerconquer asas muchmuch territoryterritory asas hishis fatherfather hadhad waswas thatthat byby 10691069 thethe taifastaifas whichwhich stillstill existedexisted werewere largerlarger andand moremore stablestable thanthan thethe earlierearlier taifas.taifas. InIn addition,addition, al-Mu'tamidal-Mu'tamid hadhad toto confrontconfront thethe tenuoutenuouss butbut effectiveeffective alliancealliance ofof Badajoz,Badajoz, Granada,Granada, andand Toledo.Toledo. InIn al-Mu'tadid'sal-Mu'tadid's day,day, nnoo sucsuchh alliancealliance hadhad stoodstood inin thethe wayway ofof SevillianSevillian expansion.expansion.

LikeLike thethe otherother taifataifa kings,kings, al-Mu'tamidal-Mu'tamid paipaidd tributetribute toto thethe ChristiansChristians ofof

Leon-CastileLeon-Castile.. HeHe hahadd inheritedinherited thithiss statstatee ofof affairsaffairs frofromm hishis fathefatherr whwhoo hahadd paidpaid ththee pariapariass sincesince ththee 1050s.1050s. HoweverHowever,, al-Mu'tamial-Mu'tamidd waswas nonott alwaysalways ableable oror willingwilling ttoo makmakee hishis paymentpaymentss asas scheduledscheduled,, and,and, aass a result,result, hhee occasionalloccasionallyy hahadd toto endureendure AlfonsAlfonsoo VI'VI'ss raidsraids.. IInn oneone ofof hishis forayforayss againstagainst al-Mu'tamid,al-Mu'tamid, AlfonsAlfonsoo VIVI marchemarchedd alalll ththee wawayy ttoo ththee StraitStraitss ooff GibraltarGibraltar,, thuthuss demonstratindemonstratingg thathatt hhee couldcould launclaunchh effectiveffectivee raidraidss intintoo ththee hearheartt ooff ththee mosmostt powerfupowerfull taiftaifaa kingdokingdomm iinn al­al-

AndalusAndalus.. 17

AAll Mu'tamiMu'tamidd abandoneabandonedd ththee policpolicyy ooff expansioexpansionn iinn 10851085 whewhenn ToledToledoo fellfell ttoo AlfonsAlfonsoo VIVI.. AAtt thathatt timetime,, al-Mu'tamial-Mu'tamidd decidedecidedd ttoo joijoin'n 'AbAbd d AllaAllahh ooff GranadaGranada

1166 Ibid.Ibid.,, 158-9158-9..

1177 IbIbnn al-Kardabiisal-Kardabus,, Tarikh al-Andalus, 88-988-9.. 8484 andand al-Mutawwakilal-Mutawwakil ooff BadajoBadajozz iinn askinaskingg ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss ttoo comecome ttoo al-Andalus.al-Andalus.

HoweverHowever,, al-Mu'tamial-Mu'tamidd wawass apparentlapparentlyy nonott pleasepleasedd atat havinhavingg ttoo cooperatecooperate withwith hihiss ololdd enemieenemiess oorr havinhavingg ttoo askask ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss foforr help.18help.18 TheThe sourcessources saysay thatthat hhee agreeagreedd ttoo calcalll upouponn ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss onlonlyy becausbecausee hhee couldcould findfind absolutelyabsolutely nono otheotherr wawayy ttoo stopstop ththee ChristiaChristiann advance.advance. UponUpon finallfinallyy decidingdeciding ttoo joijoinn ththee otherother kingkingss iinn askingasking ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss forfor helphelp,, al-Mu'tamidal-Mu'tamid reportedlreportedlyy quipped,quipped,

"Better"Better ttoo herherdd goatgoatss iinn MoroccMoroccoo thathann swineswine iinn Castile./Castile."1919

AfterAfter ththee BattlBattlee ooff al-Zallaqaal-Zallaqa al-Mu'tamidal-Mu'tamid decidedecidedd ttoo abandonabandon cooperationcooperation witwithh ththee otherother kingkingss andand trtryy ttoo ususee ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss againstagainst hihiss AndalusAndalusii enemies.enemies.

HHee sentsent flatterinflatteringg letterletterss ttoo ththee MoroccaMoroccann ulamulamaa anandd thethe AlmoraviAlmoravidd militarymilitary leaderleaderss iinn whicwhichh hhee talketalkedd abouaboutt jihajihadd againstagainst ththee enemiesenemies ooff IslamIslam nonott alalll ofof whowhomm werweree Christian.Christian. FoForr exampleexample,, IbIbnn RashiqRashiq,, ththe'e 'Abbadi'Abbadi's s governogovernorr ofof

MurciaMurcia,, rebellerebelledd againsagainstt al-Mu'tamidal-Mu'tamid anandd tooktook controlcontrol ooff ththee citycity forfor himselfhimself.. ItIt wawass nnoo mermeree coincidenccoincidencee thathatt al-Mu'tamial-Mu'tamidd stronglystrongly urgeurgedd IbIbnn TashufiTashuimn ttoo laylay siegsiegee ttoo AledAledoo iinn 10881088 --— AledoAledo waswas locatedlocated nearnear Murcia.Murcia. AfterAfter thethe siegesiege ofof AledoAledo hahadd begunbegun,, al-Mut'tamial-Mut'tamidd appealeappealedd ttoo IbnIbn TashufiTashuimn toto arbitratearbitrate betweebetweenn himselfhimself anandd IbnIbn RashiqRashiq.. IbnIbn TashufiTashuimn consultedconsulted MoroccaMoroccann anandd AndalusAndalusii ulamulamaa whowho decideddecided iinn favofavorr ooff al-Mu'tamid.al-Mu'tamid. HoweverHowever,, upouponn hearinhearingg thisthis newsnews,, IbIbnn RashiqRashiq andand ththee peoplpeoplee ofof MurciMurciaa simplsimplyy barricadebarricadedd themselvethemselvess iinn thethe fortressfortress ofof MurciaMurcia

1818 IbIbnn al-Kardabusal-Kardabus,, Tarikh al-Andalus, 89-9089-90;; IbnIbn al-KhatibaI-Khatib,, KitiibKitab ii'miila'mal wa al-ii'liim,al-a'lam, 160-160- 1.1.

1919 IbIbnn 'Idhari'Idhari,, BayBayiin, an, volvol.. 4,1414, 141.. 8585

anandd refuserefusedd ttoo provisioprovisionn ththee MuslimMuslimss besieginbesiegingg AledoAledo.. ThiThiss laclackk ofof cooperationcooperation

betweebetweenn al-Mu'tamial-Mu/tamidd anandd IbIbnn RasmqRashiq aass welwelll asas Murcia'Murcia'ss refusarefusall ttoo provisioprovisionn thethe

AlmoravidAlmoravidss werweree amongamong ththee reasonreasonss whwhyy ththee AlmoravidAlmoravids.abandoneds abandoned thethe

siege.2200 siege.

Al-Mu'tamiAl-Mu'tamidd wawass alsoalso amonamongg thosthosee whwhoo encourageencouragedd ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss toto

21 invadinvadee GranadaGranada andand puputt anan enendd ttoo ththee kingdokingdomm ofof ththee BanBanuu ZirLITii inin 1090. 21 NoNo

soonersooner hahadd ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss wrestewrestedd GranadGranadaa frofromm ththee BanBanuu ZirLITii thathann al­al-

Mu'tamidMu'tamid appearedappeared beforbeforee IbnIbn TashufiTashutmn ttoo applaudapplaud ththee actionactionss ooff thethe

AlmoravidAlmoravidss andand ttoo trtryy ttoo gaingain a piecpiecee ooff ththee spoilsspoils foforr himself.himself. 2222

HoweverHowever,, alal Mu'tamid'Mu/tamid ISs attemptattemptss ttoo ususee ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss againstagainst hishis

AndalusAndalusii enemieenemiess ultimatelultimatelyy failed.failed. IbIbnn TashutmTashufin returnereturnedd ttoo MoroccMoroccoo afterafter thethe

conquesconquestt ooff GranadaGranada,, bubutt hhee lefleftt hishis relativerelative,, SirSir ibibnn AbAbuu BakrBakr,, iinn chargecharge ofof

AlmoraviAlmoravidd interestsinterests iinn al-Andalus.al-Andalus. IInn 1091,1091, SirSir ibnibn AbAbuu BakBakrr marchemarchedd towardtoward

Seville.Seville. Al-Mu'tamiAl-Mu/tamidd foughfoughtt ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss untiuntill iitt wawass patentlpatentlyy cleaclearr thathatt allall wawass loslostt foforr himhim.. HHee surrenderedsurrendered onlyonly whewhenn ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss managemanagedd ttoo traptrap

23 hihiss sonssons iinn Cordoba.23 AfteAfterr beinbeingg deposeddeposed frofromm hishis thronthronee inin Seville,Seville, al­al-

Mu'tamiMu/tamidd wawass takentaken inin chainchainss ttoo AghmaAghmatt neanearr MarrakeshMarrakesh.. UntiUntill hhee deatdeathh inin 10951095

2020 Ibid.Ibid.,, 141-3.141-3.

2211 'Ab'Abdd AllaAllahh ibibnn BulugginBuluggln,, The Tibyan, 161-5161-5..

2222 Ibid.Ibid.,, 161-2.161-2.

2233 IbIbnn al-Kardabusal-Kardabus,, Tarikh al-Andalus, 106;106; IbIbnn al-KhatibaI-Khatib,, Kitab a'mal wa al-a'lam, 163-4163-4.. 8686

hhee lamentedlamented iinn poetrypoetry ththee lostlost gloryglory thatthat hahadd onceonce beenbeen hishis asas kingking ofof SevilleSeville andand

hihiss fatefate iinn havinghaving ttoo bearbear ththee burdenburden thathatt hishis liflifee hahadd become.become.2424

'Dmar'Umar ibnibn MuhammaMuhammadd ibnibn al-Aftasal-Aftas al-Mutawwakilal-Mutawwakil (d.(d. 1094)1094)

Al-MutawwakilAl-Mutawwakil wawass thethe kinkingg ofof BadajoBadajozz fromfrom 10681068 untiunti11094.l 1094. TheThe sourcessources

containcontain surprisinglysurprisingly littlelittle informatioinformationn aboutabout thisthis kingking whowho ruledruled forfor moremore thanthan aa

quarterquarter ooff a century.century. LikeLike 'Abd'Abd AllahAllah,, al-Mutawwakil'sal-Mutawwakil's mainmain enemiesenemies werewere al­al-

Mu'tamidMu'tamid andand AlfonsAlfonsoo VI.VI. ThroughoutThroughout ththee taifataifa kingskings era,era, BadajoBadajozz andand SevilleSeville

battlebattledd eacheach otherother forfor territoryterritory iinn southwestersouthwesternn al-Andalus.al-Andalus. TheThe enmityenmity whichwhich

thethe BanBantiu al-Aftasal-Aftas andand thethe BanBanti'u 'Abba Abbadd feltfelt towardtoward eacheach otherother wawass expressedexpressed inin

manymany ways.ways. InIn additionaddition ttoo engagingengaging iinn warswars forfor territoryterritory,, ththee twtwoo familiesfamilies alsoalso

frustratefrustratedd eacheach others'others' diplomaticdiplomatic andand politicapoliticall plans.plans.

FoForr example,example, iinn 1034,1034, MuhammadMuhammad ibnibn Isma'ilIsma'il ibn'ibn 'AbbaAbbad d announcedannounced thatthat

hhee intendedintended ttoo embarkembark onon a summersummer rairaidd intointo ChristianChristian territory.territory. InIn orderorder toto

reacreachh hihiss objective,objective, hhee hahadd toto leadlead hihiss armiesarmies acrossacross landlandss thathatt werweree controlledcontrolled byby

'Abd'Abd AllaAllahh ibibnn al-Aftasal-Aftas ofof BadajozBadajoz,, whowho waswas dillyduly alarmedalarmed byby thethe prospectprospect ofof havinhavingg anan 'Abbadi'Abbadi armyarmy marchingmarching througthroughh hishis territoryterritory.. HeHe hahadd nnoo wayway ofof

knowingknowing ifif MuhammaMuhammadd reallyreally intendedintended toto rairaidd ChristianChristian territoryterritory oror ifif hhee waswas merelmerelyy usinusingg ththee raidraid aass anan excuseexcuse ttoo getget hishis troopstroops deepdeep intointo AftasAftasii territory.territory.

ApparentlyApparently,, IbnIbn al-Aftasal-Aftas decideddecided nonott ttoo taktakee anyany unnecessaryunnecessary risksrisks:: hhee orderedordered

2424 IbnIbn al-Khabo,al-Khatib, Kitab a'mal wa al-a'lam, 163-7.163-7. 87 hihiss forceforcess toto ambusambushh Muhammad'Muhammad'ss armyarmy beforebefore iitt reachereachedd ChristianChristian territory,territory, bubutt ththee ambusambushh resulteresultedd inin a defeatdefeat anandd MuhammaMuhammadd anandd ththee remnantremnantss ofof hishis armarmyy werweree forceforcedd ttoo abandonabandon theitheirr campaigcampaignn andand returreturnn ttoo Seville.Seville.2525

AnotheAnotherr examplexamplee comescomes fromfrom ththee reigreignn ooff al-Mutawwakilal-Mutawwakil.. IInn 10791079 a groupgroup ofof ToledaToledann notablenotabless forceforcedd al-Qadial-Qadirr ibibnn DhiiDhu aI-NUnal-Nun frofromm ththee thronthronee ofof

ToledoToledo.. ThesThesee notablenotabless hahadd beebeenn pushepushedd ououtt ofof Toledo'Toledo'ss politicapoliticall hierarchhierarchyy byby al-Qadial-Qadirr andand hihiss booboonn companionscompanions andand werweree thereforthereforee disaffecteddisaffected bbyy hihiss ru1e.rule.

AfteAfterr forcinforcingg al-Qadiral-Qadir,, ththee notablenotabless offeredoffered ththee thronthronee ttoo al-Mutawwakial-Mutawwakill whowho accepteacceptedd andand thethenn wenwentt ttoo ToledoToledo forthwith.2626 Al-Mutawwakil'Al-Mutawwakil'ss occupationoccupation ofof

ToledToledoo couldcould havhavee madmadee himhim aatt leasleastt twictwicee aass wealthwealthyy asas hhee alreadyalready waswas.. InIn theorytheory,, a combinecombinedd kingdokingdomm ooff BadajoBadajozz andand ToledToledoo coulcouldd havhavee becombecomee moremore powerfupowerfull thathann eitheeitherr Leon-CastileLeon-Castile oror SevilleSeville.. IfIf al-Mutawwakilal-Mutawwakil cou1dcould retainretain controlcontrol ooff botbothh taifas,taifas, hhee coulcou1dd deprivdeprivee AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII nonott onlonlyy ofof tributtributee paymentspayments bubutt alsalsoo ddee factfactoo controcontroll ooff ToledoToledo.. IInn additionaddition,, ththee combinationcombination ofof BadajoBadajozz andand

ToledToledoo woulwouldd makemake al-Mutawwakilal-Mutawwakil kinkingg ooff ththee largeslargestt taifataifa kingdomkingdom,, whichwhich waswas,, ooff coursecourse,, a threatthreat ttoo al-Mu'tamial-Mu'tamidd ofof Seville.Seville.

IInn orderorder ttoo looseloosenn al-Mutawwakil'sal-Mutawwakil's holholdd onon ToledoToledo,, AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII anandd al­al-

Mu'tamiMu'tamidd formeformedd anan alliancealliance.. AlfonsAlfonsoo VIVI movemovedd hihiss forceforcess betweebetweenn ToledoToledo andand

BadajoBadajozz iinn anan efforteffort ttoo seversever al-Mutawwakil'al-Mutawwakil'ss supplysupply andand communicationcommunication lines.lines.

2255 Ibid.Ibid.,, 183183..

2266 Ibid.Ibid.,, 179-80.179-80. 8888

AAtt thethe samesame timetime,, al-Mu'tamidal-Mu'tamid preparepreparedd ttoo marcmarchh oonn BadajozBadajoz.. Al-MutawwakilAl-Mutawwakil wawass unableunable ttoo maintaimaintainn hihiss positionpositionss aatt botbothh ToledoToledo anandd BadajoBadajozz andand wawass forcedforced ttoo chooschoosee betweebetweenn ononee oror thethe otherother.. AfteAfterr rulinrulingg botbothh kingdomskingdoms forfor severalseveral monthsmonths,, al-Mutawwakial-Mutawwakill abandoneabandonedd ToledToledoo anandd returnereturnedd ttoo Badajoz.27Badajoz.27 Al-QadirAl-Qadir returnereturnedd ttoo ththee thronethrone (wit(withh AlfonsAlfonsoo VI'VI'ss help)help),, al-Mu'tamidal-Mu'tamid wawass forceforcedd ttoo cancelcancel hihiss attacattackk oonn BadajozBadajoz,, anandd ththee situationsituation returnereturnedd ttoo ththee wawayy itit hahadd beebeenn beforebefore ththee revolrevoltt ofof ththee ToledaToledann notables.notables.

TheThe mosmostt interestinginteresting aspectaspect ooff al-Mutawwakil'sal-Mutawwakil's shortshort reigreignn inin ToledoToledo isis thathatt itit wawass notnot opposedopposed bbyy 'Abd'Abd AllaAllahh ibibnn BulugginBuluggm,, ththee weakesweakestt ooff ththee taifataifa kingskings.. AAss wawass mentionementionedd above,above, ifif al-Mutawwakilal-Mutawwakil hahadd beebeenn ablablee ttoo maintainmaintain controlcontrol ooff botbothh BadajoBadajozz andand Toledo,Toledo, hhee almostalmost certainlcertainlyy woulwouldd havhavee becombecomee thethe mosmostt powerfupowerfull MusliMuslimm kinkingg iinn IberiaIberia.. ThereforeTherefore,, itit mighmightt seemseem asas ifif 'Ab'Abdd AllahAllah woulwouldd opposopposee al-Mutawwakil'al-Mutawwakil'ss becominbecomingg kingking ooff Toledo.Toledo. HoweverHowever,', 'AbAbd d AllahAllah diddid nonott objectobject ttoo al-Mutawwakil'al-Mutawwakil'ss occupatiooccupationn ofof ToledToledoo becausbecausee itit lookelookedd asas ifif hehe woulwouldd havhavee restorerestoredd ththee alliancealliance anandd therebtherebyy kepkeptt GranadGranadaa protectedprotected.. TheThe pointpoint requirerequiress somesome explanation.explanation.

FirstFirst,, 'Ab'Abdd AllaAllahh musmustt havhavee knowknownn thathatt iitt wawass highlhighlyy unlikelunlikelyy thathatt al­al-

QadiQadirr wawass goingoingg toto restorerestore thethe Badajoz-Granada-ToledBadajoz-Granada-Toledoo alliancalliancee thatthat hahadd existedexisted beforbeforee 10741074 anandd thathatt hahadd disintegratedisintegratedd whewhenn al-Ma'mual-Ma'miinn ooff ToledoToledo alliedallied himselfhimself witwithh AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII ooff Leon-CastilLeon-Castilee againstagainst Seville.Seville. EssentiallyEssentially,, ththee DhDhiiu al-Niinlsal-Nunis

2727 Ibid.Ibid.,, 181181.. 8989 abandonedabandoned thethe LITisZiris toto AlfonsoAlfonso VIVI inin orderorder toto attemptattempt toto gaingain thethe upperupper handhand

againstagainst thethe I'Abbadis Abbadis.. WhenWhen aI-Qadiral-Qadir becamebecame king,king, anyany hopehope whichwhich I'Ab Abdd AllahAllah mightmight havehave hadhad ofof re-establishingre-establishing thethe alliancealliance vanished.vanished. AsAs hashas beenbeen mentionedmentioned severalseveral timestimes inin thisthis thesis,thesis, al-Qadiral-Qadir waswas closelyclosely alliedallied withwith AlfonsoAlfonso VI.VI. AlfonsoAlfonso

VIVI waswas anan enemyenemy ofof I'Ab Abdd Allah's;Allah's; therefore,therefore, al-Qadiral-Qadir waswas alsoalso I'Ab Abdd Allah'sAllah's enemyenemy byby association.association. AsAs longlong asas al-Qadiral-Qadir waswas thethe kingking ofof Toledo,Toledo, therethere waswas littlelittle chancechance thatthat thethe Badajoz-Granada-Badajoz-Granada-ToledToledoo alliancealliance couldcould bebe forgedforged onceonce again.again.

Second,Second, I'Ab Abdd AllaAllahh anandd al-Mutawwakilal-Mutawwakil hadhad thethe samesame enemies:enemies: al­al-

Mu'tamiMu/tamidd ofof SevilleSeville andand AlfonsoAlfonso VIVI ofof Le6n-Castile.Leon-Castile. AlfonsAlfonsoo opposedopposed al­al-

Mutawwakil'Mutawwakil'ss occupationoccupation ofof ToledToledoo becausbecausee itit meanmeantt aann endend ttoo ththee supportsupport andand complianccompliancee ofof ththee DhiiDhu al-Nunisal-Niinis,, whicwhichh aass wawass mentionementionedd inin ChapteChapterr IIVV wawass anan importantimportant parpartt ofof AlfonsAlfonsoo VI'VI'ss reconquistareconquista.. Al-Mu'tamiAl-Mu/tamidd movemovedd againsagainstt al­al-

MutawwakiMutawwakill inin orderorder ttoo weakeweakenn BadajoBadajozz anandd therebtherebyy makmakee itit easieeasierr foforr hihimm toto

anneannexx mormoree lanlandd ttoo SevilleSeville.. GiveGivenn thathatt 'AbI Abdd AllaAllahh anandd al-Mutawwakial-Mu~awwakill sharesharedd thethe

samsamee enemiesenemies,, iitt doedoess nonott seeseemm totooo strangstrangee thathatt 'AbI Abdd AllaAllahh dididd nonott opposopposee al­al-

Mutawwakil'Mutawwakil'ss assumptioassumptionn ooff powepowerr iinn Toledo.Toledo.

ThirdThird,, 'AbI Abdd AllaAllahh dididd nonott opposopposee al-Mutawwakial-Mutawwakill becausbecausee hhee hahadd provedproved thathatt hhee wawass a faithfufaithfull allyally,, throughouthroughoutt hihiss reignreign,, al-Mutawwakial-Mutawwakill neveneverr attackedattacked

GranadaGranada.. IInn additionaddition,, al-Mutawwakial-Mutawwakill hahadd proveprovedd thathatt hhee woulwouldd resisresistt Seville'sSeville's

efforteffortss ttoo expandexpand.. IItt musmustt havhavee seemeseemedd ttoo 'AbI Abdd AllaAllahh thathatt al-Mutawwakial-Mutawwakill mightmight 9090

havhavee restorerestoredd ththee Badajoz-Granada-ToledBadajoz-Granada-Toledoo alliancalliancee albeitalbeit iinn aann alterealteredd fromfrom.. InIn

anyany event,event, al-Mutawwakial-Mutawwakill wawass mormoree likellikelyy ttoo leaveleave GranadGranadaa alonalonee anandd toto

weakeweaken'n 'AbAbd d Allah'Allah'ss maimainn enemieenemiess thathann ananyy otheotherr kinkingg was.was.

AAss mentionementionedd aboveabove,, al-Mutawwakial-Mutawwakilleftl left ToledToledoo iinn 10801080 anandd entrenchedentrenched himselhimselff iinn BadajozBadajoz,, spendingspending ththee resrestt ofof hishis reigreignn defendindefendingg hihiss kingdokingdomm againstagainst

al-Mu'tamial-Mu'tamidd andand AlfonsAlfonsoo VIVI.. AfteAfterr AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII conqueredconquered Toledo,Toledo, al­al-

MutawwakiMutawwakill joinejoined'd 'AbAbd d AllaAllahh ibnibn BuluggiBulugginn anandd al-Mu'tamial-Mu'tamidd inin askinaskingg thethe

AlmoravidAlmoravidss foforr help.help.2828 Al-MutawwakiAI-Mutawwakill alsalsoo tootookk parpartt inin thethe BattlBattlee ooff al-Zallaqa,al-Zallaqa, althougalthoughh hhee doedoess nonott seeseemm ttoo havhavee distinguisheddistinguished himselhimselff there.2929 Al­Al-

MutawwakiMutawwakill clungclung ttoo hihiss kingdokingdomm untiuntill 10941094 whewhenn ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss lailaidd siegsiegee toto

Badajoz.Badajoz. UnlikUnlike'e 'AbAbd d AllaAllahh anandd al-Mu'tamidal-Mu'tamid,, al-Mutawwakial-Mutawwakill wawass nonott taketakenn toto

AghmatAghmat.. FoForr reasonreasonss whicwhichh araree unknownunknown,, ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss killekilledd himhim somewhersomewheree betweebetweenn BadajoBadajozz anandd AlgeciraAlgecirass shortlyshortly afteafterr depositt.gdeposing him.him.3o30

SummarySummary

ThThee laslastt quarterquarter centurcenturyy ofof ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss ereraa witnessewitnessedd a shiftshift fromfrom outrightoutright competitioncompetition ttoo reluctanreluctantt cooperatiocooperationn amonamongg ththee taiftaifaa kingdomskingdoms.. TheThe internainternall pressurpressuree createcreatedd bbyy SevilleSeville anandd ththee externaexternall pressurepressuress fromfrom Leon-CastileLeon-Castile

2288 seseee notnotee 2323..

2299 IbIbnn 'Idhari'Idhari,, Bayan, volvol.. 4,4,130-40 130-40..

3300 IbIbnn al-KhatibaI-Khatib,, Kitab aI-a'malal-a'tnal wa aI-a'lam,al-a'lam, 186-9.186-9. 9191 helpedhelped bringbring aboutabout thisthis shiftshift afterafter 1069.1069. WhenWhen AlfonsoAlfonso VIVI capturedcaptured ToledoToledo inin

1085,1085, anotheranother shiftshift occurred.occurred. AfterAfter decadesdecades ofof expanding,expanding, SevilleSeville waswas compelledcompelled toto cooperatecooperate withwith BadajozBadajoz andand GranadaGranada inin seekingseeking aidaid fromfrom thethe Almoravids.Almoravids.

AfterAfter thethe BattleBattle ofof al-Zallaqaal-Zallaqa removedremoved Leon-CastileLeon-Castile asas anan immediateimmediate threat,threat,

SevilleSeville returnedreturned toto itsits expansionistexpansionist policy;policy; thus,thus, thethe spiritspirit ofof cooperationcooperation thatthat hadhad ledled itit toto joinjoin BadajozBadajoz andand GranadaGranada lastedlasted forfor onlyonly a momentmoment beforebefore itit dissipated.dissipated.

However,However, thatthat momentmoment ofof cooperationcooperation hadhad seriousserious repercussionsrepercussions inin al-Andalus.al-Andalus.

ItIt wawass atat thatthat momentmoment thatthat thethe mosquemosque ulamaulama camecame toto thethe forefore ofof AndalusiAndalusi politics,politics, sincesince thethe taifataifa kingskings needeneededd thethe mosquemosque ulamaulama toto convinceconvince thethe

AlmoravidsAlmoravids toto comecome toto al-Andalus.al-Andalus. TheThe mosquemosque ulamaulama usedused thisthis opportunityopportunity toto enterenter andand thenthen influencinfluencee taifataifa politicspolitics.. TheThe nexnextt twotwo chapterschapters areare devoteddevoted toto thethe historhistoryy ooff ththee AndalusAndalusii mosqumosquee ulamulamaa andand ththee rolerole thetheyy playeplayedd inin thethe taifataifa politicapoliticall system.system. CHAPTERCHAPTER VIVI

THTHEE EVOLUTIOEVOLUTIONN OOFF THETHE MOSQUMOSQUEE ULAMULAMAA OFOF AL-ANDALUSAL-ANDALUS

ThThee AndalusAndalusii UlamaUlama ttoo 10081008

ModerModernn historianhistorianss ofteoftenn describdescribee ththee AndalusAndalusii ulamulamaa aass a largelylargely homogenoushomogenous grougroupp ofof religioureligiouss scholarsscholars andand judgejudgess whwhoo werweree characterizedcharacterized byby theitheirr rigorourigorouss devotiondevotion ttoo a literaliterall interpretatiointerpretationn ooff ththee teachingteachingss ooff MalikMalik ibnibn

AnaAnass (d(d.. 795),795), ththee foundefounderr ofof ththee MalikMalikii schoolschool ooff IslamiIslamicc law.1 ManManyy scholarsscholars sasayy thathatt ththee ulamulamaa ooff al-Andalual-Andaluss werweree dogmaticdogmatic iinn theitheirr beliefbeliefss anandd werweree veryvery resistanresistantt toto changechange.. ThesThesee scholarsscholars alsalsoo emphasizeemphasize thethe degredegreee ttoo whicwhichh thethe mosqumosquee ulamulamaa distancedistancedd themselvethemselvess frofromm ththee statestate.. SomeSome researcherresearcherss gogo ssoo farfar aass toto suggestsuggest thathatt ththee ulamulamaa werweree ththee guardianguardianss andand representativerepresentativess ofof thethe

1 TheThe literatureliterature onon MalikismMalikism inin al-Andalusal-Andalus isis extensive.extensive. TheThe followingfollowing areare amongamong thethe mosmostt usefuusefull articlesarticles:: RoberRobertt BrunschvigBrunschvig,, "Polemique"Polerniquess medievalemedievaless autouautourr dduu ritritee ddee Malik/Malik,"' AI­Al- Andalus XXVV (1950),(1950), 377-435;377-435; DominiquDominiquee UrvoyUrvoy,, "The"The 'Ulama' ofof al-Andalus,"al-Andalus," iinn The Legacy of Muslim Spain, eded.. SalmSalmaa JayyusiJayyusi (Lei(Leiden den:: E.JE.J.. BrillBrill,, 1994),849-877;1994), 849-877; IsabeIsabell FierroFierro,, "The"The IntroductionIntroduction ooff hadithadithh inin al-Andalus,"al-Andalus," Der Islam 6666 (1989)(1989),, 68-9368-93;; AbdeAbdell MajiMajidd TurkiTurki,, "La"La veneratiovenerationn poupourr MaliMalikk eett llaa physionomiphysionorniee dduu malikismmalikismee andalou,andalou,"" Studia Islamica XXXIIXXXIIII (1971)(1971),, 41-6541-65.. AmonAmongg ththee mosmostt usefuusefull bookbookss foforr ththee studystudy ooff MalikisMalikismm inin al-Andalusal-Andalus anandd oonn MuslimMuslim SpaiSpainn iinn generalgeneral ththee mosmostt usefuusefull workworkss areare HugHughh KennedyKennedy,, Muslim Spain and Portugal (London:(London: LongmanLongman,, 1996);1996); DaviDavidd WassersteinWasserstein,, The Rise and Fall of the Party Kings (Princeton(Princeton:: PrincetonPrinceton UniversitUniversityy Press,Press, 1985);W1985);W.. MontgomerMontgomeryy WattWatt,, A History of Islamic Spain (Edinburgh(Edinburgh:: EdinburghEdinburgh UniversitUniversityy PressPress,, 1964)1964).. 9393 commocommonn peoplpeoplee vis-a-vivis-a.-viss thethe state.22 TheTheyy claiclaimm thatthat ththee ulamulamaa werweree a potentpotent politicapoliticall forceforce whewhenn thetheyy werweree nonott suppressedsuppressed bbyy emirsemirs,, caliphscaliphs,, andand kings.3kings.3

TheseThese commonlycommonly helheldd viewviewss wilwilll bbee explaineexplainedd andand challengechallengedd inin thethe followingfollowing pagespages..

BeforBeforee describingdescribing ththee ulamulamaa ooff al-Andalual-Andaluss iitt iiss necessarnecessaryy ttoo brieflbrieflyy explainexplain ththee historicahistoricall evolutioevolutionn ooff thethe ulamulamaa inin ththee widewiderr IslamiIslamicc worldworld.. TherTheree werweree nono genuinegenuine ulamulamaa aatt ththee timtimee ofof ththee AraArabb conquestsconquests iinn ththee seventseventhh andand eightheighth centuries.centuries. RatherRather,, thertheree werweree pioupiouss memenn anandd venerateveneratedd elderelderss whwhoo servedserved thethe conquerinconqueringg armiesarmies aass spirituaspirituall leadersleaders.. ThesThesee pioupiouss elderelderss settlesettledd iinn ththee garrisongarrison towntownss andand conquereconqueredd citiescities alongalong witwithh ththee soldiers.soldiers. TowardToward ththee enendd ooff thethe eighteighthh century,century, somsomee ooff thesthesee pioupiouss elderelderss gatheregatheredd circlescircles ofof followersfollowers aboutabout thethemm andand thethe firstfirst schoolschoolss ofof lawlaw (madhabs)(rnadhabs) camcamee intointo beingbeing.. BByy ththee mid-tenthmid-tenth centurycentury,, thertheree werweree fourfour dominantdominant madhabs:rnadhabs: ththee Hanafi,Banafi", ththee MalikiMaliki,, ththee Shafi'I,ShanT, anandd ththee HanbaliBanbali.. EacEachh ofof thesthesee schoolsschools ofof lalaww wawass namenamedd afterafter ththee pioupiouss elderelder whoswhosee teachingteachingss formeformedd ththee basibasiss ooff ththee school'school'ss ideologyideology.. ItIt isis onlonlyy afteafterr thethe establishmenestablishmentt ofof ththee schoolsschools ofof lawlaw inin ththee latelate eighteighthh anandd earlearlyy nintninthh centuriescenturies thathatt ononee cacann speaspeakk ooff trutruee ulama.ulama.44

2 M'hammedM'hammed BenaboudBenaboud,, "The"The Socio-PoliticalSocio-Political RolRolee ofof AndalusiaAndalusiann UlamUlamaa DurinDuringg thethe 5t5th/11thh /11th Century,Century,"" Islamic Studies 2233 (1984)(1984),, 103-141.103-141.

3 Ibid.,Ibid., 106,106,113-4,117 113-4, 117..

4 JosepJosephh Schacht,Schacht, The Origins ofMuhammadanof Muhammadan Jurisprudence (New(New YorkYork:: OxfordOxford UniversitUniversityy Press,Press, 1959).1959). 9494

ThThee schooschooll ofof lalaww thathatt ththee AndalusAndalusii ulamulamaa choschosee ttoo adheradheree ttoo wawass thethe

MaIikiMaliki madhabmadhab.. TheThe distinguishingdistinguishing traittraitss ofof thithiss schoolschool ooff lalaww werweree a devotiodevotionn toto ththee traditiontraditionss ofof ththee MedineseMedinese companioncompanionss ooff thethe PropheProphett MuhammaMuhammadd anandd aa tendenctendencyy toto refereferr ttoo regionaregionall customarcustomaryy lalaww (Iamal)('amal) asas a meanmeanss ofof settlinsettlingg legallegal questionquestionss forfor whicwhichh nnoo precedenprecedentt coulcouldd bbee founfoundd iinn ththee teachingteachingss ofof Malik.Malik.

TheThe reasonreasonss forfor whicwhichh ththee MalikMilikii madhamadhabb camecame ttoo dominatedominate iinn al-Andalusal-Andalus araree a mattematterr ooff debate.debate. TherTheree araree threthreee generally-acceptegenerally-acceptedd reasonsreasons:: ththee nomadicnomadic rootrootss ofof ththee ArabArabss anandd BerberBerberss whwhoo settledsettled iinn al-Andalusal-Andalus;; ththee limitelimitedd exposureexposure ofof ththee AndalusAndalusii ulamulamaa ttoo otheotherr schoolsschools ooff law;law; andand ththee patronagpatronagee ofof ththee Umayyads.Umayyads.

IInn mmyy opinionopinion,, ththee lastlast ooff thesthesee reasonreasonss seemseemss ththee mosmostt plausibleplausible,, bubutt I musmustt alsoalso saysay a fefeww wordwordss abouaboutt ththee otherother twtwoo explanationsexplanations foforr MalikMilikii dominancdominancee inin al-al-

AndalusAndalus..

TheThe firsfirstt ooff thesthesee reasonsreasons,, ththee nomadinomadicc rootrootss ooff ththee ArabArabss anandd BerbersBerbers whwhoo settlesettledd iinn al-Andalus,al-Andalus, iiss aann argumenargumentt thathatt wawass firstfirst puputt fortforthh bbyy thethe fourteenth-centuryfourteenth-century polymatpolymathh IbIbnn Khaldun.Khaldiin. 5 IbIbnn KhalduKhaldiinn saidsaid thathatt ththee AndalusisAndalusis preferrepreferredd ththee teachingteachingss ofof MaliMalikk becausbecausee thetheyy werweree mormoree easilyeasily applicablapplicablee toto bedouibedouinn liflifee thathann ththee teachingteachingss ooff thethe otherother madhabs.rnadhabs. ThiThiss argumentargument isis notnot entirelentirelyy unsoundunsound.. AfteAfterr allall,, manmanyy ofof ththee BerbersBerbers whwhoo settlesettledd iinn IberiIberiaa livelivedd inin thethe countrysidecountryside wherwheree thetheyy continuecontinuedd ttoo livlivee a seminomadicseminomadic existenceexistence similarsimilar toto

5 RogeRogerr Idris,Idris, "Reflections"Reflections onon MalikismMalikism UnderUnder thethe UmayyadUmayyadss ofof Spain,"Spain," iinn The FormationFormation of al-Andalus, Part Two: Language, Religion, Cultures, and Sciences, eded.. IsabeIsabell FierrFierroo anandd JulioJulio Sams6Samso (Brookfield(Brookfield,, VTVT:: Ashgate-VariorumAshgate-Variorum,, 1998),1998), 86-7,86-7,98-100 98-100.. 9595

theitheirr traditionatraditionall modmodee ofof livinlivingg iinn NortNorthh Africa.Africa.

HoweverHowever,, ththee ArabArabss ooff al-Andalual-Andaluss settlesettledd iinn ththee towntownss andand citiecitiess andand itit waswas therethere iinn ththee urbaurbann centers.ofcenters of al-Andalusal-Andalus thathatt ththee ulamulamaa camecame intointo beingbeing.. TheThe

studystudy requirerequiredd ttoo becombecomee aann alialimm couldcould bbee undertakeundertakenn onlonlyy iinn mosqumosquee schoolsschools

ooff ththee towntownss andand citiescities.. TheThe ulamulamaa werweree urbaurbann dwellers;dwellers; thereforetherefore,, ththee argumentargument thathatt ththee AndalusiAndaluslss preferrepreferredd ththee Ma1ikiMaliki madhamadhabb ttoo ththee otherotherss becausbecausee itit waswas mormoree relevanrelevantt ttoo nomadinomadicc lifelife iiss difficultdifficult ttoo acceptaccept givegivenn thathatt ththee AndalusAndalusli ulamaulama livelivedd mainlmainlyy iinn towntownss andand cities.cities.

TheThe secondsecond argumentargument givengiven toto explaiexplainn ththee dominancedominance ooff ththee Ma1ikiMaliki madhamadhabb iiss thathatt ththee AndaluslsAndalusis hahadd limitelimitedd exposurexposuree ttoo ththee ideaideass ofof EasterEasternn schoolsschools ooff lawlaw anandd werweree mormoree oorr leslesss ignoranignorantt ofof theitheirr teachingsteachings.. TheThe argumentargument iiss basedbased oonn ththee factfact thatthat,, althoughalthough manmanyy AndalusiAndaluslss tootookk ththee bajj,ha)], relativelrelativelyy fewfew ofof journeyejourneyedd beyonbeyondd MeccMeccaa andand MedinaMedina.. OnlyOnly a smalsmalll numbenumberr ooff thethemm continuedcontinued theitheirr traveltravelss ttoo thethe IraqiIraqi legallegal centerscenters ooff KufKiifaa anandd BaghdaBaghdadd anandd becambecamee familiarfamiliar witwithh ththee madhabsrnadhabs thathatt werweree dominandominantt iinn ththee EastEast.. OOff thithiss numbernumber,, anan eveneven smallersmaller minorityminority promotepromotedd ththee teachingteachingss ooff ththee IraqIraqii schoolsschools whewhenn theythey returnereturnedd ttoo al-Andalusal-Andalus.. AccordinAccordingg ttoo thithiss argument,argument, nonnonee ooff theitheirr efforteffortss toto supplantsupplant MalikisMalikismm witwithh anotheranother ritritee succeededsucceeded becausbecausee ththee majoritymajority ooff thethe

AndalusAndalusli ulamulamaa resisteresistedd ththee teachingsteachings ofof ththee EasEastt outout ooff blinblindd devotiodevotionn toto

Malikism.6

6 Ibid.,Ibid., 87,87,92-3 92-3.. 9696

HoweverHowever,, iitt hahass beebeenn successfullsuccessfullyy demonstratedemonstratedd thatthat thithiss waswas nonott actuallyactually ththee casecase.. WheWhenn ththee MalikMalikii AndalusiAndalusiss werweree facefacedd witwithh a challengechallenge frofromm anotheranother schoolschool ooff lawlaw,, thetheyy simplsimplyy re-interpretere-interpretedd ththee teachingteachingss ooff MaliMalikk inin orderorder toto confrontconfront whawhatt thetheyy perceiveperceivedd aass a threathreatt ttoo theirtheir madhab.madhab. FoForr exampleexample,, iinn thethe nintninthh centurcenturyy a smalsmalll groupgroup ooff AndalusAndalusii scholarsscholars travenedtravelled ttoo ththee EastEast andand becambecamee familiafamiliarr witwithh ththee Shafi'Shafi'ii schoolschool ofof lawlaw.. ThThee Shafi'IShafi'iss emphasizedemphasized aa particulaparticularr approacapproachh ttoo ththee sciencescience ooff hadithI;!adlth transmissiotransmissionn (film{'Urn al-I;!adlth)al-hadith) thathatt waswas differendifferentt frofromm ththee oneone thathatt ththee MaliklMalikiss employeemployedd aatt thathatt timetime.. TheThe adherentadherentss ofof ththee ShafiShaH'iT madhamadhabb deviseddevised a systesystemm ofof haditbadithh criticismcriticism thathatt waswas basebasedd onon thethe reliabilitreliabilityy ooff ththee peoplpeoplee iinn ththee chaichainn ooff transmissiotransmissionn (the(the isnad).isniid). -AccordingAccording ttoo thethe

ShaH'is,ShafTls, onlonlyy hadltbadithh thathatt werweree transmittetransmittedd bbyy reliablreliablee authoritiesauthorities coulcouldd bbee useusedd asas a basisbasis forfor law.law. AtAt thatthat time,time, thethe AndalusiAndalusi MalikisMalikls hadhad notnot devoteddevoted asas muchmuch energyenergy ttoo film'ilm al-badithal-hadith asas theitheirr EasterEasternn ShaH'iShafiT counterpartcounte:qJartss hadhad.. Therefore,Therefore, whewhenn a fewfew AndalusAndalusii scholarscholarss returnereturnedd frofromm ththee EastEast andand introducedintroduced thethe teachingteachingss ofof al-Shafi'ial-Shafi'i,, ththee AndalusAndalusii MaliklMalikiss facedfaced a neneww methodologicalmethodological challenge.challenge.

ThThee AndalusAndalusii MaliklMalikiss coulcouldd seseee thathatt al-ShafiT'al-Shafi'i/ss methomethodd ooff badithhadlth criticismcriticism wawass superiorsuperior ttoo theirtheir ownown;; bubutt thetheyy dididd nonott wanwantt ttoo abandonabandon MalikisMalikismm entirely.entirely.

TheTheyy overcamovercamee ththee Shaft'iShafiT challengchallengee bbyy acknowledginacknowledgingg MaliMalikk aass a reliablereliable transmittetransmitterr ofof hadithbadith.. TheTheyy werweree thuthuss ableable ttoo remairemainn loyaloyall toto MalikisMaIikismm whilewhile 9797 employingemploying ththee superiorsuperior methodologmethodologyy ofof Shafi'ism?Shafi'ism.7 Therefore,Therefore, MalikismMalikism remaineremainedd dominantdominant iinn al-Andalusal-Andalus becausbecausee ththee ulamaulama werewere ablablee toto adaptadapt ttoo newnew methodologicamethodologicall challengeschallenges andand notnot becausbecausee thetheyy werewere ignorantignorant ofof ththee madhabsrnadhabs ofof ththee East.East.

TheThe thirdthird andand mostmost plausiblplausiblee explanationexplanation forfor thethe dominancedominance ofof ththee MaliliMaliki madhamadhabb iinn al-Andalusal-Andalus isis thathatt ththee UmayyaUmayyadd emirsemirs recognizerecognizedd itit asas ththee officialofficial madhamadhabb ooff theitheirr realmrealm.. StateState recognitiorecognitionn ofof ththee MalikMalilii madhabmadhab seemsseems ttoo havehave dondonee mormoree ttoo preservpreservee Malikism'sMalikism's dominancedominance inin al-Andalusal-Andalus thathann eithereither thethe bedouibedouinn rootsroots ofof ththee Arab-BerbeArab-Berberr armiesarmies oror ththee allegedalleged provincialisprovincialismm ofof thethe

AndalusisAndalusls.. Al-HakaAl-J:Iakamm I (r.(r. 791-822)791-822) wawass ththee firstfirst UmayyadUmayyad emiremir ttoo recognizerecognize thethe

MalikiMaliki schoolschool ofof lawlaw asas ththee officialofficial madhamadhabb ofof al-Andalus.al-Andalus. LaterLater emirsemirs confirmedconfirmed ththee elevatedelevated statustatuss ofof Malikism.Malikism.

TheThe UmayyadsUmayyads needeneededd membermemberss ofof ththee ulamulamaa toto actact asas qii<;llsqadis iinn thethe criminala±rtinal andand civilcivil courts.courts. HoweverHowever,, likelike MuslimMuslim religioureligiouss scholarsscholars everywhereeverywhere atat thithiss time,time, ththee ulamulamaa ooff al-Andalusal-Andalus werewere reluctanreluctantt toto acceptaccept governmentgovernment appointmentsappointments.. TheThe ulamaulama generallygenerally consideredconsidered politicalpolitical officeoffice ttoo bebe beneathbeneath theirtheir dignitydignity andand feltfelt thathatt acceptingaccepting secularsecular positionspositions marredmarred theitheirr scholarlyscholarly reputationsreputations.. AccordinglyAccordingly,, ththee UmayyaUmayyadd emirsemirs werweree atat painpainss ttoo findfind a wawayy toto gaingain ththee supportsupport ofof ththee ulama.ulama.

ThThee UmayyadUmayyadss werweree generousgenerous patronpatronss ofof scholarshipscholarship anandd thetheyy werewere

7 Fierro,Fierro, TheThe IntroductionIntroduction ofof I:Iadith,"Hadith," 84-90.84-90. ,.

9898

probablyprobably ableable toto co-optco-opt thethe ulamaulama withwith theirtheir generosity.generosity. However,However, itit seemsseems thatthat

officialofficial recognitionrecognition ofof thethe MaJiklMaliki madhabmadhab waswas thethe mostmost importantimportant wayway inin whichwhich

thethe UmayyadsUmayyads persuadedpersuaded thethe ulamaulama toto assistassist themthem inin thethe administrationadministration ofof

justice.justice. OfficialOfficial recognitionrecognition ofof thethe MaJiklMaliki madhabmadhab waswas somethingsomething thatthat thethe ulamaulama

presumapresumabl blyy wanted.wanted. AfterAfter all,all, thethe majoritymajority ofof thethe AndalusiAndalusi ulamaulama favoredfavored

MalikismMalikism beforebefore itit becamebecame thethe officialofficial statestate madhab.madhab. TheThe factfact thatthat thethe UmayyadUmayyad

emirsemirs werewere willingwilling toto adoptadopt MalikismMalikism asas thethe officialofficial madhabmadhab ofof theirtheir realmrealm

suggestssuggests thatthat thethe statestate waswas willingwilling toto makemake concessionsconcessions toto thethe ulamaulama asas longlong asas

thethe ulamaulama cooperatedcooperated witwithh thethe statestate byby servingserving inin thethe judiciaryjudiciary.. Essentially,Essentially, thethe

UmayyadUmayyad grantedgranted thethe ulamaulama totaltotal freedomfreedom andand supportsupport inin doctrinaldoctrinal matters,matters,

and,and, foforr theitheirr partpart,, thethe ulamaulama cooperatedcooperated witwithh thethe statestate byby overseeingoverseeing thethe

administratioadministrationn ofof justicejustice.. TheThe suggestionsuggestion iiss supportedsupported byby ththee factfact that,that, unlikeunlike thethe

'AbbasidsI Abbasids,, ththee UmayyadUmayyadss neveneverr trietriedd ttoo shapeshape doctrinedoctrine --~ therethere wawass nnoo AndalusiAndalusi

versionversion ofof ththee mihnamil;ma thathatt tooktook placplacee inin BaghdadBaghdad inin thethe nintninthh century.8century.8

UntiUntill ththee earlearlyy tenttenthh centurycentury,, ththee UmayyaUmayyadd emiremirss dididd nonott involveinvolve

themselvethemselvess iinn ththee affairaffairss ooff ththee ulamulamaa anandd somesome ooff ththee ulamulamaa showeshowedd theirtheir

appreciatioappreciationn foforr ththee state'state'ss attitudattitudee bbyy servinservingg ththee statesstates asas judgesjudges.. EveEvenn thosethose

ulamulamaa whwhoo refuserefusedd ttoo havhavee anythinanythingg ttoo ddoo witwithh ththee statestate acquiesceacquiescedd iinn UmayyadUmayyad

8 Ibid.,Ibid., 81-381-3.. 99

rulrulee andand diddid nonott fomenfomentt resistanceresistance ttoo itit.. 9 ThiThiss situatiosituationn changechangedd durinduringg ththee reignreign

ooff 'AbI Abdd al-Ral:unanal-Rahman IIIIII al-Nasal-Na~rr (r.(r. 912-961).912-961). Al-NasAI-Na~rr pursuepursuedd a greatergreater

centralizationcentralization ooff statestate powepowerr thathann hahadd beebeenn ththee cascasee undeunderr hihiss predecessorspredecessors.. HeHe

reorganizereorganizedd ththee armyarmy bbyy importinimportingg larglargee numbernumberss ooff saqaliba~aqaliba,, hhee appointedappointed

onlyonly thosthosee memenn whwhoo werewere personallpersonallyy loyaloyall ttoo hihimm ttoo importanimportantt postsposts,, anandd hehe

weakeneweakenedd ththee powepowerr ofof localocall magnatemagnatess bbyy appointingappointing royaroyall governorgovernorss andand garrisonsgarrisons ttoo allall ooff ththee majomajorr cities.lOcities.10

IInn additionaddition,, hhee incorporateincorporatedd ththee ulamulamaa mormoree directldirectlyy intintoo ththee statestate apparatusapparatus,, somethinsomethingg foforr whicwhichh theitheirr wawass nnoo explicitexplicit ideologicaideologicall oror juridicaljuridical justificationjustification.. HHee appointedappointed anan individuaindividuall alialimm ttoo actact aass ththee heaheadd ooff ththee ulamulamaa ofof al-Andalual-Andaluss andand bestowebestowedd oonn himhim ththee titltitlee ooff Shaykh al-'Asral-'~r (Shayk(Shaykhh ooff ththee Age).Age).

HHee alsalsoo createcreatedd anan committeecommittee knowknownn aass ththee Fuqaha' al-Mushawarun whicwhichh servedserved asas anan advisoryadvisory boarboardd forfor ththee ShaykhShaykh al-al-'Asr' A~r.. ThrougThroughh thesthesee state-sponsoredstate-sponsored offices,offices, al-Nasal-Na~rr waswas ablablee ttoo exertexert hishis powepowerr overover ththee ulamaulama.. AAtt ththee samesame time,time, thethe ulamulamaa whwhoo submittesubmittedd toto al-Nasr'al-Na~r'ss centralizatiocentralizationn policiepoliciess begabegann ttoo acquireacquire mucmuchh mormoree politicapoliticall influenceinfluence thathann theitheirr predecessorpredecessorss had.had.

9 HussainHussain Mones,Mones, "The"The RoleRole ofof MenMen ofof ReligionReligion inin MuslimMuslim Spain,"Spain/' inin The Formation of al­al- Andalus, Part Two: Language, Religion, Cultures, and Sciences, eded.. IsabeIsabell FierrFierroo anandd JuliJulioo Sams6Samso (Brookfield,(Brookfield, VTVT:: Ashgate-Variorum,Ashgate-Variorum, 1998),57-9;1998), 57-9; RogeRogerr IdrisIdris,, "Reflections,"Reflections,"" 74-974-9.. BotBothh ofof thesethese authorauthorss discusdiscusss ththee so-calledso-called RabadRaba<;fli IncidentIncident ofof 808066 (durin(duringg ththee reigreignn ofof al-Hakaal-I;Iakamm I)I) afteafterr whichwhich 7722 menmen werweree executed.executed. SomeSome ooff thesthesee memenn werweree notenotedd ulamaulama.. HoweverHowever,, thesthesee ulamulamaa werewere executedexecuted foforr sedition,sedition, nonott becausbecausee ththee calipcaliphh wawass tryintryingg ttoo imposimposee a doctrindoctrinee oonn them.them. FurthermoreFurthermore,, thithiss wawass ththee onlonlyy majomajorr uprisinuprisingg iinn whicwhichh ulamulamaa werweree involveinvolvedd durinduringg thethe UmayyaUmayyadd era.era.

1010 ForFor moremore informationinformation onon al-Nator'sal-Nasr's reign,reign, referrefer toto ChapterChapter II.II. 100

AAss a resulresultt ofof al-Nasr'al-Na~r'ss increasedincreased involvemeninvolvementt iinn ththee affairaffairss ofof ththee ulama,ulama, twtwoo differendifferentt typetypess ooff ulamulamaa evolved.evolved. FoForr ththee sakesake ooff convenienceconvenience,, thesthesee twotwo groupsgroups wilwilll bbee referredreferred ttoo asas mosquemosque ulamulamaa andand palacpalacee ulamulamaa respectivelyrespectively.. TheThe mosqumosquee ulamulamaa devoteddevoted themselvethemselvess ttoo ththee traditionatraditionall pursuitpursuitss ofof ththee educatededucated religioureligiouss eliteelite suchsuch asas tafsir, 'ilfilmm al-1::tadith,al-hadith, anandd fiqh.fiqh. TheTheyy avoideavoidedd associatingassociating witwithh al-Nasal-Na~rr andand confinedconfined themselvethemselvess ttoo ththee mosquemosquess andand theitheirr studies.studies. TheThe palacpalacee ulamulamaa werweree ththee menmen whwhoo collaboratedcollaborated witwithh al-Nasal-Na~rr anandd therebtherebyy mademade careerscareers forfor themselvethemselvess iinn ththee statestate bureaucracybureaucracy.. ThThee palacpalacee ulamulamaa werweree menmen whwhoo hahadd enoughenough educationeducation ttoo bbee categorizedcategorized aass ulamaulama,, bubutt whwhoo devoteddevoted themselvethemselvess ttoo statestate serviceservice ratheratherr thanthan religioureligiouss studystudy.. TheThe ulamulamaa whowho abandonedabandoned ththee mosquemosquess forfor ththee palacpalacee hahadd mucmuchh mormoree politicapoliticall powepowerr thathann theirtheir peerpeerss whowho stayedstayed behindbehind.. IInn contrastcontrast,, ththee rewarrewardd forfor thosthosee whwhoo chosechose ttoo avoidavoid governmengovernmentt serviceservice wawass anan enhancedenhanced reputatioreputationn foforr scholarshischolarshipp anandd piety.piety.

StateState supervisionsupervision ofof ththee judiciarjudiciaryy anandd ththee divisiodivisionn ofof ththee ulamulamaa intointo mosqumosquee andand palacpalacee ulamulamaa werweree trendstrends thathatt continuedcontinued througthroughh ththee reigreignn ofof al­al-

Na~r'sNasr's son,son, al-J:Iakamal-Hakam IIII al-Mustansial-Must~irr (d(d.. 976).976). Al-MustansiAl-MustaI1$irr wawass notenotedd foforr hishis . generousgenerous supportsupport ooff ththee ulamaulama,, bubutt likelike al-Nasral-Na~r,, hhee filledfilled highighh courcourtt positionspositions withwith ulamulamaa upouponn whoswhosee loyaltyloyalty hhee couldcould dependdepend ratheratherr thathann witwithh memenn whosewhose scholarlyscholarly reputationreputationss werweree beyonbeyondd criticismcriticism.. UndeUnderr al-Mustansiral-Musta~ir,, devotiodevotionn toto ththee calipcaliphh ratheratherr thathann eruditionerudition anandd pietpietyy continuecontinuedd ttoo bbee ththee mosmostt direcdirectt wayway foforr anan alimalim toto attaiattainn politicapoliticall powepowerr iinn al-Andalus.al-Andalus. 101101

InIn thethe coursecourse ofof thethe tenthtenth century,century, thethe palacepalace ulamaulama gainedgained moremore politicalpolitical powerpower thanthan thethe ulamaulama hadhad everever hadhad inin al-Andalus.al-Andalus. TheThe priceprice theythey paidpaid waswas thethe lossloss ofof theirtheir scholarlyscholarly reputations;reputations; however,however, itit seemsseems thatthat manymany palacepalace ulamaulama foundfound thisthis toto bebe a goodgood bargain.bargain. ForFor thethe palacepalace ulama,ulama, thethe rewardsrewards ofof politicalpolitical involvementinvolvement werewere muchmuch moremore lucrativelucrative thanthan thosethose gainedgained throughthrough piouspious contemplation.contemplation. PerhapsPerhaps thethe bestbest exampleexample ofof a palacepalace alimalim isis MuhammadMuhammad ibnibn

'Abd'Abd AllahAllah ibnibn AbuAbu 'Anur'Amir (r.(r. 976-1008)976-1008) commonlycommonly referredreferred toto asas al-Mansural-M~Ur.. TheThe followingfollowing iiss a portionportion ofof hishis bibliographybibliography asas givengiven bbyy IbnIbn al-Abbaral-Abbar inin hishis Al-lf.ullaAl-Hulla al-Sayara':al-Sayara":

MuhammadMuhammad ibnibn 'Abd'Abd AllahAllah (al-MansUr)(al-Mansur) wawass ththee emiremir ofof al­al- AndaluAndaluss durinduringg ththee reigreignn ooff al-Mu'ayyial-Mu'ayyidd al-DIaI-Dinn HishaHishamm ibibnn al­al- HakaI:Iakamm al-Mustansial-Must~irr bi-Allabi-Allahh oveoverr whowhomm hhee wawass dominantdominant.. HeHe wawass borbornn iinn IberiaIberia (al-Jazir(al-Jaziraa al-Kha<;ira')al-Khadra') wherwheree hihiss ancestorsancestors werewere famousfamous forfor theitheirr acumenacumen.. HHee camecame ttoo CordobCordobaa aass a younyoungg manman wherwheree hhee studiestudiedd (religious)(religious) sciences,literature,sciences, literature, andand hadithl:tadith.. HisHis

fatherfather --~ AbAbuu HafHaf~s I'Ab Abdd AllaAllahh --~ alsoalso studiestudiedd l:tadithhadlth anandd wawass anan associatassociatee ooff AbAbuu MuhammaMuhammadd al-Baji,al-Baji, ththee transmittetransmitterr (recorder(recorder)) ofof ththee debatesdebates ooff ththee shaykhshaykhss ooff Cordoba.*ll t

FroFromm thithiss passagepassage,, iitt iiss cleaclearr thathatt al-Mansual-Ma~Urr hahadd botbothh a religioureligiouss educationeducation anandd connectionconnectionss withiwithinn ththee ulamulamaa througthroughh hihiss familyfamily.. ThThee followinfollowingg passagepassage illustrateillustratess hihiss risrisee ttoo power:power:

Al-MansuAl-M~Urr possessepossessedd greagreatt ambitionambition,, anandd hhee devoteddevoted himselhimselff ttoo ththee attainmenattainmentt ooff greatnesgreatnesss iinn importanimportantt mattersmatters.. HisHis efforteffortss ttoo succeesucceedd becambecamee greategreaterr untiuntill hhee felfeltt hhee wawass iinn a positionposition ttoo attaiattainn whawhatt hhee desireddesired,, anandd hhee diddid,, iinn factfact,, achievachievee hihiss goalsgoals.. HisHis abilitabilityy ttoo promotpromotee himselhimselff anandd realizrealizee hihiss ambitionambitionss wawass ononee ooff thethe

u11 IbIbnn al-Abbaral-Abbar,, Al-HullaAI-HuZZa al-sayara', volvol.. 22,268., 268. 102102

marvelsmarvels ofof ththee worldworld.. HeHe earnedearned hihiss firstfirst postpost inin ththee serviceservice ooff thethe empressempress dowager,dowager, $ubhSubh UmUmmm HishamHisham.. SheShe useusedd herher wealthwealth andand influencinfluencee ttoo helhelpp promotpromotee hihimm (al-Mansur(al-Ma~Ur)) throughthrough ththee deathdeath ofof al­al- HakaI:Iakamm (al-Mustansir(al-Mustan~ir)) andand ththee successionsuccession ofof HishamHisham ttoo thethe caliphatcaliphatee atat a youngyoung age.1age.122

TheseThese twtwoo passagepassagess aboveabove containcontain a goodgood descriptiondescription ofof a palacpalacee alim.alim. AsAs wawass mentionedmentioned above,above, al-Mansual-Ma~Urr hahadd bothboth a religioureligiouss educationeducation anandd connectionsconnections withiwithinn thethe communitcommunityy ofof IslamicIslamic scholars.scholars. However,However, unlikunlikee hihiss fatherfather whwhoo hadhad useusedd hihiss learninglearning andand relationshiprelationshipss ttoo builbuildd a scholarlyscholarly reputatioreputationn forfor himself,himself, al-al-

M~urMansur useusedd thesethese assetsassets ttoo enterenter statestate service.service. OnceOnce hhee hadhad acquiredacquired office,office, hishis ambitionambition andand politicalpolitical acumenacumen drovedrove himhim ttoo thethe toptop ofof ththee statestate powepowerr structurestructure iinn al-Andalusal-Andalus --~ ultimatelyultimately,, hehe becambecamee regentregent forfor HishamHisham II,II, a positionposition fromfrom whicwhichh hhee mormoree oror lessless ruleruledd al-Andalus.al-Andalus. TheThe passagpassagee aboveabove actuallyactually describedescribess al-al-

MansuM~Urr asas lithe"the emiremir ofof al-Andalus"al-Andalus" inin hihiss time.time.

OnceOnce hhee hahadd gainedgained completcompletee controlcontrol ofof al-Andalus,al-Andalus, al-Ma~Ural-Mansur rewardedrewarded hihiss alliealliess amonamongg ththee ulamaulama witwithh appointmentsappointments iinn ththee government.government. ForFor example,example, afterafter al-Mansur'al-Ma~Ur'ss powerpower becambecamee supreme,supreme, hhee createdcreated thethe officeoffice ofof Qi!4fQadi al-Qucjatal-Qudat

(Grand(Grand QadiQaQi)) andand appointedappointed hihiss closeclose friendfriend andand advisoradvisor AbAbuu 'AbbaI Abbass ibnibn

DhakwanDhakwan (d.(d. 1023)1023) toto ththee post.1313 Al-Ma~Ur'sAl-Mansur's sons,sons, al-Muzaffaal-M~affarr andand Sanchuelo,Sanchuelo, continuecontinuedd ththee policpolicyy ofof appointingappointing politicapoliticall alliesallies anandd familyfamily friendsfriends ttoo importantimportant

posts.posts. UndeUnderr ththee I'Amiris Amiris,, thethe palacpalacee ulamaulama gainedgained almostalmost completecomplete controlcontrol ofof al-al-

1212 Ibid.Ibid.,, 268268..

1313 Ibid.,Ibid., 271271.. 103103

AndalusAndalus.. TheirTheir onlyonly reareall opponentsopponents werewere ththee landedlanded ArabArab andand BerberBerber eliteselites andand

thethe BerbeBerberr andand saqalib~aqalibaa mercenaries.mercenaries.

AsAs hashas beebeenn mentionedmentioned severaseverall timestimes above,above, thethe taifataifa kingkingss eraera beganbegan

withwith ththee BerberBerber capturecapture ofof CordobCordobaa inin 1013.1013. TheThe palacpalacee ulamaulama whowho hahadd becomebecome

powerfupowerfull undeunderr ththee latelaterr UmayyadUmayyadss andand thethenn ththee 'A.miris'Amiris joinejoinedd otherother powerfulpowerful

groupsgroups (the(the landedlanded eliteselites andand thethe mercenarymercenary armies)armies) inin ththee scramblescramble ttoo establishestablish

taifataifa kingdomskingdoms.. SomeSome ofof themthem werewere remarkablyremarkably successfusuccessfull inin carvingcarving outout taifataifa

kingdomskingdoms forfor themselves.themselves. ForFor example,example, thethe scionsscions ofof ththee qa<:iiqadi Isma'ilIsma'il ibn'ibn 'AbbaAbbad d

becambecamee thethe famousfamous 'AbbadI Abbadii kingkingss ofof thethe taifataifa ofof Seville.Seville. MuhammadMuhammad ibibnn Jahwar,Jahwar,

founderfounder ooff ththee JahwarJahwarii lineline ofof taifataifa kingkingss inin CordobaCordoba,, begabegann hishis politicalpolitical careercareer asas

a judgjudgee inin thethe serviceservice ofof al-al-MansurM~Ur..

WhileWhile thethe palacepalace ulamaulama battlebattledd forfor controlcontrol ofof thethe taiftaifaa kingdomskingdoms,, thethe

mosqumosquee ulamulamaa reactereactedd toto thethe fallfall ofof ththee caliphatecaliphate inin variouvariouss ways.ways. SomeSome ofof thethe . mosquemosque ulamulamaa respondedresponded toto ththee politicapoliticall chaoschaos thathatt characterizedcharacterized thethe earlyearly taifataifa kingskings ereraa bbyy turninturningg inwarinwardd andand removinremovingg themselvethemselvess furtherfurther roromm politicapoliticall life.life.

OthersOthers becambecamee involvedinvolved inin religious-mindedreHgious-minded politicalpolitical activism.activism. PresumablyPresumably theythey sawsaw ththee collapsecollapse ofof thethe oldold politicapoliticall orderorder asas anan opportunityopportunity toto createcreate a newnew politicapoliticall systemsystem basedbased onon religiousreligious andand legallegal ideals,ideals, bubutt theythey werewere nonott veryvery successfulsuccessful inin thesethese endeavors.endeavors. ThoseThose mosquemosque ulamaulama whowho attemptedattempted toto involveinvolve themselvethemselvess iinn taiftaifaa politicpoliticss oftenoften metmet witwithh exile,exile, imprisonment,imprisonment, andand death.death. ForFor

example,example, MuhammadMuhammad ibnibn Isma'ilIsma'il ibnibn 'AbbaI Abbadd (d.(d. 1023),1023), thethe firstfirst truetrue taifataifa kinkingg ofof 104104

Seville,Seville, executedexecuted a numbenumberr ooff mosqumosquee ulamulamaa whowho protesteprotestedd hihiss seizureseizure ofof powerpower.. HiHiss sonson al-Muta<;lidal-Mutadid reportedlreportedlyy killekilledd ththee alimalim andand travelletravellerr al-Hawzanial-Hawzani

I414 witwithh hishis owownn hands. IjabbiisHabbus ibibnn MaksaMaksann (d.(d. 1038),1038), ththee secondsecond taiftaifaa kinkingg ofof

GranadaGranada,, executeexecutedd aatt leasleastt ononee alialimm whwhoo defieddefied himhim,, anan acactt thathatt encouragedencouraged otheotherr mosqumosquee ulamulamaa ttoo leaveleave ththee citycity andand seekseek refugrefugee iinn ththee countryside.countryside.IS15

TToo summarizesummarize,, bbyy ththee middlmiddlee ooff ththee eleventeleventhh century,century, manmanyy ofof ththee palacepalace ulamulamaa hahadd gainegainedd controlcontrol ooff severaseverall importanimportantt taifataifass andand hadhad mormoree oorr lessless becombecomee kingskings.. ThThee majoritmajorityy ofof ththee mosqumosquee ulamulamaa werweree excludeexcludedd fromfrom politicspolitics andand thereforthereforee turneturnedd inwardinward.. ThiThiss situationsituation continuedcontinued untiuntill 10851085 whenwhen AlfonsoAlfonso

VVII tootookk controcontroll ooff ToledoToledo.. ThThee loslosss ofof ToledToledoo completelycompletely alteredaltered ththee taiftaifaa systemsystem politicapoliticall system.system. AfteAfterr 10851085 ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss madmadee roomroom forfor ththee mosqumosquee ulamulamaa inin ththee arenarenaa ooff taiftaifaa politicspolitics.. A fefeww ofof ththee ulamulamaa useusedd thisthis opportunityopportunity ttoo bringbring downdown ththee taiftaifaa systemsystem frofromm withiwithinn througthroughh politicapoliticall manoeuverinmanoeuveringg andand collaboratiocollaborationn witwithh ththee AlmoravidsAlmoravids.. HistorianHistorianss ofof ththee taiftaifaa kingskings eraera havehave presentepresentedd thithiss typtypee ooff reactioreactionn asas typicatypicall ofof ththee mosqumosquee ulamaulama.. HoweverHowever,, aass willwill bbee explainedexplained iinn ththee cascasee historieshistories,, thithiss typtypee ooff reactioreactionn wawass onlonlyy oneone ooff manmanyy andand cacann hardlhardlyy bbee describedescribedd asas typical.typical.

1414 MuhammaMuhammadd AbAbdd al-Wahhaal-Wahhabb KhallafKhallaf,, TarikhTarikh al-qudaal-quga'' al-Andalusal-Andalus (Cairo(Cairo:: Al-Matba'aAl-Matba'a al-'Arabiyyal-' Arabiyyaa al-J:Iadltha,al-Hadltha, 1992),1992), 135-41.135-41.

1155 Ibid.Ibid.,, 126-7.126-7. 105105

MainstreaMainstreamm SunniSunni LegaLegall TheorTheoryy RegardinRegardingg ththee ImamatImamatee (Caliphate)(Caliphate)

ThThee MalikMaIikli AndalusAndalusii ulamulamaa diddid nonott formulatformulatee a theortheoryy ofof politicpoliticss probablyprobably becausbecausee ththee maimainn boobookk ooff MalikMalikii legalegall theorytheory,, Kitab al-muwatta Malik ibn Anas,Anas, presentpresentss nnoo coherencoherentt theortheoryy regardinregardingg thethe imamate.1616 However,However, a numbenumberr ofof

SunniSunni ulamulamaa iinn otherother partpartss ofof ththee MusliMuslimm worlworldd diddid puputt forthforth theorietheoriess ooff thethe imamateimamate,, anandd iitt iiss mosmostt likelylikely thathatt ththee AndalusAndalusii ulamulamaa werweree awareaware ofof thesethese theoriestheories.. IInn orderorder ttoo providprovidee specifispecificc examplesexamples ooff mainstreamainstreamm SunniSunni theorietheoriess ofof ththee imamate,imamate, ththee politicapoliticall philosophiephilosophiess ooff IbIbnn HazI:Iazmm andand al-Ghazalial-Ghazali,, twtwoo scholarsscholars whwhoo livelivedd anandd wrotwrotee durinduringg ththee eleventeleventhh century,century, wilwilll bbee brieflbrieflyy examinedexamined below.below.

ThThee workworkss ofof IbnIbn I:IazmHazm andand al-Ghazalal-GhazaIii havhavee beebeenn chosenchosen asas exampleexampless ofof

IslamiIslamicc politicapoliticall theortheoryy nonott becausbecausee ththee AndalusAndalusii ulamulamaa quotedquoted ththee teachingteachingss ofof eitheeitherr manman,, bubutt becausbecausee thetheyy araree representativrepresentativee ooff mainstreamainstreamm SunniSunni politicalpolitical theortheoryy aass iitt existeexistedd aatt ththee timtimee ofof ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss era.era. HistorianHistorianss ofof thithiss periodperiod havhavee assumeassumedd thathatt thesthesee theorietheoriess influenceinfluencedd ththee politicapoliticall activitieactivitiess ooff ththee mosquemosque ulamulamaa afterafter 1085.1085. AsAs wilwilll bbee explaineexplainedd throughouthroughoutt ththee resrestt ofof thithiss chapterchapter,, therethere isis littllittlee evidenceevidence ttoo supportsupport thithiss assumption.assumption.

IbnIbn I:IazmHazm wawass borbornn iinn CordobaCordoba iinn 994994.. HiHiss fatherfather serveservedd ththee UmayyadUmayyad caliphscaliphs asas a viziervizier,, andand IbIbnn HazI:Iazmm himselhimselff wawass aann advisoradvisor ttoo andand supportesupporterr ofof

1616 MaliMalikk IbIbnn AnasAnas,, Al-MuwattaAI-Muwatta of Imam Malik ibn Anas: The First Formulation of IslamicIslamic Law, trans.trans.,, AishAishaa AbdurrahmaAbdurrahmann BewleyBewley (Ne(Neww YorkYork:: KegaKegann PaulPaul,, 1992).1992). PerhapPerhapss itit woulwouldd bebe mormoree accurataccuratee ttoo sasayy thathatt ththee AndalusAndalusli MalikiMalikIss neveneverr developedevelopedd aann officiaofficiall doctrindoctrinee ofof thethe caliphate.caliphate. SomSomee MalikiMalikiss suchsuch aass al-Baaqillanal-BaaqilUinii (d.(d. 1013)1013) dididd devisdevisee theorietheoriess ofof ththee caliphate.caliphate. 106106

botbothh ththee UmayyadUmayyadss anandd ththe'e 'AmirisAmiris. . Therefore,Therefore, IbnIbn HazI;Iazmm begabegann hihiss careercareer aass aa

palacpalacee alim.alim. WhenWhen ththee BerberBerberss capturecapturedd CordobaCordoba iinn 1013,1013, IbIbnn HazI;Iazmm wawass exiled.exiled.

HHee returnereturnedd ttoo politicspolitics whilwhilee workinworkingg aatt ththee courcourtt ooff ththee pretender-calippretender-caliphh al-al-

MustazhirMustazhir (a(ann Umayyad)Umayyad),, bubutt whewhenn ththee latterlatter dieddied iinn 1024,1024, IbIbnn I;IazmHazm wawass onceonce

agaiagainn thrusthrustt toto ththee sideside ooff AndalusAndalusii politicspolitics,, neveneverr ttoo returnreturn.. HHee spentspent ththee resrestt ofof hishis liflifee writinwritingg theologicatheologicall andand philosophicaphilosophicall workworkss untiuntill hihiss deathdeath inin 1064.1064.

IbnIbn HazI;Iazmm includesincludes a chapterchapter onon ththee imamateimamate iinn hishis al-Fi$alal-Fisalfi fi al-milal wa al-al- ahwa' al-nihal.17 17 IbIbnn Hazm'I;Iazm'ss theortheoryy ooff ththee imamatimamatee isis nonott ververyy differendifferentt fromfrom

theoriestheories puputt forthforth bbyy otherother scholarsscholars ofof hishis timtimee sucsuchh asas al-Baqillanal-Baqillarui (d(d.. 1013),1013), IbnIbn

SmaSina (d.(d. 1037),1037), al-BaghdadaI-Baghdadii (d(d.. 1037),1037), anandd al-Mawardal-Mawardii (d(d.. 1058).181058).18 EssentiallyEssentially,, IbnIbn

HazI;Iazmm sayssays thatthat ththee imamatimamatee iiss necessarynecessary,, ththee imaimamm musmustt bbee frofromm ththee tribtribee ofof

QurayshQuraysh,, andand thethe imaimamm musmustt bbee physicallphysicallyy andand morallymorally fifitt ttoo rule.1919 ThThee mostmost interestininterestingg aspectaspect ooff IbnIbn Hazm'I;Iazm'ss theortheoryy ooff ththee imamatimamatee iiss ththee positiopositionn hhee taketakess inin regarregardd ttoo rebelliorebellionn againstagainst ththee imamimam.. IbnIbn HazI;Iazmm grantsgrants thathatt thertheree araree certaincertain conditionsconditions thathatt mighmightt makmakee iitt acceptableacceptable ttoo revolrevoltt againstagainst ththee imamimam.. However,However, thesthesee conditionconditionss mustmust includincludee extremeextreme anandd egregiouegregiouss deviationdeviationss frofromm thethe shari'a.shari'a.

IfIf thethe imaimamm isis nonott morallmorallyy corruptcorrupt,, thethenn iitt iiss absolutelyabsolutely illegaillegall ttoo reberebell againstagainst

1717 AbdeAbdell MagiMagidd TurkiTurki,, "L'Engagement"L'Engagement politiqupoliti quee eett llaa theoritheoriee dduu califacalifatt d'ibd'ibnn Hazm,Bazm,"" inin ThiologiensTheologiens et juristes de l'EspangneVEspangne musulmane (Paris:(Paris: MaisonnuevMaisonnuevee eett LaroseLarose,, 1982),81.1982), 81.

1818 AnAnnn K.K. S.S. LambtonLambton,, State and Government in Medieval Islam: An Introduction to thethe Study of Islamic Political Theory: The Jurists (Ne(Neww YorkYork:: OxforOxfordd UniversitUniversityy PressPress,, 1981),1981), 68-102.68-102.

1919 AbdeAbdell MagiMagidd TurkiTurki,, "L'Engagemen"L'Engagementt politiqupolitiquee aatt llaa theoritheoriee dduu califat,califat,"" 85-585-5 107107 himhim.. AnyonAnyonee whwhoo revoltrevoltss againstagainst ththee imaimamm withouwithoutt justificationjustification iiss anan apostate.apostate.2020

ThThee reasoreasonn thathatt IbIbnn Hazm'I:Iazm'ss attitudattitudee towardtowardss rebelliorebellionn againsagainstt ththee imaimamm isis importanimportantt foforr ththee presenpresentt studstudyy iiss thathatt iitt implicitlimplicitlyy condemnscondemns ththee taiftaifaa system.system.

DespitDespitee ththee claimsclaims ofof somsomee taiftaifaa kingkingss ttoo bbee subjectssubjects ofof ththee phantophantomm caliphcaliph

HishaHishamm IIII (and(and otheotherr pretenders)pretenders),, ththee taiftaifaa systesystemm actuallactuallyy operatedoperated withouwithoutt anan imam.imam. GrantedGranted,, the'Abbadithe' Abbadiss ofof SevillSevillee andand otherother taiftaifaa familiesfamilies propagatepropagatedd thethe mytmythh ooff HishaHishamm IIII untiuntill 10591059 whewhenn al-Mutadial-Muta9idd ibibn'n 'AbbaAbbad d finallyfinally removeremovedd thethe namnamee ooff HishamHisham IIII frofromm ththee khutbakhutba.. HoweverHowever,, bbyy nonott replacinreplacingg hishis namename withwith thathatt ofof anotheanotherr calipcaliphh (phanto(phantomm oorr otherwise)otherwise) thetheyy werewere statinstatingg thathatt ththee taifataifa systemsystem dididd nonott neeneedd aann imam.imam. ThiThiss wawass tantamountantamountt toto rebellinrebellingg againsagainstt thethe imamimam;; thereforetherefore,, accordinaccordingg ttoo ththee theortheoryy ofof IbIbnn HazJ:Iazmm thethe taiftaifaa kingkingss werewere apostateapostatess anandd theitheirr rulrulee wawass nulnulll anandd void.void.

Al-GhazalAl-GhazaIii wawass borbornn inin KhurasaKhurasann inin 1058.1Q58. HHee begabegann hishis careercareer asas anan

IslamiIslamicc scholascholarr atat aann earlearlyy agagee undeunderr ththee guidanceguidance ofof Ash'arAsh' arii andand Shafi'iShafi'i teachers.teachers.

HiHiss mosmostt famousfamous teacheteacherr wawass al-Juzwaynal-Juzwaymi (d.(d. 1085)1085) whwhoo developeddeveloped hishis ownown theortheoryy ofof ththee imamate.2121 TowardToward ththee enendd ofof ththee eleventheleventh century,century, al-GhazaIial-Ghazali camcamee ttoo ththee attentioattentionn ooff ththee SaljukSaljuk viziervizier,, NizaN~amm al-Mulkal-Mulk (d(d.. 1092).1092). Al-GhazaIiAl-Ghazali wawass appointeappointedd ttoo heaheadd ththee NizamiyyN~amiyyaa iinn Baghdad,Baghdad, a schooschooll thathatt N~amNizam al-Mulkal-Mulk hahadd founded.founded. Al-GhazalAl-GhazaIii alsalsoo hahadd tietiess ttoo the'Abbasithe' Abbasidd caliphscaliphs al-Muqta9ial-Muqtadi (d.(d.

2020 Ibid.Ibid.,, 86-886-8..

2211 LambtonLambton,, State and Government, 103-7103-7.. 108108

1094)1094) anandd al-Mustazhial-Musta?hirr (d(d.. 1118).1118). GivenGiven hishis associationsassociations witwithh NizaNi?amm al-Mulkal-Mulk andand

somsomee ooff ththe'e 'Abbasi Abbasidd caliphscaliphs,, iitt seemseemss safesafe ttoo saysay thathatt al-Ghazalal-Ghazalii was,was, liklikee IbnIbn

Hazml;Iazm,, a palacpalacee alim.alim. IInn ththee .coursecourse ooff hishis life,life, al-Ghazalal-Ghazalii wrotwrotee a numbenumberr ofof .

theologicatheologicall worksworks,, includingincluding aann influentialinfluential refutatiorefutationn ooff GreekGreek philosophy.philosophy.2222 Al-Al-

GhazaliGhazali wawass alsalsoo a sufsufil adeptadept andand becambecamee famousfamous forfor hihiss attemptattempt ttoo reconcilereconcile

sufismsufism witwithh literalisliteralistt beliefsbeliefs.. HHee diediedd iinn NishapuNishapurr inin 1111.1111.

Al-GhazalAl-Ghazali:i wrotwrotee a numbenumberr ooff workworkss thathatt dealdeal witwithh politicspolitics,, bubutt ththee oneone

thathatt iiss ththee mosmostt usefuusefull foforr ththee purposepurposess ooff thithiss thesithesiss iiss IqtisadIqti$iid al-I'tiqad.al-I'tiqiid.23 23 IInn thisthis

workwork,, al-Ghazalal-GhazaIii setssets forthforth a legalegall theortheoryy thatthat accountaccountss forfor botbothh ththee spiritualspiritual

imamateimamate anandd ththee temporatemporall sultanate.sultanate. Al-GhazalAl-Ghazalii arguesargues thathatt ththee imamatimamatee isis

necessarynecessary,, bubutt hhee alsoalso recognizerecognizess ththee realitrealityy ofof secularsecular (i(inn thithiss casecase Saljuk)Saljuk) rule.rule.

IInn al-Ghazali'al-GhazaIi'ss theorytheory,, ththee relationshirelationshipp betweebetweenn ththee imaimamm andand ththee sultansultan isis

mutuallmutuallyy beneficialbeneficial.. ThThee imaimamm iiss ththee representativrepresentativee ooff ththee shari'ashari' a,, bubutt ththee sultansultan iiss ththee executorexecutor ooff ththee shari'shari'a a.. ThThee legitimaclegitimacyy ofof ththee sultan'ssultan's rulrulee iiss contingentcontingent upouponn hishis recognitiorecognitionn ooff ththee authorityauthority ooff ththee imaimamm anandd upouponn ththee imam'simam's confirmatioconfirmationn ooff hishis rulerule.. EssentiallyEssentially,, ththee sultansultan needneedss ththee imaimamm ttoo legitimizlegitimizee hishis rulrulee andand ththee imaimamm needneedss ththee sultansultan ttoo protecprotectt andand enforceenforce ththee shari'shari'a a..

2222 Al-Ghazali'Al-Ghazali'ss mosmostt famoufamouss anti-neoanti-neo PlatonisPlatonistt worworkk waswas Tahafut al-Falasifa. InIn thisthis workwork hhee attacksattacks al-Farabial-Farabi (d(d.. 950950)) anandd IbIbnn SinSinaa (d.(d. 1037),1037), twotwo ooff ththee mosmostt importanimportantt new-Platonistnew-Platonist MuslimMuslimss ofof ththee medievamedievall IslamiIslamicc worldworld.. FoForr anan explanatioexplanationn ooff al-Ghazali'sal-Ghazali's attacattackk onon neo­neo- PlatonisPlatonismm seseee MajiMajidd FakhryFakhry,, A History of Islamic Philosophy (New(New York:York: ColumbiaColumbia UniversityUniversity PressPress,, 1983),222-233.1983), 222-233.

2233 LambtonLambton,, State and Government, 114-29114-29.. 109109

ThiThiss theortheoryy iiss relevanrelevantt ttoo botbothh ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss anandd ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss whowho defeateddefeated themthem.. ThThee taiftaifaa kingkingss ruleruledd iinn ththee absencabsencee ooff anan imamimam.. TheyThey neitherneither recognizerecognizedd nonorr werweree recognizerecognizedd bbyy ananyy legitimatelegitimate caliphcaliph;; thereforetherefore,, accordingaccording toto al-Ghazali'al-Ghazali'ss theorytheory,, theitheirr rulrulee waswas illegitimate.illegitimate. IInn contrastcontrast,, ththee AlmoravidsAlmoravids soughsoughtt recognitiorecognitionn frofromm ththe'e 'Abbasi Abbasidd caliphcaliph iinn BaghdaBaghdadd whwhoo wawass regarderegardedd aass aa legitimatlegitimatee imamimam.. WheWhenn IbnIbn TashufiTashuf"mn finallfinallyy becambecamee ththee unquestioneunquestionedd mastemasterr ofof

MoroccoMorocco,, hhee acknowledgedacknowledged ththee authoritauthorityy ooff the'the 'Abbasi Abbasidd caliphcaliph al-Mustazhiral-Musta~.. InIn returnreturn,, al-Mustazhial-Musta~hirr legitimizelegitimizedd IbIbnn Tashuf"m'sTashufin's rulrulee iinn NortNorthh Africa.2424 ThisThis

arrangementarrangement betweebetweenn ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss andand ththee 'AbbasidI Abbasidss fittedfitted perfectlperfectlyy intintoo al­al-

Ghazali'Ghazali'ss theortheoryy ooff ththee imamate.imamate.

SummarySummary

AAss mentionementionedd aboveabove,, ththee AndalusAndalusli mosqumosquee ulamulamaa diddid nonott creatcreatee oror adheradheree ttoo a specificspecific anandd well-definewell-definedd theortheoryy ooff ththee imamateimamate.. ThThee reasoreasonn forfor includinincludingg briebrieff explanationsexplanations ofof ththee legalegall theorietheoriess ofof IbnIbn HazI:Iazmm anandd al-Ghazalial-Ghazali iiss toto explainexplain mainstreamainstreamm SunniSunni ideaideass abouaboutt ththee caliphatcaliphatee anandd thereforthereforee providprovidee insightinsight intintoo hohoww andand whwhyy thethe mosqumosquee ulamulamaa couldcould havhavee opposedopposed ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss onon religioureligiouss groundsgrounds.. EssentiallyEssentially,, ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss ruleruledd iinn accordanceaccordance withwith mainstreamainstreamm SunnSunnii legallegal theortheoryy whereawhereass thethe taiftaifaa kingkingss diddid notnot.. AccordingAccording ttoo thethe theoriestheories ooff IbIbnn HazI:Iazmm anandd al-Ghazali,al-Ghazali, ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss werweree a legitimatelegitimate

2244 KitiibKitab al-hullalal-1;.ullal al-mawshiyya, 87-80.87-80. 110110 alternativalternativee ttoo ththee illegitimatillegitimatee taiftaifaa kingskings;; thusthus,, iitt hahass beebeenn assumeassumedd thathatt thethe

AndalusAndalusli mosqumosquee ulamulamaa hahadd aann ideologicaideologicall basisbasis upouponn whicwhichh ttoo basbasee theirtheir oppositiooppositionn ttoo ththee taifataifa kingkingss andand theitheirr supportsupport ofof ththee Almoravids.Almoravids. .

Indeed,Indeed, historianhistorianss ooff ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss eraera seeseemm ttoo havhavee taketakenn iitt foforr grantedgranted thathatt ththee mosqumosquee ulamulamaa subscribedsubscribed ttoo thesthesee theorietheoriess anandd actuallactuallyy basebasedd theirtheir oppositiooppositionn ttoo ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss onon them.them. HoweverHowever,, thertheree iiss nnoo directdirect evidencevidencee toto supporsupportt thithiss assumptionassumption.. InIn factfact,, asas wilwilll bbee explaineexplainedd inin ththee nexnextt chapter,chapter, thertheree isis considerableconsiderable evidenceevidence ttoo suggessuggestt thathatt ththee mosqumosquee ulamulamaa werweree nonott opposedopposed toto ththee taiftaifaa systemsystem oonn theoreticatheoreticall oror anyany otherother grounds.grounds.

( CHAPTERCHAPTER VIIVII

THTHEE MOSQUMOSQUEE ULAMULAMAA AFTEAFfERR 1085:1085: POLITICAPOLITICALL INVOLVEMENTINVOLVEMENT

IntroductioIntroductionn

AAss hahass beebeenn explaineexplainedd aboveabove,, ththee mosqumosquee ularnaulama werewere moremore oorr leslesss forcedforced ououtt ooff politicspolitics bbyy ththee taiftaifaa kingskings,, anandd itit wawass onlyonly afterafter ththee fallfall ofof ToledoToledo iinn 10851085 thathatt a windowindoww ofof opportunitopportunityy openedopened forfor themthem.. TheThe politicapoliticall activitiesactivities ooff thethe mosqumosquee ulamulamaa afteafterr 10851085 tootookk manymany formsforms.. SomeSome mosqumosquee ulamularnaa workeworkedd toto brinbringg downdown ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss andand replacreplacee thethemm witwithh ththee AlmoravidsAlrnoravids,, andand thethe viewpoinviewpointt ooff thesthesee ulamularnaa anandd ththee historianhistorianss whwhoo reliereliedd onon theitheirr accountaccountss hashas dominateddominated ththee historicahistoricall sourcesourcess foforr ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss era.era. However,However, nonott allall ofof thethe mosquemosque ulamularnaa opposedopposed ththee taiftaifaa systemsystem.. SomeSome ooff thethemm useusedd ththee atmosphereatmosphere ofof crisiscrisis createdcreated bbyy ththee falfalll ooff ToledToledoo ttoo incorporatincorporatee themselvesthemselves intointo ththee taifataifa politicalpolitical structurestructure andand thethenn ttoo reforreformm iitt frofromm withinwithin.. AtAt leastleast oneone alialimm useusedd thethe confuseconfusedd situatiosituationn ooff al-Andalual-Andaluss iinn ththee latelate eleventheleventh centurycentury ttoo makmakee himselhimselff aa kingking.. ThereforeTherefore,, iitt mustmust nonott havhavee beebeenn ththee casecase thathatt ththee majoritmajorityy ooff thethe mosquemosque ulamularnaa werweree opposedopposed ttoo ththee taiftaifaa systemsystem

ThThee reasoreasonn thathatt ththee mosquemosque ulamularnaa werweree ableable ttoo becombecomee mormoree politicallypolitically activactivee afteafterr 10851085 wawass thathatt ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss needeneededd ththee mosqumosquee ularnaulama toto securesecure 112112 militarmilitaryy aiaidd frofromm ththee AlmoravidsAlmoravids.. AfteAfterr gaininggaining controcontroll ooff ththee middlmiddlee march,march,

AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII wawass iinn a bettebetterr strategicstrategic positiopositionn ttoo raidraid al-Andalusal-Andalus thathann hhee hahadd everever beenbeen.. IInn militarmilitaryy termsterms,, nnoo singlesingle taiftaifaa statestate wawass strongstrong enoughenough ttoo prevenpreventt thethe

ChristiaChristiann raidraidss bbyy itselfitself,, anandd somsomee ooff ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss doubtedoubtedd that~att a unitedunited

AndalusAndalusli armyarmy coulcouldd keekeepp AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII inin check.check. InIn economiceconomic terms,terms, nonnonee ooff thethe taifataifass wantedwanted ttoo suffersuffer ththee financialfinancial losselossess inflictedinflicted bbyy thesthesee raidraidss oorr papayy thethe largerlarger pariapariass AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII wawass suresure ttoo demanddemand nonoww thathatt hhee hahadd improvedimproved hishis strategicstrategic position.1 ThThee resulresultt wawass thathatt ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss decideddecided thathatt thetheyy hahadd nono choicechoice otheotherr thathann ttoo seekseek aidaid frofromm thethe AlmoraviAlmoravidd emir,emir, YusuYusuff ibibnn Tashufin.Tashufrn.

SomeSome accountaccountss reporreportt thathatt al-Mu'tamial-Mu/tamidd ooff SevilleSeville andand al-Mutawwakial-Mutawwakill ofof

BadajozBadajoz hahadd approachedapproached IbnIbn Tashuf"ffiTashufin beforbeforee ththee fallfall ooff ToledoToledo.. ThThee sourcessources simplysimply ddoo nonott agreagreee oonn thithiss matter,matter, bubutt ononee poinpointt upouponn whicwhichh theythey allall agreagreee isis thathatt thethe embassyembassy sentsent frofromm al-Andalusal-Andalus ttoo MoroccMoroccoo inin 1085-61085-6 wawass ththee ononee whichwhich ultimatelultimatelyy resulteresultedd iinn AlmoraviAlmoravidd involvemeninvolvementt inin al-Andalusal-Andalus.. ItIt cacann hardlhardlyy bebe debatedebatedd thathatt ththee facfactt thathatt thithiss delegatiodelegationn wawass composecomposedd ooff mosqumosquee ulamulamaa ratherrather thathann ththee kingskings themselvethemselvess oror membermemberss ooff ththee royaroyall familiesfamilies wawass a kekeyy factorfactor inin ititss successsuccess.. PresumablyPresumably,, ththee taiftaifaa kingskings knewknew thathatt ththee besbestt wawayy ttoo appealappeal ttoo IbnIbn

Tashufin'sTashtifin's religioureligiouss sensibilitiessensibilities wawass toto sendsend mosqumosquee ulamulamaa ttoo presenpresentt theitheirr pleaplea foforr AlmoraviAlmoravidd interventiointerventionn inin al-Andalusal-Andalus.. TherTheree araree nnoo detailedetailedd accountsaccounts ofof whatwhat transpiretranspiredd betweebetweenn ththee AndalusAndalusli ulamulamaa anandd ththee AlmoravidAlmoravid emir,emir, bubutt itit

1 'Abd'Abd AllahAllah ibnibn Buluggm,Buluggih, TheThe Tibyiin:Tibyan: Memoirs ofofAbd Abd Allah b.b. Buluggin Last Zirid AmirAmir of Granada, trans.trans. AminAmin TT.. TibiTibi (Leiden:(Leiden: E.JE.J.. BrillBrill,, 1986),1986), 113-5113-5.. 113113 seemseemss likellikelyy thathatt ththee AndalusiAndalusiss presentepresentedd theitheirr cascasee inin religioureligiouss termsterms,, perhapsperhaps goinggoing soso fafarr aass ttoo invokeinvoke IbnIbn TashufmTashufin ttoo comecome ttoo al-Andalusal-Andalus ttoo wagwagee jihadjihad againsagainstt ththee Christians.Christians.22

TheThe successuccesss ofof ththee mosqumosquee ulamulamaa inin convincingconvincing IbIbnn TashufiTashufmn ttoo lealeadd hishis forcesforces ttoo al-Andalual-Andaluss openeopenedd uupp avenuesavenues ofof politicapoliticall opportunityopportunity forfor ththee mosquemosque ulamaulama,, sincesince ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss werweree ssoo desperatdesperatee foforr AlmoraviAlmoravidd militarmilitaryy aidaid.. TheThe successsuccess ofof ththee delegationsdelegations ooff 1085-61085-6 proveprovedd thathatt ththee besbestt wawayy ttoo obtaiobtainn helhelpp fromfrom ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss wawass ttoo dealdeal witwithh thethemm througthroughh ththee mosqumosquee ulamaulama.. Therefore,Therefore, ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss werweree obligeobligedd ttoo grantgrant concessionconcessionss ttoo ththee mosqumosquee ulamulamaa iinn orderorder toto maintainmaintain googoodd relationrelationss witwithh ththee AlmoravidsAlmoravids.. Thus,Thus, ththee mosqumosquee ulamulamaa werewere ablablee ttoo assertassert themselvethemselvess inin taiftaifaa politicpoliticss mormoree effectiveleffectivelyy thathann eveeverr before.before.

FroFromm 10851085 untiuntill 10901090 ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss successfullysuccessfully useusedd ththee mosqumosquee ulamaulama asas a mediatormediatorss betweebetweenn themselvethemselvess andand ththee AlmoravidsAlmoravids.. HoweverHowever,, beginningbeginning witwithh thethe capturcapturee ooff GranadaGranada iinn 1090,1090, thethe AlmoravidsAlmoravids changedchanged theitheirr policpolicyy ofof helpinhelpingg ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss andand begabegann ttoo conquerconquer ththee AndalusAndalusii taifataifass andand addadd thethemm toto theitheirr NortNorthh AfricaAfricann empireempire.. HistorianHistorianss havhavee mistakenlmistakenlyy assumeassumedd thatthat,, becausebecause thethe mosquemosque ulamulamaa helpehelpedd brinbringg ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss ttoo al-Andalual-Andaluss inin ththee firsfirstt place,place, thetheyy supportedsupported thethe AlmoraviAlmoravidd conquesconquestt ooff ththee taiftaifaa kingdoms.kingdoms. ThThee traditionaltraditional explanatioexplanationn foforr thethe falfalll ooff ththee taitaifasf as isis thathatt ththee combinedcombined effortsefforts ofof ththee AndalusiAndalusi

2 ForFor aann accountaccount ofof ththee correspondencecorrespondence betweenbetween ththee taiftaifaa kingskings andand IbIbnn Ta.shutm,Tashufin, seesee KitabKitiib al-hullaal-/:lulla al-mawshiyya, eded.. SuhaySul:tayll ZakaZakarr andand 'Ab'Abdd al-Qadial-Qadirr ZamamZarnamaa (Casablanca:(Casablanca: DaDarr al­al- RashaRashadd al-Hadithaal-I:Jaditha,, 1979),1979), 38-6638-66.. ThiThiss accounaccountt containscontains littllittlee specificspecific informatioinformationn abouaboutt ththee wayway inin whicwhichh ththee AndalusAndalusii mosqumosquee ulamulamaa convinceconvincedd IbnIbn TashutmTashufin ttoo comecome toto al-Andalus.al-Andalus. 114114 mosqumosquee ulamulamaa andand thethe AlmoravidsAlmoravids broughtbrought thethe taiftaifaa systemsystem toto anan end.end.

HoweverHowever,, asas willwill bbee explainedexplained below,below, thithiss explanationexplanation isis unsatisfactory.unsatisfactory.

WhilWhilee somesome ofof thethe mosquemosque ulamulamaa opposedopposed thethe taiftaifaa kingkingss andand supportedsupported thethe

AlmoravidsAlmoravids,, otherotherss triedtried toto worworkk withiwithinn thethe taifataifa systemsystem andand actuallyactually resisteresistedd thethe

AlmoraviAlmoravidd annexationannexation ofof al-Andalus.al-Andalus. Furthermore,Furthermore, oneone mosquemosque alimalim trietriedd toto becombecomee a taiftaifaa kingking inin hishis ownown rightright.. Therefore,Therefore, itit wawass notnot necessarilynecessarily thethe casecase thatthat ththee collapscollapsee ofof ththee taiftaifaa systemsystem andand ththee establishmentestablishment ofof AlmoravidAlmoravid dominiondominion overover al-Andalusal-Andalus wawass a triumphtriumph forfor thethe mosqumosquee ulamaulama.. FroFromm thisthis itit followsfollows thatthat ththee traditionaltraditional historicahistoricall explanationexplanation ofof ththee endingending ofof thethe taifataifa kingskings eraera isis inaccurate.inaccurate.

CasCasee HistoriesHistories

TheThe followinfollowingg casecase historieshistories containcontain examplesexamples ofof thethe variouvariouss waywayss inin whichwhich a numbenumberr ofof mosqumosquee ulamulamaa becambecamee politicallypolitically activeactive afterafter 1085.1085. TheseThese cascasee historieshistories serveserve twotwo purposespurposes.. TheThe firstfirst purposepurpose isis toto explainexplain hohoww historianshistorians mightmight havehave comcomee toto thethe conclusionconclusion thatthat mosmostt ofof thethe mosquemosque ulamaulama werewere opposeopposedd ttoo ththee taiftaifaa system.system. TheThe secondsecond purposepurpose isis ttoo demonstratedemonstrate thatthat notnot allall ooff ththee mosquemosque ulamulamaa opposedopposed thethe taifataifa system.system. 115

TheThe CasCasee ofof IbnIbn al-Qulay'ial-Qula/i (d.(d. 111105 05))

AAss hahass beebeenn mentionedmentioned manymany timestimes inin thithiss thesisthesis,, thethe historicahistoricall recorrecordd ofof thethe taifataifa kingkingss eraera iiss dominateddominated byby oneone poinpointt ofof view,view, namelnamelyy thathatt ooff a subsesubsett ofof ththee mosqumosquee ulama,ulama, andand itit isis easyeasy ttoo seesee howhow historianhistorianss mighmightt havhavee comecome toto regardregard thithiss pointpoint ooff vievieww asas beingbeing representativrepresentativee ofof allall ofof thethe ulamaulama.. First,First, therethere wawass thethe perceiveperceivedd theoreticaltheoretical illegitimacyillegitimacy ofof ththee taiftaifaa system.system. Second,Second, thertheree werewere indeeindeedd somesome mosqumosquee ulamulamaa whwhoo opposedopposed ththee taiftaifaa systemsystem andand supportedsupported thethe

AlmoravidsAlmoravids.. Third,Third, a numbernumber ofof mosquemosque ulamaulama becambecamee influentialinfluential amongamong thethe upperupper echelonsechelons ofof thethe AlmoravidAlmoravid elite.elite. GivenGiven thesethese twotwo facts,facts, oneone needneed notnot makemake ananyy greatgreat intellectuaintellectuall leapsleaps toto comcomee ttoo thethe conclusionconclusion thathatt thethe mosquemosque ulamulamaa ooff al-Andalual-Andaluss werweree generallygenerally opposedopposed toto ththee taiftaifaa system.system. TheThe casecase ofof IbnIbn al-Qulay'al-Qulay'iI ofof GranadGranadaa helpshelps illustrateillustrate thisthis point.point.

IbnIbn al-Qulay'al-Qulay'iI waswas amongamong thethe leadingleading ulamaulama ofof Granada.Granada. TheThe followingfollowing accountaccount hihiss liflifee andand careercareer iiss givengiven byby IbnIbn al-$ayrafi:al-Sayrafi:

TheThefaqih faqih AbuAbu Ja'farJa'far ibnibn al-Qulay'ial-QulayT ofof GranadGranadaa wawass uniquuniquee iinn hishis time,time, a mamann ofof greatgreat distinctiondistinction iinn goodness,goodness, learning,learning, andand preaching...preaching.... . HeHe wawass a mamann ofof greatgreat emotionemotion abouaboutt whowhomm manymany storiesstories werweree told.told. TheseThese qualitiesqualities werweree withwith himhim throughthrough allall thethe calamitiescalamities whicwhichh befelbefelll himhim.. HHee wawass oneone ofof thosthosee whowho loosenedloosened andand bounboundd (ahI(ahl aI-ballal-hall wa aI-'aqd)al-'aqd) bothboth beforebefore andand afterafter (the(the AlmoravidAlmoravid capturecapture ofof Granada).Granada). HHee wawass a mamann ofof honohonorr iinn allall mattersmatters,, and,and, iinn ththee revivarevivall ofof religiousreligious observance,observance, a manman ofof greatgreat zeal.3zeal.3

AccordingAccording ttoo thithiss passage,passage, IbnIbn al-Qulay'ial-Qulay'I certainlcertainlyy qualifiesqualifies asas a mosquemosque

3 LisanLisan aI-Omal-Din ibnibn aI-Khatib,al-Khatib, AI-IhataAl-Ihatafi fi akhbar Gharnata, ed.ed. MuhammadMuhammad AbdAbd AllahAllah 'Una'Unann (Cairo:(Cairo: DaDarr aI-Ma'rifal-Ma'rif bbii Mil?r,Misr, n.d.)n.d.),, 153153.. 116116

'alim'alim.. HiHiss "great" great distinctiodistinctionn iinn goodnessgoodness learninleaniingg andand preaching/preaching,"' hihiss "honor,""honor," anandd hihiss zeazeall forfor lithe"the revivarevivall ofof religioureligiouss observanceobservance"" allall poinpointt ttoo thithiss conclusion.conclusion. 'c

AnotheAnotherr poinpointt ooff interestinterest iiss ththee phrasphrasee "He"He wawass oneone ofof thosthosee whwhoo looseneloosenedd andand bound.bound."" IInn ArabiArabicc historiographyhistOriography,, thithiss phrasphrasee isis usuallusuallyy usedused toto describdescribee peoplepeople whwhoo belongebelongedd ttoo ththee socio-economisocio-economicc levelevell jusjustt belobeloww ththee rulerrulerss andand ththee military.military.

EssentiallyEssentially,, "thos"thosee whwhoo looseneloosenedd andand boundbound"" constitutedconstituted a seconsecondd tietierr ooff politicalpolitical powerpower..

,'Ab Abdd AllaAllahh ibnibn BulugglnBuluggin,, ththee kinkingg ofof Granada,Granada, dispatchedispatchedd IbnIbn al-Qulay'lal-Qulay'i toto

MoroccMoroccoo iinn 10861086 aass parpartt ofof ththee GranadaGranadann delegatiodelegationn ttoo IbnIbn TashufinTashufin.. WhilWhilee inin

MoroccoMorocco,, IbIbnn al-Qulay'ial-Qulay'I madmadee a googoodd impressioimpressionn oonn ththee AlmoraviAlmoravidd emir.emir. Later,Later, atat ththee siegsiegee ofof AledAledoo iinn 1088,1088, 'Ab'Abdd AllaAllahh broughbroughtt IbnIbn al-Qulay'ial-Qulay'I witwithh himhim inin thethe hophopee thathatt ththee presencpresencee ooff ththee alialimm woulwouldd enhanceenhance hihiss imagimagee inin ththee eyeeyess ooff IbnIbn

4 Tashufin.Tashuf"m. 4 'Ab'Abdd AllaAllahh needeneededd ththee supportsupport ooff IbIbnn al-Qulay'ial-Qulay'I becausbecausee hhee waswas planninplanningg ttoo asaskk IbIbnn TashufiTashuf"mn ttoo settlesettle a disputdisputee betweebetweenn hihimm andand hihiss brotherbrother

TamiTamimm ibibnn BulugglnBuluggin,, ththee princprincee ooff Malaga.Malaga.s5

IbIbnn Qulay'Qulay'iI wawass indeeindeedd grantegrantedd aann audiencaudiencee witwithh IbIbnn TashufinTashufin,, butbut,, ratherrather thathann defend'defend 'Ab Abdd AllahAllah,, IbIbnn al-Qulay'ial-Qulay'I criticizecriticizedd anandd denigratedenigratedd thethe kinkingg andand hishis brotherbrother.. AccordinAccordingg ttoo ththee sourcessources,, IbIbnn al-Qulay'al-Qulay'iI saisaidd thathat't 'Ab Abdd AllahAllah waswas aa

4 IbnIbn aI-Khatib,al-Khatib, Al-Ihata,AI-lhata, 154.154.

5 IbnIbn TashufmTashufin did,did, inin fact,fact, settlesettle thethe disputedispute betweenbetween I'Ab Abdd AllahAllah andand TamlmTamim inin favorfavor ofof ththee former;former; howeverhowever,, hhee wawass displeaseddispleased bbyy ththee facfactt thathatt thethe brotherbrotherss bickeredbickered.. ThereafterThereafter,, IbnIbn

TashufiTashufmn helheldd botbothh I'Ab Abdd AllaAllahh anandd TamlmTamim iinn loloww regard.regard. 117117 weaweakk rulerulerr whwhoo woulwouldd ratheratherr cooperatcooperatee witwithh ththee ChristianChristianss thathann defendefendd hishis

kingdomkingdom inin ththee namnamee ofof IslamIslam.. HHee alsalsoo saidsaid thathatt 'AbI Abdd AllaAllahh wawass tryintryingg toto deceivdeceivee ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss bbyy askinaskingg thethemm forfor helhelpp whilwhilee dealingdealing witwithh thethe

ChristianChristianss atat ththee samesame timetime.. TheThe sourcesourcess saysay thathatt IbnIbn Tashu.f"mTashufin puputt mucmuchh stockstock inin

66 IbIbnn al-QulayYsal-QulayTs opinioopinionn anandd thereaftethereafterr helheldd ththee ZirLITIi kingkingss inin loloww regard.regard.

,'Ab Abdd AllaAllahh couldcould dodo nothinnothingg ttoo stostopp IbIbnn al-Qulay'al-Qulay'II whilwhilee IbIbnn TashufiTashu.f"mn waswas stillstill iinn al-Andalusal-Andalus.. HHee diddid nonott daredare taktakee anyany actionaction againsagainstt aann alialimm whowhomm thethe

AlmoraviAlmoravidd emiemirr seemedseemed ttoo admiredadmired a greagreatt dealdeal.. 'AbI Abdd AllaAllahh hahadd nnoo choicechoice otherother thathann ttoo waiwaitt forfor ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss ttoo leavleavee beforbeforee hhee dealtdealt witwithh IbnIbn al-Qulay'I?al-Qulay'I.7 AsAs soonsoon aass ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss werweree bacbackk iinn NortNorthh AfricAfricaa and'and 'AbAbd d AllaAllahh anandd IbIbnn al-al-

Qulay'Qulay'II werweree bacbackk iinn GranadaGranada,, ththee followinfollowingg eventeventss tootookk place:place:

TheThe grandsograndsonn ofof BadiBadIss ('('Ab Abdd AllahAllah)) summonesummonedd alalll hihiss retainerretainerss toto courtcourt.. HiHiss courtiercourtierss anandd servantsservants gatheregatheredd andand convenedconvened aann angryangry meeting.meeting. TheyThey werweree onon ththee vergvergee ofof beatinbeatingg IbnIbn al-Qulay'al-Qulay'II whenwhen 'Abd'Abd Allah'Allah'ss mothemotherr intervened.intervened. SheShe imploredimplored heherr sonson ttoo savesave IbnIbn al-Qulay'ial-Qulay'I.. ''Ab Abdd AllaAllahh thethenn orderedordered thathatt hhee bbee sensentt ttoo prisonprison...... HHee stayedstayed iinn prisoprisonn foforr a timetime,, bubutt thethen'n 'AbAbd d AllaAllahh orderedordered hishis releaserelease...... HHee (Ibn(Ibn al-Qulay'l)al-Qulay'I) travelletravelledd througthroughh ththee nighnightt untiuntill hehe reachereachedd CordobaCordoba whencwhencee hhee sensentt a letterletter ttoo YusuYtisuff ibibnn TashufiTashu.f"mn inin whicwhichh hhee relaterelatedd allall thatthat hahadd happenehappenedd ttoo hihimm (a(att ththee courcourtt ooff ''Ab Abdd Allah).Allah).88

IbIbnn al-Qulay'l'sal-QulayTs letteletterr toto IbnIbn Tashu.f"mTashufin coulcouldd hardlhardlyy havhavee comecome atat a worseworse

6 IbnIbn aI-Khatib,al-Khatib, AI-Ihata,Al-Ihata, 154;154; I'Ab Abdd AllahAllah ibnibn Bullugin,Bullugin, Tibyan, 124-126.124-126.

7 I'Ab Abdd AllahAllah ibnibn Bullugin,Bullugin, Tibyan, 126-127.126-127.

8 IbnIbn aI-Khatib,al-Khatib, AI-lhata,Al-Ihata, 154-155.154-155. 118118

timtimee for'for 'Ab Abdd AllahAllah.. First,First, IbIbnn TashutmTashufin alreadyalready helheldd thethe BanuBanu ZirZITIl inin loloww regardregard

becausbecausee ooff IbnIbn al-QulayTal-Qulay'I'ss criticismcriticismss oof'f 'AbAbd d AllaAllahh andand TamimTamnn.. Second,Second, shortlyshortly

afteafterr ththee failurfailuree ooff ththee siegesiege ofof Aledo,Aledo, AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII sentsent anan emissaremissaryy ttoo collect'collect 'AbAbd d

Allah'Allah'ss paripariaa paymentspayments,, whicwhichh hahadd nonott beebeenn paipaidd iinn threthreee yearsyears.. 'Abd'Abd AllaAllahh hadhad

nnoo choicechoice otherother thathann ttoo paypay.. NewNewss ofof ththee paymenpaymentt reachereachedd IbIbnn TashutmTashufin whowho

interpreteinterpretedd iitt aass a sigsignn ooff ZirZITIl double-dealingdouble-dealing.. HiHiss vievieww wawass nnoo doubdoubtt shapeshapedd byby

whatwhat IbIbnn al-Qulay'I'sal-QulayT's criticismscriticisms ooff ththee ZITIs.Zirls.

'Abd'Abd AllaAllahh sentsent severalseveral lettersletters ttoo IbIbnn TashutmTashufin ttoo explainexplain hishis actionsactions.. HeHe

saisaidd thathatt hhee hahadd negotiatenegotiatedd witwithh AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII onlonlyy inin ordeorderr ttoo bubuyy timtimee untiuntill thethe

AlmoravidAlmoravidss couldcould comecome anandd savsavee GranadGranadaa fromfrom ththee Christians.Christians. 'Abd'Abd AllaAllahh alsoalso

saidsaid thathatt hhee expecteexpectedd thethe AlmoravidAlmoravidss ttoo punispunishh ththee ChristianChristianss forfor theitheirr extortionextortion

asas soosoonn asas thetheyy returnereturnedd toto al-Andalusal-Andalus.. IInn ordeorderr ttoo provprovee thathatt hehe waswas sincere,sincere,

,'Ab Abdd AllaAllahh pointepointedd ououtt thatthat hehe hahadd paipaidd AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII withwith hishis ownown moneymoney ratherrather

thathann fromfrom thethe statestate treasurytreasury;; therefore,therefore, nnoo magharimmaghiirim (noncanonical(noncanonical)) taxetaxess hadhad

beenbeen levieleviedd oonn ththee peoplepeople ooff GranadGrcmadaa iinn ordeorderr ttoo papayy ththee parias.parias.99

HoweverHowever,, ''Ab Abdd AllaAllahh couldcould nonott repairepairr ththee damagdamagee dondonee bbyy IbIbnn al-Qulay'l'al-QulayT

andand hhee failefailedd toto changchangee IbIbnn Tashufin'Tashufm'ss opinionopinion ofof himhim.. DuDuee ttoo ththee influencinfluencee ofof

IbIbnn al-Qulay'Ial-Qulay'I,, IbIbnn TashufiTashutmn wawass convincedconvinced thathat't 'AbAbd d AllaAllahh wawass unfiunfitt ttoo rule.rule.

AfteAfterr consultinconsultingg witwithh IbIbnn al-Qulay'lal-QulayT andand otherother ulamaulama,, IbIbnn TashutmTashufin decideddecided thatthat

GranadGranadaa woulwouldd bebe ththee firsfirstt AndalusAndalusli taiftaifaa ttoo bbee annexeannexedd ttoo ththee AlmoraviAlmoravidd realm.realm.

9 I'Ab Abdd AllahAllah ibnibn Bullugln,Bullugin, Tihyiin,Tibyan, 134.134. 119119

HeHe invadedinvaded GranadaGranada inin 10901090 andand deposed'deposed 'Ab Abdd Allah.Allah. IbnIbn TashufmTashufin justifiedjustified hishis

actionaction byby claimingclaiming thatthat hehe waswas deposingdeposing anan ineptinept rulerruler whowho oppressedoppressed thethe

MuslimsMuslims withwith noncanonicalnoncanonical taxes.1010 ItIt isis easyeasy toto seesee howhow oneone couldcould interpretinterpret this·this

eventevent asas anan attemptattempt onon thethe partpart ofof IbnIbn TashufmTashufin andand IbnIbn al-Qulay'ial-QulayT toto putput IslamicIslamic

legallegal theorytheory intointo practice.practice.

TheThe casecase ofof IbnIbn al-Qulay'ial-QulayT illustratesillustrates howhow historianshistorians mightmight comecome toto thethe

conclusionconclusion thatthat thethe mosquemosque ulamaulama andand thethe AlmoravidsAlmoravids werewere unitedunited inin theirtheir

oppositionopposition toto thethe taifataifa kings.kings. IbnIbn al-Qulay'ial-QulayT availedavailed himselfhimself ofof ththee opportunityopportunity toto useuse thethe AlmoravidsAlmoravids againsagainstt ththee BanuBanu ZITiZirl. HisHis casecase isis anan exampleexample ofof a mosquemosque alimalim whowho diddid inin factfact allyally withwith thethe AlmoravidAlmoravidss againstagainst thethe taifataifa kings.kings. ThereThere isis nono

directdirect evidenceevidence whicwhichh indicateindicatess thatthat hhee basebasedd thithiss oppositiooppositionn oonn theoreticaltheoretical grounds,grounds, bubutt ththee assumptionassumption thathatt hhee diddid soso cacann bbee reasonablreasonablyy made.made.

HoweverHowever,, IbnIbn al-QulayTal-Qulayi'ss oppositionopposition toto ththee taifataifa systemsystem wawass onlyonly oneone responsresponsee ttoo ththee appearanceappearance ofof ththee AlmoravidsAlmoravids.. TherTheree werweree a numbenumberr ofof otherother waywayss iinn whicwhichh ththee mosqumosquee ulamulamaa reactereactedd ttoo ththee politicapoliticall situatiosituationn ooff al-Andalusal-Andalus afteafterr 1085,1085, anandd nonott alalll thesthesee responseresponsess werweree basebasedd oonn oppositiooppositionn ttoo ththee taifataifa systemsystem..

1100 IbnIbn aI-Khatib,al-Khatib, Al-Ihata, 155.155. 120120

TheThe CasCasee ofof IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa (d(d.. ca.ca. 1140)1140)

AbAbuu BakBakrr MuhammaMuhammadd ibibnn SulaymanSulayman knowknownn asas IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa wawass amongamong thethe mosmostt respecterespectedd mosquemosque ulamulamaa ofof Seville. .. HeHe spenspentt thethe earlyearly parpartt ofof hihiss lifelife studyingstudying,, teachingteaching,, andand livinlivingg ththee liflifee ofof a typicaltypical mosqumosquee alim.alim. IbnIbn al-Qa~iraal-Qasira conscientiouslyconscientiously keptkept awaawayy frofromm politicpoliticss durinduringg ththee earlearlyy parpartt ooff hihiss career,career, butbut wawass latelaterr summonedsummoned toto ththee courcourtt ooff al-MutaQ.idal-Mutadid ibibn'n 'Abbad Abbad.. IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa~lraa servedserved asas al-Mu'tadid'al-Mu'taQ.id'ss personapersonall imaimamm (muc(muchh liklikee a ChristianChristian confessor),confessor), bubutt hhee dididd notnot filfilll anyany administrativeadministrative oorr judiciajudiciall officesoffices.. However,However, durinduringg thethe reigreignn ooff al­al-

Mu'tadid'MU'taQ.id'ss son,son, al-Mu'tamid,al-Mu'tamid, IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa serveservedd ththee I'Abbadi Abbadiss asas aann ambassadorambassador ttoo otherother taifataifa courts.courts. IInn 10851085 hhee representerepresentedd SevilleSeville iinn ththee delegatiodelegationn ooff AndaluslAndalusi mosquemosque ulamulamaa whwhoo wenwentt ttoo askask IbnIbn TashufiTashillIDn forfor helphelp.. InIn 10861086 IbIbnn al-Q~iraal-Qasira foughfoughtt atat ththee BattleBattle ofof al-Zallaqal-Zallaqaa wherwheree hhee wawass wounded.wounded.

AfteAfterr al-Zallaqa,al-Zallaqa, IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa apparentlapparentlyy becambecamee mormoree involveinvolvedd inin thethe politicpoliticss ooff SevilleSeville althoughalthough ththee sourcesourcess araree uncleaunclearr oonn thithiss matter. 11 1 WheWhenn thethe

AlmoravidAlmoravidss laidlaid siegesiege ttoo SevilleSeville inin 1091,1091, IbIbnn al-Qasrral-Qa~iraa remaineremainedd loyaloyall ttoo thethe

'Abbadi'Abbadiss anandd tootookk uupp armarmss ttoo defendefendd ththee citycity.. AfteAfterr ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss capturedcaptured

SevilleSeville,, IbnIbn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa wawass dispossessedispossessedd alongalong witwithh allall ooff ththee otheother'r 'AbbadAbbadi i supporterssupporters andand livelivedd inin obscuritobscurityy forfor ththee nexnextt threthreee yearsyears.. TheThenn inin 10941094 hhee waswas askeaskedd bbyy IbIbnn TashillIDTashufin ttoo serveserve ththee AlmoraviAlmoravidd imperiaimperiall administration.administration.

GiveGivenn ththee facfactt thathatt IbnIbn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa workeworkedd foforr ththee 'AbbadiI Abbadiss andand foughtfought

11ll IbIbnn BassamBassam,, Al-Dhakhira,AI-Dhakhira, 245245.. 121121 againstagainst ththee AlmoravidsAlmoravids,, oneone mighmightt bbee temptetemptedd ttoo concludeconclude thathatt hhee wawass a mosquemosque alialimm whwhoo completelycompletely abandonedabandoned hihiss studiesstudies inin orderorder ttoo pursupursuee a careercareer iinn thethe palacepalace.. HoweverHowever,, thithiss musmustt nonott havhavee beebeenn ththee cascasee becausbecausee IbnIbn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa waswas eventuallyeventually recruiterecruitedd bbyy ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss toto serveserve iinn theitheirr bureaucracybureaucracy.. KeepingKeeping ththee religioureligiouss sensibilitiesensibilitiess ofof ththee AlmoravidsAlmoravids inin mind,mind, iitt seemseemss unlikelyunlikely thathatt theythey woulwouldd havehave allowedallowed,, mucmuchh leslesss recruitedrecruited,, IbnIbn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa ttoo serveserve thethemm ifif hhee hadhad somehowsomehow besmirchebesmirchedd hihiss reputatioreputationn asas a mosqumosquee alimalim whilwhilee workinworkingg foforr thethe

'Abbadis'Abbadis.. TheThe factfact thatthat IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa wawass soughtsought ououtt bbyy ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss despitedespite hishis connectionsconnections ttoo ththee ''Abbadi Abbadlss suggestssuggests thathatt atat leastleast somesome ofof thethe mosquemosque ulamaulama workeworkedd withiwithinn ththee taiftaifaa systemsystem withouwithoutt damagingdamaging theirtheir reputationreputationss forfor scholarshipscholarship anandd piety.piety.

IInn orderorder ttoo illustrateillustrate hohoww iitt waswas possiblpossiblee foforr a mosqumosquee alimalim ttoo worworkk inin thethe palacpalacee withouwithoutt ruininruiningg hihiss scholarlyscholarly reputatioreputationn andand despitedespite ththee theoreticaltheoretical illegitimacyillegitimacy ooff thethe systemsystem,, iitt iiss necessarnecessaryy ttoo discussdiscuss ththee careecareerr ooff IbnIbn al-Qa~iraal-Qasira further.further. I havehave translatetranslatedd ththee followingfollowing passagpassagee frofromm IbIbnn Bassam'Bassam'ss Al-Dhakhira:Al-Dhakhira:

IInn thatthat timtimee ooff manmanyy wonderwonderss hehe (Ibn(Ibn al-Qasiraal-Qa~ira)) wawass aa mastermaster ofof hihiss professionprofession,, skilleskilledd inin ththee ArabiArabicc languagelanguage,, amonamongg thethe deepestdeepest mindmindss ofof ththee WestWest,, aann unwaverinunwaveringg seseaa ooff knowledge,knowledge, andand anan unmovablunmovablee mountaimountainn ooff forbearance.forbearance. HHee wawass borbornn iinn SevilleSeville durinduringg ththee reigreignn ofof al-Mu'ta<;iid.al-Mu'tadid. IbIbnn al-Qasrral-Qa~iraa wawass knowknownn forfor showinshowingg duduee restrainrestraintt iinn allall thingsthings andand hhee devotedevotedd hishis liflifee ttoo bothboth beinbeingg taughtaughtt anandd teachingteaching.. HiHiss personalitpersonalityy wawass reservereservedd exceptexcept whenwhen hhee waswas facefacedd witwithh a scholarlscholarlyy challengechallenge.. ThuThuss hhee passedpassed thethe daysdays ooff hihiss life.life. HHee steadfastlsteadfastlyy turneturnedd awayaway frofromm ththee bridlbridlee (of(of governmentgovernment service)service) forfor iitt leledd ttoo iniquityiniquity,, andand hhee turneturnedd awayaway fromfrom ththee excessesexcesses ofof ththee courtcourt althoughalthough hhee wawass surroundesurroundedd bbyy themthem.. HHee refusedrefused 122122

governmentgovernment service,service, leadingleading withwith hishis conscienceconscience hishis peerspeers amongamong thethe learned.learned. HeHe practicedpracticed abstinenceabstinence andand asceticismasceticism forfor hishis fearfear ofof al-Mu'ta<;iidal-Mu'tadid compelledcompelled himhim toto dodo so.12so. 12

FromFrom thisthis passagepassage itit isis clearclear thatthat IbnIbn al-Qa$iraal-Qasira qualifiesqualifies asas a mosquemosque alim.alim.

HeHe devoteddevoted hihiss lifelife toto studystudy andand purposefullypurposefully refrainedrefrained fromfrom takingtaking partpart inin thethe government.government. TheThe followingfollowing passagepassage explainsexplains howhow thisthis devoteddevoted mosquemosque alimalim waswas pressedpressed intointo statestate service:service:

ThenThen IbnIbn al-Qa1;)iraal-Qasira camecame toto thethe attentionattention ofof thethe wazirwazir IbnIbn Zaydlin;Zaydun; thusthus diddid IbnIbn al-Qa1;)ira'sal-QasIra's reprievereprieve fromfrom publicpublic lifelife comecome toto anan end.end. HeHe turnedturned hishis fearfear (of(of al-Mu'ta<;iid)al-Mu'tadid) toto ashesashes inin thethe furnacefurnace ofof hishis intellectintellect (then(then wentwent toto ththee ''Abbad AbbiidiI court).court). EventuallyEventually,, hehe mademade al-Mu'ta<;iidal-Mu'tadid seesee ththee errorerror ofof hihiss ways.ways. InIn fact,fact, towardtoward thethe endend ofof hihiss reign,reign, inin thethe lastlast daysdays ofof hishis life,life, thethe kingking devoteddevoted himselfhimself iinn aa smallsmall wayway ttoo piety.1piety. 13

ThisThis passagpassagee anandd ththee ononee beforbeforee iitt makmakee itit clearclear thathatt IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa1;)iraa diddid notnot chooschoosee statestate serviceservice asas a career.career. IbIbnn al-Qa1;)iraal-Qasira wenwentt ttoo ththee courtcourt ttoo serveserve aass aa spirituaspirituall guideguide forfor al-Mu'tadial-Mu'ta<;iidd aatt ththee endend ooff ththee king'king'ss life,life, anandd nonott ttoo becombecomee aa , palacpalacee alim.alim. IbIbnn al-Qa1;)iraal-Qasira diddid nonott leavleavee hihiss studiestudiess ttoo gaigainn politicapoliticall powerpower,, butbut ratheratherr ttoo perforperformm religioureligiouss dutiesduties foforr aann ololdd kinkingg whwhoo probablprobablyy hahadd a heavyheavy conscienceconscience..

WheWhenn al-Mu'tadial-Mu'ta<;iidd diediedd iinn 10691069 hihiss sosonn al-Mu'tamial-Mu'tamidd camcamee ttoo ththee throne.throne.

Al-Mu'tamiAl-Mu'tamidd musmustt havhavee appreciateappreciatedd ththee serviceservicess whicwhichh IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa1;)iraa hadhad provideprovidedd foforr hihiss fathefatherr becausbecausee ththee neneww kinkingg gavgavee hihimm aann officiaofficiall pospostt aass anan

1122 Ibid.Ibid.,, 239239..

1133 IbidIbid.. 240240.. 123123 ambassadorambassador andand grantedgranted himhim a substantialsubstantial stipend.stipend. IbnIbn al-Qa~iraal-Qasira representedrepresented

SevilleSeville atat thethe courtscourts ofof thethe otherother taifataifa kingdomskingdoms andand gainedgained a reputationreputation asas aa goodgood diplomat.diplomat. AsAs waswas mentionedmentioned above,above, IbnIbn al-Qa~iraal-Qasira waswas amongamong thethe ulamaulama chosenchosen byby thethe taifataifa kingskings toto seekseek militarymilitary assistanceassistance fromfrom thethe AlmoravidsAlmoravids asas aa membermember ofof thethe delegationsdelegations ofof 1085-6.1085-6. AccordingAccording toto thethe accountaccount inin AI-Dhakhira,Al-Dhakhira,

IbnIbn al-Qa~iraal-Qasira becamebecame oneone ofof ththee mostmost influentialinfluential membersmembers ofof thethe delegation,delegation, andand

hishis /I"coming comingss andand goings"goings" betweenbetween al-Mu'tamidal-Mu'tamid andand IbnIbn TashurffiTashufin enhancedenhanced hishis reputatioreputationn asas a talentetalentedd ambassador.ambassador.1414

AsAs waswas mentionedmentioned above,above, IbnIbn al-Qa~iraal-Qasira foughtfought atat ththee BattleBattle ofof al-Zallaqaal-Zallaqa andand waswas woundedwounded there.there. HisHis accountaccount ofof thethe battlbattlee isis oneone ofof thethe fewfew eye-witnesseye-witness accountaccountss thathatt hahass survivedsurvived fromfrom ththee eleventeleventhh century.century. ThThee followinfollowingg translationtranslation isis anan excerptexcerpt fromfrom thithiss account:account:

I wrotewrote thisthis onon ththee morninmorningg ofof Saturday,Saturday, thethe thirteenththirteenth dayday ofof RajabRajab (October,(October, 2244 1086),1086), ththee dadayy afterafter GoGodd iinn HisHis strengthstrength grantedgranted a splendidsplendid victoryvictory toto thethe MuslimsMuslims overover AlfonsoAlfonso VI,VI, maymay GodGod burnburn him...him. .... WWee slaughtereslaughteredd manmanyy ooff theitheirr memenn anandd manmanyy ooff theirtheir leaderleaderss werweree amonamongg themthem...... WheWhenn wwee sasaww whawhatt AlfonsAlfonsoo VVII hadhad iinn minmindd (befor(beforee ththee battlebattle)) wwee realizerealizedd ththee deptdepthh ooff ouourr periperill andand aiaidd wawass soughsoughtt frofromm ththee EmiEmirr ooff ththee MuslimMuslimss anandd ththee DefendeDefenderr ofof ththee FaithFaith,, YusuYiisuff ibibnn TashufiTashurffin ...... TheThenn ththee EmiEmirr ooff ththee MuslimMuslimss andand ththee DefendeDefenderr ooff ththee FaithFaith,, mamayy GoGodd protecprotectt himhim,, camcamee ttoo ththee frontfront ooff ththee linlinee anandd called-ucalled-upp ththee reservereservess anandd foforr ththee resrestt ooff ththee dadayy andand nighnightt ththee enemenemyy wawass massacred...... WWee thankethankedd GoGodd foforr thethe victoryvictory.15. 15

1144 ibidIbid.. 240240..

1155 Ibid.Ibid.,, 241-244241-244.. 124124

LittleLittle isis knownknown aboua boutt whatwhat IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa~lraa diddid betweebetweenn ththee BattlBattlee ooff al­al-

ZallaqZallaqaa iinn 10861086 andand ththee AlmoraviAlmoravidd attacattackk onon SevilleSeville iinn 1091;1091; IbIbnn BassaBassamm saysayss onlyonly

thathatt IbnIbn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa enjoyedenjoyed ththee increaseincreasedd famfamee andand prestigprestigee thathatt hihiss embassembassyy toto

IbnIbn TashufiTashutmn hahadd broughbroughtt hihimm untiuntill ththee AlmoraviAlmoravidd siegsiegee ooff SevillSevillee iinn 1091.1091.1616

HerHeree ththee biographbiographyy ofof IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa taketakess anan interestininterestingg turnturn.. AccordinAccordingg ttoo IbnIbn

BassamBassam,, IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa wawass amonamongg "those"those whwhoo foughfoughtt (against(against)) andand werewere

17 dispossessedispossessedd byby"" ththee AlmoraviAlmoravidd takeover.takeover .17 ThusThus,, IbnIbn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa foughtfought againstagainst

ththee ververyy samesame AlmoravidsAlmoravids whomwhom hhee convincedconvinced ttoo comcomee ttoo al-Andalual-Andaluss inin 1085-6.1085-6.

ThisThis detaidetaill ooff IbIbnn al-Qa1;iira'sal-QasIra's biographbiographyy deservedeservess furtherfurther discussion.discussion.

OneOne musmustt asaskk whwhyy IbIbnn al-Qasiraal-Qa~lra,, a mamann whwhoo wawass instrumentainstrumentall inin

convincingconvincing IbIbnn TashufiTashutmn ttoo comcomee ttoo al-Andalus,al-Andalus, woulwouldd taktakee uupp armarmss againstagainst thethe

Almoravids.Almoravids. OneOne explanatioexplanationn mighmightt bbee thathatt IbnIbn al-Qasiral-Qa(rraa succumbedsuccumbed ttoo thethe

temptationstemptations thathatt IbIbnn BassamBassam describesdescribes aass "the"the excessesexcesses ofof ththee court.court."" ThisThis

explanatioexplanationn woulwouldd holdhold thathatt althoughalthough IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa1;ilraa firstfirst servedserved ththee 'AbbadiI Abbadiss asas aa religioureligiouss advisor,advisor, hehe laterlater decideddecided ttoo abandoabandonn ththee mosqumosquee foforr ththee palacpalacee andand

enricenrichh himselhimselff aass a statestate functionaryfunctionary.. ThThee conclusioconclusionn ooff thithiss lineline ooff reasoningreasoning woulwouldd bbee thathatt IbIbnn al-Qa1;iiraal-Qasira foughtfought ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss inin 10911091 becausbecausee hhee stoodstood toto looseloose politicapoliticall powepowerr anandd wealtwealthh ifif ththee 'AbbadiI Abbadiss werweree overthrown.overthrown.

AnotheAnotherr explanationexplanation isis thathatt IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa believebelievedd thathatt ththee taiftaifaa system'system

1616 Ibid.,Ibid., 245245..

1177 Ibid.,Ibid., 240240.. 125125 wawass a viablviablee forformm ofof governmengovernmentt despitedespite ititss theoreticatheoreticall illegitimacy.illegitimacy. ThisThis explanatioexplanationn woulwouldd holholdd thathatt IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa servedserved thethe'' AbbadAbbadli kingkingss iinn ththee hopehope thathatt hhee mighmightt bbee ableable ttoo reforreformm SevilliaSevilliann politicpoliticss iiff nonott ththee entirentiree taiftaifaa system.system.

TheThe conclusioconclusionn ooff thithiss explanatioexplanationn woulwouldd bbee thathatt IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa foughfoughtt thethe

AlmoravidAlmoravidss becausbecausee hhee wawass a proponenproponentt ooff ththee taiftaifaa systesystemm andand diddid nonott wanwantt toto seesee iitt replacereplacedd witwithh ththee AlmoraviAlmoravidd politicapoliticall order.order.

IInn ththee eyeseyes ooff a criticalcritical readerreader,, ththee firstfirst ooff ththee twtwoo explanationexplanationss givengiven abovabovee seemseemss mormoree plausiblplausiblee thathann ththee firsfirstt mainlmainlyy becausbecausee ththee seconsecondd explanationexplanation seemsseems totooo fafarr fetchedfetched.. HoweverHowever,, thertheree isis ononee ververyy importanimportantt bibitt ooff informationinformation thathatt supportssupports ththee secondsecond explanationexplanation anandd makemakess iitt seemseem mormoree plausiblplausiblee thathann thethe firstfirst:: iinn 10941094 IbIbnn TashufiTashuf"mn himselhimselff recruiterecruitedd IbnIbn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa ttoo servservee ththee nascentnascent

AlmoraviAlmoravidd administrationadministration ofof al-Andalusal-Andalus.. AccordinAccordingg ttoo allall accounts,accounts, IbIbnn Tashuf"mTashufin wawass a mamann witwithh highighh moramorall sensibilities;sensibilities; thereforthereforee iitt iiss highlhighlyy unlikelunlikelyy thathatt hehe woulwouldd havhavee chosechosenn IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa ttoo serveserve ththee nascennascentt AlmoraviAlmoravidd statestate iiff thethe

lattelatterr hadhad,, iinn factfact,, ruineruinedd hishis statusstatus aass a mosqumosquee alimalim bbyy servingserving ththee I'Abbadis Abbadi:s..

ThusThus ththee seconsecondd explanatioexplanationn forfor whwhyy IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa foughfoughtt ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss inin

10911091 seemsseems mormoree plausiblplausiblee thathatt ththee first.first.

OOff coursecourse,, ononee ofof ththee ideasideas upouponn whicwhichh thithiss thesithesiss iiss basebasedd isis thathatt thethe victorvictorss writwritee historyhistory.. IfIf thithiss isis ththee casecase,, thethenn IbIbnn Tashufin'Tashuf"m'ss reputatioreputationn forfor religioureligiouss devotiondevotion shouldshould bbee callecalledd intintoo questionquestion.. IfIf doubtdoubt cacann bbee cascastt onon thethe sinceritysincerity ooff IbIbnn Tashufin'sTashufin's religioureligiouss sensibilities,sensibilities, thethenn doubdoubtt musmustt alsalsoo bbee cascastt onon 126126 ththee notionotionn thathatt ththee AlmoraviAlmoravidd emiemirr recruiterecruitedd IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa becausbecausee hhee stillstill hahadd aa reputatioreputationn forfor scholarshipscholarship andand pietpietyy despitdespitee hihiss serviceservice ttoo ththe'e 'Abbadis Abbadis.. CoulCouldd itit havhavee beebeenn ththee cascasee thathatt IbIbnn TashufiTashutmn recruiterecruitedd IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa becausbecausee ooff hishis reputatioreputationn asas a diplomatdiplomat andand hishis experienceexperience inin AndalusAndalusii politicpoliticss anandd nonott becausebecause hhee wawass a bonbonaa fidfidee mosqumosquee alim?alim?

ThThee answeanswerr ttoo thathatt questionquestion isis "no"no"" anandd ththee doubtsdoubts upouponn whicwhichh itit iiss basedbased araree easilyeasily dispelleddispelled.. FirstFirst,, regardlesregardlesss ooff hohoww sinceresincere IbnIbn Tashutm'sTashufin's religiousreligious devotiondevotion mighmightt oorr mighmightt nonott havhavee beenbeen,, ththee AlmroavidAlmroavidss staffedstaffed thethe administrationadministration ooff theitheirr empirempiree witwithh mosqumosquee ulamaulama.. InIn fact,fact, ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss seemseem ttoo havhavee deferredeferredd ttoo ththee mosquemosque ulamulamaa anandd allowedallowed themthem ttoo rurunn thethe empireempire mormoree oror leslesss asas thetheyy sasaww fit.fit.IS18 (Remember(Remember thathatt ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss werewere a militarymilitary ratherrather thathann a bureaucraticbureaucratic elite.elite.)) Therefore,Therefore, itit seemsseems unlikelunlikelyy thathatt IbIbnn al-Qa~iraal-Qasira woulwouldd havhavee beebeenn allowedallowed ttoo servservee ththee statstatee ifif hishis peerpeerss amongamong ththee mosquemosque ulamulamaa dididd nonott feefeell thathatt hhee hahadd a well-deservewell-deservedd reputatioreputationn foforr scholarshischolarshipp andand pietypiety.. IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa musmustt havhavee retaineretainedd hishis statusstatus asas a mosquemosque alimalim despitdespitee hishis serviceservice ttoo ththee ''Abbadis Abbadis..

Second,Second, ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss woulwouldd havhavee hahadd nnoo reasoreasonn toto employemploy IbnIbn al­al-

QasirQa~iraa basebasedd onon hihiss previoupreviouss experienceexperiencess aass a diplomat.diplomat. WheWhenn thethe AlmoravidsAlmoravids capturecapturedd BadajoBadajozz inin 1094,1094, thetheyy effectiveleffectivelyy broughbroughtt ththee taiftaifaa systesystemm ttoo aann endend andand establishedestablished a neneww politicapoliticall orderorder.. Therefore,Therefore, IbIbnn al-Qasira'al-Qa~ira'ss knowledgknowledgee ooff thethe

1818 Bosch-VilaBosch-Vila,, Los Almordvides, 127-70. 127127

workingsworkings ofof thethe tallataifa systemsystem wouldwould havehave beenbeen ofof littlelittle valuevalue toto thethe Almoravids.Almoravids.

However,However, thethe AlmoravidsAlmoravids diddid needneed mosquemosque ulamaulama toto administeradminister andand helphelp

governgovern theirtheir AndalusiAndalusi holdings.holdings. IbnIbn al-Qa~ira's.al-Qasira's personalpersonal talentstalents asas a diplomatdiplomat

. notnot withstanding,withstanding, itit seemsseems likelylikely thatthat IbnIbn TashurffiTashufin recruitedrecruited IbnIbn al-Qa~iraal-Qasira mainlymainly

becausebecause ofof hishis reputationreputation asas a talentedtalented scholarscholar andand notnot becausebecause ofof hishis experienceexperience

inin thethe arenaarena ofof taifataifa politics.politics.

NoNoww itit isis necessarynecessary toto returnreturn brieflbrieflyy toto IbnIbn al-Qa~ira'sal-Qasira's serviceservice ttoo thethe

,'Abbadi Abbadiss andand thethe notionnotion thatthat hehe triedtried toto reformreform thethe tallataifa systemsystem fromfrom within.within.

Granted,Granted, therethere isis nono directdirect evidenceevidence toto supportsupport thisthis notionnotion --~ thethe sourcessources dodo notnot

describedescribe anyany reformreform effortsefforts initiatedinitiated bbyy IbnIbn al-Qa~ira.al-Qasira. However,However, a fewfew bitbitss ofof

informationinformation indicatindicatee thatthat reforreformm wawass ononee ooff IbIbnn al-Qasira'al-Qa~ira'ss goalsgoals.. FirstFirst,, IbIbnn al­al-

QasirQa~iraa turneturnedd al-Muta<;iidal-Mutadid towartowardd pietpietyy atat ththee enendd ofof hishis reignreign.. IInn termtermss ooff realreal

politicpoliticss thithiss probablprobablyy doesdoes nonott meanmean muchmuch,, bubutt iitt doesdoes helphelp explaiexplainn IbIbnn al-Qa~iraal-Qasira

's's motivatiomotivationn forfor comincomingg toto ththe'e 'AbbadAbbadi I court.court.

SecondSecond,, iitt wawass durinduringg IbIbnn al-Qasira'al-Qa~ira'ss tenurtenuree aass Seville'Seville'ss ambassadoambassadorr ttoo thethe

otheotherr taiftaifaa courtcourtss thathatt SevilleSeville gavgavee uupp ititss expansionisexpansionistt designdesignss anandd movemovedd towardtoward

conciliatioconciliationn witwithh ththee otheotherr taiftaifaa kingdomskingdoms.. OOff coursecourse,, ththee effeceffectt ooff AlfonsAlfonsoo VI'sVTs

capturcapturee ooff ToledToledoo oonn thithiss changchangee ooff policpolicyy cannocannott bbee underestimatedunderestimated.. However,However,

iitt iiss importanimportantt ttoo notnotee thathatt al-Mu'tamidal-Mu'tamid,, ththee kinkingg ooff SevilleSeville,, wawass reluctanreluctantt toto

changchangee ththee policpolicyy ooff expansioexpansionn anandd cooperatcooperatee witwithh ththee otheotherr taiftallaa kingkingss iinn askingasking

ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss foforr helphelp.. IItt cacann bbee reasonablreasonablyy assumeassumedd thathatt IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa playedplayed 128128 somsomee parpartt iinn helpinhelpingg ttoo changchangee al-Mu'tamid'al-Mu'tamid'ss mindmind.. SupportSupport foforr thithiss comecomess fromfrom ththee facfactt thathatt al-Mu'tamial-Mu'tamidd choschosee IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa~lraa ttoo represenrepresentt SevillSevillee beforbeforee thethe

AlmoravidAlmoravidss iinn 10851085 anandd 1086.1086.

Third,Third, IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa wawass dispossessedispossessedd bbyy ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss iinn 10911091 bubutt waswas recallerecalledd iinn 10941094 —-- thethe veryvery yearyear inin whichwhich BadajozBadajoz fellfell toto thethe AlmoravidAlmoravid andand thethe taiftaifaa systemsystem effectivelyeffectively camcamee ttoo aann endend.. OncOncee thethe AlmoravidAlmoravidss hahadd dismantleddismantled ththee taiftaifaa system,system, IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa wawass nnoo longelongerr a threathreatt ttoo ththee neneww politicapoliticall orderorder thetheyy werweree tryingtrying ttoo establish.establish. ThiThiss indicateindicatess thatthat ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss dispossesseddispossessed

IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa becausbecausee hhee supportesupportedd ththee taiftaifaa systemsystem anandd wawass thereforthereforee a threathreatt toto ththee neneww AlmoraviAlmoravidd politicapoliticall order.order. ThereforeTherefore,, iitt seemsseems asas ifif thetheyy dididd nonott thrustthrust

IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa intintoo obscuritobscurityy becausbecausee hhee hahadd becombecomee a palacpalacee alim.alim.

IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa workeworkedd forfor ththee ''Abbadi Abbadiss foforr mormoree thathann twenttwentyy yearyearss thenthen servedserved ththee AlmoravidsAlmoravids foforr a longelongerr perioperiodd ooff timetime.. ThThee casecase ooff IbIbnn al-Qa~iraal-Qasira showsshows thathatt iitt wawass possiblpossiblee foforr mosqumosquee ulamulamaa toto serveserve ththee statestate whilwhilee keepingkeeping theitheirr scholarlyscholarly reputationreputationss intactintact.. FurthermoreFurthermore,, hihiss casecase showsshows thathatt nonott allall ofof thethe mosquemosque ulamulamaa opposeopposedd ththee taiftaifaa systemsystem andand supportesupportedd ththee AlmoravidsAlmoravids.. IbIbnn al­al-

QasirQa~iraa apparentlapparentlyy dididd nonott sharsharee ththee poinpointt ofof vievieww ofof mosqumosquee ulamulamaa sucsuchh aass IbnIbn al-Qulay'i.al-QulayT. IInn fact,fact, hhee seemsseems ttoo havhavee trietriedd ttoo reforreformm ththee system.system. ThereforeTherefore,, thethe traditionatraditionall historicahistoricall vievieww thathatt holdholdss thathatt ththee mosqumosquee ulamulamaa uniteunitedd witwithh thethe

AlmoravidAlmoravidss ttoo brinbringg ththee taiftaifaa systemsystem dowdownn isis nonott completelycompletely sound.sound. 129129

ThThee CaseCase ofof IbIbnn JahaJa1)aff (d.(d. 1094)1094)

IbIbnn JahaJa1)aff wawass ononee ooff ththee leadinleadingg mosqumosquee ulamulamaa ooff ValenciaValencia iinn ththee lastlast quarterquarter ooff ththee eleventeleventhh century.century. HHee wawass respecterespectedd foforr hishis scholarshischolarshipp andand pietypiety anandd wawass countedcounted amongamong "those"those whwhoo looseloosedd anandd bound.bound."19,/19 IInn 10921092 IbnIbn Ja1)afJahaf andand otheotherr ValenciaValenciann notablesnotables,, togethetogetherr witwithh a detachmendetachmentt ofof AlmoraviAlmoravidd soldiers,soldiers, rebelledrebelled againsagainstt andand deposeddeposed ththee kinkingg ooff ValenciaValencia,, al-QadiaI-Qadirr ibibnn DhDhuu aI-NUn,al-Nun, abouaboutt whowhomm mucmuchh hahass alreadalreadyy beebeenn saisaidd inin thithiss thesisthesis.. AfteAfterr ththee rebelrebelss hadhad securedsecured ththee citycity anandd executeexecutedd al-Qadiral-Qadir,, IbIbnn JahaJa1)aff becambecamee ththee politicapoliticall leaderleader ofof ththee city.city. IbIbnn JahaJa1)aff soonsoon dismisseddismissed ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss whwhoo hahadd helpehelpedd himhim overthrowal-Qadiroverthrow al-Qadir anandd thethenn begabegann ttoo governgovern iinn ththee mannemannerr ofof ththee taiftaifaa kings.kings.

ForFor allall practicapracticall purposepurpose,, IbnIbn JahaJa1)aff becambecamee ththee kinkingg ooff ValenciValenciaa iinn 1092.1092. IbnIbn Ja1)afJahaf ruleruledd ValenciValenciaa untiuntill 10941094 whewhenn hhee surrenderedsurrendered ththee citcityy ttoo RodrigoRodrigo DiaDiazz ddee Vivar,Vivar, alsoalso knowknownn asas ththee CiCidd oorr ththee Campeador.Campeador. ShortlyShortly afteafterr enteringentering ththee citycity,, ththee CidCid executedexecuted IbIbnn Ja1)afJahaf anandd claimeclaimedd ththee kingdomkingdom ofof ValenciValenciaa forfor himself.himself.

ThThee cascasee ooff IbnIbn JahaJa1)aff iiss remarkablremarkablee forfor a numbenumberr ofof reasonsreasons.. FirstFirst,, IbnIbn

JahaJa1)aff ledled a rebellionrebellion againstagainst a taiftaifaa kingking.. FeFeww ulamulamaa hahadd attemptedattempted rebellionrebellion sincesince thethe earlearlyy yearyearss ofof ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss era.era. Second,Second, IbnIbn JahaJa1)aff wawass amongamong IIthose"those whwhoo loosenedloosened andand bound,bound,"" a tertermm useusedd ttoo describedescribe ththee secondsecond tietierr ooff socio­socio­ economiceconomic andand politicapoliticall powepowerr iinn IslamiIslamicc societiessocieties.. IbIbnn JahaJa1)aff wawass nonott ththee firstfirst membememberr ooff thithiss clasclasss ttoo rebelrebel againsagainstt hihiss kinkingg --~ IbIbnn al-Qulayal-Qulay'iT diddid mucmuchh ththee samesame

1919 IbIbnn 'Idhari'Idhari,, Al-Bayan,AI-Bayiin, volvol.. 4,314, 31.. 130130 thingthing.. HoweverHowever,, IbnIbn Jal:tafJahaf trietriedd ttoo rulrulee bbyy himselhimselff andand diddid nonott turturnn ththee citcityy overover ttoo ththee AlmoravidsAlmoravids.. NNoo alialimm (o(orr anyoneanyone elselsee amonamongg "those"those whwhoo looseneloosenedd andand bound"bound")) hahadd beebeenn ableable ttoo dodo thithiss sincesince ththee earlearlyy yearyearss ofof ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss era.era.

HoweverHowever,, thethe mosmostt remarkablremarkablee featurfeaturee ofof thethe casecase ofof IbnIbn JahaJal:taff iiss thathatt hehe trietriedd ttoo becombecomee a taiftaifaa kinkingg despitdespitee ththee facfactt thathatt hhee wawass a mosqumosquee alialimm andand woulwouldd havhavee beebeenn awarawaree ooff ththee theoreticatheoreticall illegitimacillegitimacyy ooff ththee taiftaifaa system.system.

Therefore,Therefore, ththee cascasee ooff IbIbnn JahaJal:taff showsshows thathatt aatt leastleast somsomee mosqumosquee ulamulamaa werweree notnot opposedopposed ttoo ththee taiftaifaa systemsystem oonn theoreticatheoreticall groundsgrounds.. ThisThis isis contrarcontraryy ttoo whatwhat manmanyy historianhistorianss ofof ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss ereraa havhavee assumed.assumed.

IInn ordeorderr ttoo provprovee thithiss pointpoint,, itit iiss necessarnecessaryy ttoo looklook aatt ththee cascasee ooff IbIbnn Jal).afJahaf mormoree closelyclosely.. TheThe followingfollowing passagpassagee describedescribess IbnIbn JahaJal).af'sf s revolrevoltt andand hihiss victoryvictory oveoverr al-QadiraI-Qadir.. I havhavee translatetranslatedd thithiss passagpassagee fromfrom IbIbnn 'ldharI'sTdhari's aZ-Baylin:al-Bayan:

AfteAfterr IbIbnn 'Aish'Aishaa (one(one ofof IbIbnn Tashufin'Tashufin'ss sons)sons) hahadd conquereconqueredd MurciaMurcia anandd hahadd establishedestablished hihiss victorvictoryy oveoverr ititss elites,elites, a delegationdelegation composecomposedd ooff ththee qadqii<;l1i IbIbnn JahafJal).af,, ththee emineneminentt jurisjuristt IbnIbn WahabWal).iib,, andand otherotherss frofromm thosthosee whwhoo tietiedd anandd looseneloosenedd inin ValenciVaIenciaa petitionepetitionedd thethe AlmoraviAlmoravidd lieutenant.lieutenant. IbIbn'n 'AishAisha a assignedassigned ttoo thethemm a smallsmall detachmendetachmentt ooff AlmoraviAlmoravidd trooptroopss undeunderr ththee leadershileadershipp ooff IbnIbn Nal?rNasr anandd thetheyy allall travelletravelledd ttoo ValenciaValencia.. Al-QadiAI-Qiidirr understoounderstoodd thethe intentionintentionss ofof thithiss grougroupp whewhenn hhee sasaww peoplpeoplee hidinhidingg theitheirr goods,goods, treasurestreasures,, anandd familiesfamilies iinn fortifiefortifiedd placesplaces.. Al-QadiAI-Qadirr sensentt hihiss ownown familyfamily ttoo ththee fortresfortresss ooff ShubrubShubrub whicwhichh wawass undeunderr ththee commancommandd ofof IbIbnn YasiYaslnn andand ttoo ththee fortresfortresss ooff al-'al-'Aqa Aqabb whicwhichh wawass undeunderr thethe commandcommand ooff IbIbnn HudaydaHudayda.. Al-QadiAI-Qadirr thethenn escapedescaped accompanieaccompaniedd byby a detachmentdetachment ofof thethe ChristianChristian troopstroops whichwhich thethe CidCid hadhad leftleft behind.behind. ThThee qa<;iIqadi andand ththee fuqaha'fuqaha' togethetogetherr witwithh IbIbnn NasNal?rr anandd hishis detachmendetachmentt wenwentt afterafter aI-Qadir.al-Qadir. Al-QadiAI-Qadirr trietriedd ttoo escapeescape toto DaDarr aI­al- HajinHajmaa (?(?)) bubutt IbnIbn JahaJal:taff capturecapturedd hihimm oonn ththee nighnightt ooff ththee laslastt FridayFriday beforbeforee ththee enendd ooff RamadanRama<;ian.. TheThenn IbIbnn JahaJal:taff ordereorderedd hihiss execution.execution. 131131

.....-. HiHiss (al-Qadir's(al-Qadir's)) heaheadd wawass placeplacedd oonn a sticstickk anandd paradeparadedd aroundaround ththee marketmarketss andand througthroughh ththee streets.20streets.20

JudginJudgingg fromfrom thithiss passagepassage,, itit seemsseems thathatt IbIbnn JahaJal:taf'sf s appealappeal ttoo thethe

AlmoravidAlmoravidss wawass similasimilarr ttoo thathatt ooff IbIbnn al-QulayTal-Qulati.. ThaThatt isis ttoo saysay thathatt iitt appearappearss asas

ifif IbIbnn Jal:tafJahaf broughbroughtt ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss ttoo ValenciValenciaa inin ordeorderr ttoo deposedepose a taiftaifaa kingking

andand ttoo brinbringg ththee citycity undeunderr AlmoraviAlmoravidd controcontroll jusjustt asas IbIbnn al-Qulay'ial-QulayT hahadd donedone

witwith'h 'Ab Abdd AllaAllahh ibibnn BulugglBulugginn aatt GranadaGranada.. BByy 10921092 ththee AlmoravidAimoravidss hahadd takentaken

GranadGranadaa anandd SevilleSeville anandd iitt wawass clearclear ttoo everyoneveryonee thathatt thetheyy werweree iinn al-Andalusal-Andalus nonott onlonlyy ttoo wagwagee jihajihadd againstagainst ththee ChristiansChristians bubutt alsalsoo ttoo anneannexx al-Andalual-Andaluss toto theitheirr empireempire.. AnAnyy appealappeal ttoo ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss aatt thathatt timtimee wawass tantamountantamountt toto invitinginviting thethemm ttoo conquer.conquer. PresumablyPresumably,, ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss understoounderstoodd IbIbnn Jal:taf'sJahaf's

appeaappeall ttoo thethemm aass anan offeofferr ttoo handhand ValenciValenciaa oveoverr ttoo themthem.. AfteAfterr thetheyy hahadd donedone theitheirr parpartt ttoo gegett riridd ooff al-Qadiral-Qadir,, thetheyy probablprobablyy expecteexpectedd ttoo bbee alloweallowedd ttoo controlcontrol ofof ththee city.city.

HoweverHowever,, ththee followinfollowingg passagpassagee indicateindicatess thathatt IbnIbn JahaJal:taff eitheeitherr changedchanged hihiss minmindd aboutabout givinggiving ththee citycity ttoo ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss oorr thathatt hhee neveneverr intendeintendedd ttoo dodo so:so:

IbIbnn JahaJal:taff begabegann hihiss rulrulee oveoverr ththee citycity bbyy organizinorganizingg ththee armarmyy andand civicivill service.service. HHee thethenn begabegann ttoo acactt iinn a ruthlesruthlesss mannemannerr anandd startedstarted ttoo affectaffect ththee airair ooff a kingking.. FroFromm thatthat timtimee oonn hhee tootookk aass hihiss modelmodel ththee qadqa<;iii MuhammaMuhammadd ibnibn Isma'IIsma'ill ibn'ibn'Abba Abbadd (th(thee kinkingg ooff SevilleSeville frofromm 1023-1041)1023-1041)...... IbnIbn JahaJal:tiHf gatheredgathered a substantiasubstantiall armyarmy (comprised(comprised ooff locallocal militiamilitia)) whicwhichh wawass bolsterebolsteredd bbyy reinforcementsreinforcements sentsent bbyy IbIbn'n 'AishaAisha. . IInn allall,, therethere werweree 300300 cavalrycavalry trooptroopss gatheredgathered inin

2200 Ibid.,Ibid., 31-231-2.. 132132

ValenciaValencia.. ThenThen IbnIbn Jal:tafJahaf becambecamee rudrudee andand deceptivedeceptive.. TheThe ChristiaChristiann armarmyy movedmoved anandd manoeuvredmanoeuvred makinmakingg wawarr aass thetheyy wentwent andand bringinbringingg deathdeath anandd destructiondestruction iinn theitheirr wakewake.. ThThee CampeadorCampeador wishewishedd thathatt ththee AlmoraviAlmoravidd detachmentdetachment mighmightt leavleavee Valencia.Valencia. AlthoughAlthough hhee useusedd themthem,, IbnIbn Jal:tafJahaf camcamee ttoo findfind ththee AlmroavidsAlmroavids burdensomeburdensome andand hhee madmadee hishis feelingfeelingss knowknownn ttoo themthem.. TheThe CampeadoCampeadorr convinceconvincedd IbIbnn JahaJal:taff ttoo dismisdismisss thethemm (th(thee Almoravids)Almoravids) soso thatthat hhee couldcould rulru1ee iinn ththee tyrannicatyrannicall mannemannerr ooff a kinkingg (istibdad bi'l­bi'l- malik li-nafsihi). HHee offeredoffered ttoo allowallow IbIbnn JahaJal:taff ttoo rulrwee liklikee a tyrantyrantt asas al-Qadiral-Qadir hahadd donedone andand ttoo protecprotectt anandd defendefendd hihimm forfor hhee suspectedsuspected thathatt IbnIbn Jal:tafJahaf desireddesired thathatt ververyy thing.thing.2211

HoweverHowever,, IbnIbn JahaJal:taff diddid nonott lelett ththee CiCidd intintoo ththee citcityy despitdespitee ththee facfactt thathatt hehe hadhad dismissedismissedd ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss iinn accordancaccordancee witwithh ththee Cid'Cid'ss wisheswishes.. ThThee CidCid responderespondedd ttoo IbnIbn Jal:tafJahaf' 'ss actionactionss byby capturingcapturing alalll ooff ththee roadroadss leadinleadingg intointo

ValenciValenciaa nndd layinlayingg wastwastee ttoo ththee countryside.countryside. HHee thethenn startedstarted a siegesiege ofof ththee citycity thathatt lastelastedd forfor nearlnearlyy threthreee yearyearss (earl(earlyy 10921092 ttoo latlatee 1094).1094).

IbnIbn Jahaf'Jal:taf 'ss decisiodecisionn ttoo expeexpell thethe AlmoravidAlmoravidss andand thethenn refusrefusee ttoo lelett ththee CidCid intintoo ththee citycity requirerequiress somsomee examination.examination. TheThe onlonlyy reasoreasonn thatthat IbnIbn JahaJal:taff mightmight havhavee distanceddistanced himselhimselff ofof botbothh ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss anandd ththee CiCidd isis thathatt hhee wantewantedd toto retairetainn allall powerpower foforr himselfhimself.. IInn otherother wordswords,, hhee wantewantedd ttoo bbee ththee kinkingg ooff thethe taiftaifaa ooff ValenciaValencia.. TToo thathatt endend,, hhee playeplayedd ththee CiCidd anandd ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss againsagainstt eacheach otherother..

IbnIbn JahaJal:taff wawass successfu1successful foforr a timetime;; howeverhowever,, ultimatelyu1timately,, hishis attemptattempt toto makmakee himselhimselff kinkingg failed.failed. ValenciValenciaa wawass easeasyy ttoo defendefendd anandd apparentlapparentlyy hadhad enoughenough provisionprovisionss ttoo withstanwithstandd a siegsiegee foforr moremore thathann a yearyear,, butbut ththee citycity diddid notnot

2211 Ibid.Ibid.,, 3434.. 133133 havehave thethe necessarynecessary resourcesresources toto holdhold outout forever.forever. TheThe citizencitizen militiamilitia ofof ValenciaValencia waswas moremore thanthan capablecapable ofof defendingdefending thethe citycity fromfrom withinwithin itsits walls,walls, butbut itit waswas notnot strongstrong enoughenough toto drivedrive thethe CidCid awayaway oror breakbreak throughthrough hishis lines.lines. InIn addition,addition, thethe citycity hadhad limitedlimited foodfood storesstores andand thesethese ranran outout longlong beforebefore thethe siegesiege waswas lifted.lifted.

2222 ByBy latelate 1094,1094, thethe peoplepeople ofof ValenciaValencia werewere resortingresorting toto cannibalismcannibalism toto staystay alive.alive.

AfterAfter realizingrealizing thatthat thethe CidCid waswas notnot goinggoing toto liftlift thethe siegesiege andand thatthat therethere waswas nono wayway toto endend it,it, IbnIbn Jal:t.afJahaf triedtried toto reconcilereconcile himselfhimself withwith thethe Almoravids.Almoravids.

IbnIbn TashutmTashufin agreedagreed toto helphelp IbnIbn Jal:t.af,Jahaf, bubutt hehe couldcould onlyonly sparespare a smallsmall numbenumberr ofof troopstroops becausebecause ththee AlmoravidsAlmoravids werewere preoccupiedpreoccupied withwith theirtheir advanceadvance againstagainst

BadajozBadajoz atat thatthat time.time. TheThe smallsmall AlmoravidAlmoravid forceforce waswas unableunable toto divertdivert thethe Cid'sCid's attentioattentionn frofromm ValenciValenciaa anandd IbnIbn JahaJal:t.aff wawass finallyfinally forcedforced ttoo surrender:surrender:

TheThe plighplightt ofof ththee peoplpeoplee ooff ValenciValenciaa camcamee ttoo a heaheadd anandd theirtheir patiencpatiencee hahadd stretchestretchedd farfar beyonbeyondd ititss greatesgreatestt capacitycapacity.. WheWhenn thethe peoplepeople sawsaw thatthat thertheree wawass nnoo relierelieff oorr helhelpp comingcoming,, thetheyy decideddecided toto lelett ththee enemyenemy (the(the CidCid)) intintoo ththee citycity.. TheTheyy madmadee thithiss decisiondecision becausbecausee thetheyy werweree forcedforced ttoo anandd nonott becausbecausee thetheyy choschosee toto.. TheyThey gatheredgathered aroundaround ththee qadqa<;lii IbIbnn JahaJabaff anandd thethenn thetheyy wenwentt ououtt toto meetmeet ththee CampeadoCampeadorr —-- maymay GodGod damndamn him!him! AfterAfter exchangingexchanging promisespromises ooff safsafee conductconduct,, thetheyy negotiatenegotiatedd a settlemensettlementt whicwhichh alloweallowedd themthem (th(thee CiCidd anandd hihiss menmen)) ttoo enteenterr ththee citycity.. HHee (Ib(Ibnn JahafJabaf)) signesignedd thethe agreemenagreementt anandd thethenn returnereturnedd ttoo ththee citcityy iinn sadnesssadness.. HHee hadhad persevereperseveredd foforr aass lonlongg aass hhee coulcouldd anandd longerlonger,, bubutt nothinnothingg goodgood camcamee ooff iitt iinn ththee endend.. HHee finallfinallyy hahadd ttoo opeopenn ththee gategatess anandd thuthuss thethe affaiaffairr camcamee ttoo aanend.23n end.23

ThThee pricpricee thathatt IbIbnn JahaJal:t.aff paipaidd foforr hihiss attempattemptt ttoo becombecomee a taiftaifaa kinkingg waswas

2222 ibid.Ibid.,, 3333..

2233 Ibid.Ibid.,, 3344 134134 heavyheavy.. Th Thee CiCidd entereenteredd ththee citcityy andand searchesearchedd forfor al-Qadir'sal-Qadir's treasurtreasuree whicwhichh hehe believebelievedd IbIbnn Jaha]al)aff hahadd founfoundd anandd hiddenhidden.. WheWhenn thethe CiCidd coulcouldd nonott finfindd thethe treasuretreasure,, hhee arrestearrestedd IbnIbn ]al)a£Jahaf anandd hihiss familfamilyy anandd friendsfriends anandd thethenn subjectedsubjected thethemm ttoo anan interrogation.interrogation. WheWhenn hhee failefailedd ttoo obtaiobtainn ththee informationinformation hhee wanted,wanted, ththee CiCidd decideddecided ttoo puputt IbIbnn Jaha]al)a£f onon trialtrial.. HHee gatheregatheredd alalll ooff ththee peoplpeoplee ofof

ValenciValenciaa anandd puputt IbIbnn Jaha]al)a£f iinn fronfrontt ofof thethemm ThThee followingfollowing passagpassagee describesdescribes whawhatt followed:followed:

TheThenn hhee (th(thee CidCid)) saisaidd ttoo ththee MuslimMuslim community:community: "What"What iiss thethe punishmenpunishmentt demandeddemanded bbyy youyourr lawlaw foforr a mamann whowho killkillss hihiss king?"king?" ThThee crowcrowdd wawass silentsilent.. TheThenn hhee said,said, "According"According toto ourour law,law, thethe punishmenpunishmentt iiss deathdeath bbyy fire!fire!"" HHee thethenn ordereorderedd ththee execution...execution.... . AA pyrpyree wawass builbuiltt andand ththee qadqa<;iIi (Ibn(Ibn Jahaf)wa]al)a£)wass placeplacedd onon itit.. TheThenn thethe firfiree wawass litlit.. HHee madmadee nnoo soundsound asas ththee flamesflames lickedlicked hihiss facefacedd exceptexcept ttoo say,say, "In"In ththee namnamee God,God, ththee BeneficenBeneficentt andand Merci£ul."Merciful." TheThenn thethe resrestt ooff hihiss bodbodyy burnedburned.. MaMayy GoGodd AlmightAlmightyy havhavee mercmercyy onon him.him. ThThee CiCidd wawass alreadyalready angeredangered bbyy IbIbnn ]al).a£'sJahaf s decisiodecisionn toto seekseek helphelp (fro(fromm ththee Almoravids)Almoravids),, hihiss prolongeprolongedd defensedefense ofof ththee citycity,, hishis devotiodevotionn ttoo hihiss country,country, anandd hishis refusarefusall ttoo taltalkk (abou(aboutt thethe whereaboutwhereaboutss ofof al-Qadir'al-Qadir'ss treasure)treasure).. HoweverHowever,, ththee Cid'sCid's ragerage burneburnedd hotteshottestt aatt ththee patiencpatiencee IbIbnn ]al).a£Jahaf showedshowed inin ththee facfacee ofof execution.execution.2244

AfteAfterr executingexecuting IbIbnn Jahaf]al)a£,, ththee CidCid ruleruledd ValenciValenciaa untiuntill hishis deatdeathh inin 1099.1099.

HiHiss widowidoww Jimen]imenaa controllecontrolledd ththee citcityy untiuntill 11021102 whewhenn sheshe burneburnedd ththee citcityy andand thethenn abandonedabandoned ththee ruinruinss ttoo ththee Almoravids.Almoravids.

ThThee cascasee ooff IbIbnn Jaha]al)a£f castcastss seriouseriouss doubdoubtt oonn ththee notionotionn thathatt ththee AndaluslAndalusi mosquemosque ulamulamaa opposeopposedd ththee taiftaifaa systemsystem.. UnlikUnlikee IbIbnn al-Qulayal-Qulay'lT whwhoo workeworkedd toto

2244 Ibid.Ibid.,, 37-837-8 135135 brinbringg downdown ththee ZiriZiriss ooff GranadaGranada oror IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa whwhoo activelyactively defendedefendedd thethe

'Abbadi, Abbadiss ofof Seville,Seville, IbIbnn JahaJa1:taff trietriedd ttoo becombecomee a taiftaifaa kinkingg iinn hishis owownn right.right.

FurthermoreFurthermore,, hhee dididd thithiss withouwithoutt .ruiningruining hihiss reputatioreputationn aass a mosqumosquee alimalim.. TheThe chroniclerchroniclerss alwaysalways mentiomentionn thathatt IbIbnn JahaJa1:taff wawass a respectablrespectablee alimalim untiuntill ththee dayday hehe dieddied,, hishis failurfailuree asas a kingking notwithstanding.2525 ItIt seemsseems unlikelunlikelyy thathatt thetheyy wouldwould havhavee passepassedd suchsuch favorablfavorablee judgmenjudgmentt onon a mamann whowhomm thetheyy diddid nonott thinkthink deservedeservedd ththee honor.honor.

SummarySummary

ThThee mosqumosquee ulamulamaa assisteassistedd ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss iinn theitheirr efforteffortss ttoo brinbringg thethe

AlmoravidAlmoravidss ttoo al-Andalus.al-Andalus. TheThe relatiorelationn betweebetweenn ththee mosqumosquee ulamulamaa andand thethe

AlmoravidAlmoravidss continuecontinuedd lonlongg afteafterr ththee taiftaifaa kingkingss werweree deposedeposedd anandd ththee taifataifa systesystemm wawass destroyed.destroyed. HistoriansHistorians havhavee taketakenn thithiss ttoo indicateindicate thathatt ththee mosquemosque ulamulamaa werweree opposeopposedd ttoo ththee taifataifa systemsystem beforbeforee 10851085.. TheThe informatioinformationn inin thisthis chapterchapter challengeschallenges thithiss notionnotion.. GrantedGranted,, thertheree werweree mosqumosquee ulamulamaa suchsuch aass IbnIbn al-Qulay/ial-QulayT whwhoo supportedsupported ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss anandd ththee dissolutiondissolution ooff ththee taiftaifaa system.system.

HoweverHowever,, thertheree werweree alsalsoo mosquemosque ulamulamaa suchsuch asas IbIbnn al-Qasiral-Qa~iraa whwhoo werweree notnot opposedopposed ttoo ththee taiftaifaa kingskings.. IInn addition,addition, thertheree wawass oneone mosquemosque alim,alim, IbnIbn Ja1:taf,Jahaf, whwhoo trietriedd ttoo becombecomee a taiftaifaa kinkingg iinn hishis owownn rightright.. KeepinKeepingg ththee examplesexamples ofof IbnIbn

2255 IbnIbn 'Idharl,'Idhari, Al-Bayan,AI-Bayiin, 3838;; IbnIbn al-Karadbusal-Karadbus,, Tiirikh,Tarlkh, 103;103; IbIbnn l-Khap.D,1-Khatib, Tiirikh,Tarikh, 304.304. 136 al-Qa~lraal-Qasira andand IbnIbn )aI)afJahaf inin mind,mind, iitt seemseemss aass iiff ththee assumptionassumption thathatt ththee majoritmajorityy ofof ththee mosquemosque ulamulamaa werewere opposedopposed tto.o ththee taiftailaa systesystemm iiss misguided.misguided. CHAPTECHAPTERR VIIIVIII

CONCLUSIOCONCLUSIONN

SummarySummary

The taifa kings era began in 1013 when Berber forces captured the city of The taifa kings era began in 1013 when Berber forces captured the city of Cordoba and effectively put an end to the Umayyad caliphate. For nearly three Cordoba and effectively put an end to the Umayyad caliphate. For nearly three quarters of a century, the taifa political system survived despite nearly constant quarters of a century, the taifa political system survived despite nearly constant competition among the taifa kings and pressure from the Christian kingdoms of competition among the taifa kings and pressure from the Christian kingdoms of the north. However, it began to totter when Alfonso VI captured Toledo in the north. However, it began to totter when Alfonso VI captured Toledo in 1085. Apparently, the taifa kings realized that they needed to cooperate with 1085. Apparently, the taifa kings realized that they needed to cooperate with each other in order to stay in power, so they combined their efforts and asked each other in order to stay in power, so they combined their efforts and asked the Almoravids of North Africa to help them stop Alfonso's reconquista. the Almoravids of North Africa to help them stop Alfonso's reconquista. Between 1086 and 1090, the Almoravids saved the taifa kingdoms from collapse. Between 1086 and 1090, the Almoravids saved the taifa kingdoms from collapse. However, by 1090 they changed their policy toward the taifa kings and began to However, by 1090 they changed their policy toward the taifa kings and began to conquer al-Andalus. The taifa system survived until 1094 when the Almoravids conquer al-Andalus. The taifa system survived until 1094 when the Almoravids 1 captured Badajoz, the last major taifa in the southern part of al-Andalus. 1 captured Badajoz, the last major taifa in the southern part of al-Andalus.

1 Granted,Granted, ZaragozaZaragoza survivedsurvived thethe initialinitial AlmoravidsAlmoravids conquestconquest ofof thethe taifataifa kingdoms,kingdoms, butbut iinn 1110,1110, ththee BaniBanui HuBudd becambecamee ththee clientclientss ofof ththee AlmoravidsAlmoravids.. IInn 1118,1118, ZaragozZaragozaa wawass capturecapturedd byby AragoAragonn anandd wawass thereaftethereafterr iinn ChristiaChristiann hands.hands. 138138

HistoriansHistorians ofof ththee taifataifa kingkingss eraera havehave usuallusuallyy assumedassumed thathatt thethe ulamaulama ofof al-Andalusal-Andalus generallygenerally opposedopposed thethe taiftaifaa kingskings andand supportedsupported ththee Almoravids.Almoravids.

ThisThis assumptionassumption isis basebasedd onon thethe followingfollowing notionsnotions:: thathatt thethe AndalusAndalusli ulamulamaa cancan bebe thoughthoughtt ofof asas a homogeneouhomogeneouss group,group, thatthat ulamulamaa opposedopposed ththee taifataifa systemsystem becausbecausee itit wawass illegitimatillegitimatee accordinaccordingg ttoo IslamicIslamic politicalpolitical theories,theories, andand thathatt thethe standpointstandpoint frofromm whicwhichh thethe sourcessources araree narratenarratedd accuratelyaccurately representrepresentss ththee ulamaulama ofof al-Andalus.al-Andalus. AlAlll threethree ooff thesthesee notionnotionss havehave beenbeen challengedchallenged inin thithiss thesis.thesis.

FirstFirst,, thethe AndalusiAndalusi ulamaulama couldcould bbee divideddivided intointo severalseveral groups.groups. TheThe twotwo largestlargest categoriescategories werweree thethe palacepalace ulamulamaa andand ththee mosqumosquee ulamaulama.. IndeedIndeed,, a smallsmall groupgroup ooff mosquemosque ulamaulama opposedopposed thethe taifataifa systemsystem andand soughtsought toto brinbringg itit down.down.

TheThe poinpointt ooff viewview ofof thithiss groupgroup camecame toto dominatedominate ththee sources,sources, probablprobablyy becausebecause ththee AlmoravidAlmoravidss defeateddefeated thethe taifataifa kingskings andand thereforthereforee hahadd ththee advantageadvantage ofof beinbeingg ableable ttoo influenceinfluence historyhistory writinwritingg inin thethe latelate eleventeleventhh andand earlyearly twelfthtwelfth centuries.centuries. HoweverHowever,, asas wawass demonstrateddemonstrated inin ththee lastlast chapter,chapter, nonott allall ofof thethe mosquemosque ulamulamaa subscribedsubscribed toto thisthis poinpointt ofof view.view.

Second,Second, althoughalthough thethe taiftaifaa systemsystem wawass illegitimateillegitimate accordingaccording toto mainstreammainstream SunniSunni legallegal theorytheory,, thethe mosqumosquee ulamulamaa diddid nonott necessarilynecessarily basbasee theirtheir attitudesattitudes towartowardd thethe systemsystem onon theory,theory, althoughalthough itit isis highlhighlyy likelylikely thathatt mosquemosque ulamulamaa suchsuch asas IbnIbn al-Qulay'ial-QulayT did,did, inin fact,fact, basebase theirtheir oppositionopposition toto ththee taifataifa systemsystem onon IslamicIslamic politicapoliticall theorytheory toto somesome extent.extent. However,However, otherother mosqumosquee ulamulamaa diddid notnot opposeoppose ththee taifataifa systemsystem aatt all.all. Furthermore,Furthermore, somesome ofof thethe mosqumosquee ulamaulama 139139 actuallyactually workeworkedd withiwithinn thethe taifataifa systemsystem;; therefore,therefore, thethe theoreticaltheoretical illegitimacyillegitimacy ofof thethe taiftaifaa systemsystem mustmust havhavee beenbeen a mattermatter ofof littllittlee importanceimportance toto manymany mosquemosque ulamaulama..

Finally,Finally, whilwhilee somsomee mosquemosque ulamulamaa diddid reactreact toto ththee fallfall ofof ToledoToledo byby turninturningg againstagainst thethe taiftaifaa kingskings andand supportingsupporting thethe AlmoravidsAlmoravids,, manymany othersothers diddid notnot.. IInn fact,fact, mosquemosque ulamaulama suchsuch s IbnIbn al-Qa~iraal-Qasira workeworkedd withiwithinn thethe systemsystem andand mightmight havhavee trietriedd toto reformreform itit.. AAss wawass explainedexplained inin thethe lastlast chapter,chapter, oneone alimalim,, IbnIbn

JahafJal).a£,, trietriedd toto becombecomee a taiftaifaa kingking.. Therefore,Therefore, ththee notionotionn thathatt ththee AndalusiAndalusi mosquemosque ulamulamaa werewere unanimouslyunanimously oror eveneven generallygenerally opposedopposed ttoo thethe taifataifa systemsystem becomebecomess difficultdifficult ttoo support.support.

ImplicationImplicationss forfor FutureFuture HistoricalHistorical ResearcResearchh onon ththee TaifaTaifa KingKingss EraEra

UntiUntill nownow,, historianhistorianss ooff ththee taifataifa kingkingss eraera havhavee generallygenerally acceptedaccepted thethe informatioinformationn inin ththee sourcesourcess withoutwithout question.question. TheThe consequenceconsequence ofof takingtaking thisthis uncriticauncriticall attitudeattitude towartowardd ththee sourcessources isis a distorteddistorted historicahistoricall understandingunderstanding ofof ththee taiftaifaa kingskings era.era. InIn orderorder toto rectifrectifyy thithiss problem,problem, itit isis necessarynecessary toto continuecontinue toto approachapproach ththee sourcessources frofromm a criticalcritical standpointstandpoint.. IfIf thethe argumentsarguments putput forthforth inin thisthis thesithesiss areare deemedeemedd sound,sound, thethenn historicahistoricall researcresearchh ofof ththee taiftaifaa kingskings eraera mustmust henceforthenceforthh bbee approacheapproachedd fromfrom a differentdifferent angle.angle. GivenGiven thathatt therethere werweree mosquemosque ulamulamaa whwhoo diddid notnot opposeoppose ththee taiftaifaa system,system, oneone mustmust questionquestion thethe primaryprimary sourcessources whicwhichh areare dominateddominated bbyy ththee poinpointt ofof vievieww ofof thethe anti-taifaanti-taifa/pro / pro-- 140140

AlmoraviAlmoravidd mosquemosque ulama.ulama. AfteAfterr thesthesee sourcesourcess havhavee beebeenn examineexaminedd frofromm everyevery perspectiveperspective,, thenthen a betterbetter understandinundelrstandingg ooff ththee taiftailaa kingkingss ereraa mighmightt bbee reached.reached. SELECTEDSELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHYBIBLIOGRAPHY

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