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History of the Chlor-Alkali Industry
2 History of the Chlor-Alkali Industry During the last half of the 19th century, chlorine, used almost exclusively in the textile and paper industry, was made [1] by reacting manganese dioxide with hydrochloric acid 100–110◦C MnO2 + 4HCl −−−−−−→ MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O (1) Recycling of manganese improved the overall process economics, and the process became known as the Weldon process [2]. In the 1860s, the Deacon process, which generated chlorine by direct catalytic oxidation of hydrochloric acid with air according to Eq. (2) was developed [3]. ◦ 450–460 C;CuCl2 cat. 4HCl + O2(air) −−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ 2Cl2 + 2H2O(2) The HCl required for reactions (1) and (2) was available from the manufacture of soda ash by the LeBlanc process [4,5]. H2SO4 + 2NaCl → Na2SO4 + 2HCl (3) Na2SO4 + CaCO3 + 2C → Na2CO3 + CaS + 2CO2 (4) Utilization of HCl from reaction (3) eliminated the major water and air pollution problems of the LeBlanc process and allowed the generation of chlorine. By 1900, the Weldon and Deacon processes generated enough chlorine for the production of about 150,000 tons per year of bleaching powder in England alone [6]. An important discovery during this period was the fact that steel is immune to attack by dry chlorine [7]. This permitted the first commercial production and distribu- tion of dry liquid chlorine by Badische Anilin-und-Soda Fabrik (BASF) of Germany in 1888 [8,9]. This technology, using H2SO4 for drying followed by compression of the gas and condensation by cooling, is much the same as is currently practiced. 17 “chap02” — 2005/5/2 — 09Brie:49 — page 17 — #1 18 CHAPTER 2 In the latter part of the 19th century, the Solvay process for caustic soda began to replace the LeBlanc process. -
The Reich Wreckers: an Analysis of the 306Th Bomb Group During World War II 5B
AU/ACSC/514-15/1998-04 AIR COMMAND AND STAFF COLLEGE AIR UNIVERSITY THE REICH WRECKERS: AN ANALYSIS OF THE 306TH BOMB GROUP DURING WORLD WAR II by Charles J. Westgate III, Major, USAF A Research Report Submitted to the Faculty In Partial Fulfillment of the Graduation Requirements Advisor: Dr. Richard R. Muller Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama April 1998 REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE Form Approved OMB No. 0704-0188 Public reporting burder for this collection of information is estibated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instructions, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing this collection of information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burder to Department of Defense, Washington Headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports (0704-0188), 1215 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite 1204, Arlington, VA 22202-4302. Respondents should be aware that notwithstanding any other provision of law, no person shall be subject to any penalty for failing to comply with a collection of information if it does not display a currently valid OMB control number. PLEASE DO NOT RETURN YOUR FORM TO THE ABOVE ADDRESS. 1. REPORT DATE (DD-MM-YYYY) 2. REPORT TYPE 3. DATES COVERED (FROM - TO) 01-04-1998 Thesis xx-xx-1998 to xx-xx-1998 4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5a. CONTRACT NUMBER The Reich Wreckers: An Analysis of the 306th Bomb Group During World War II 5b. GRANT NUMBER Unclassified 5c. PROGRAM ELEMENT NUMBER 6. AUTHOR(S) 5d. -
Salt In, Salt Out
chapter 2 Salt In, Salt Out Following their organizational meeting in November 1917, Yongli’s promoters began work on two Herculean tasks: searching for a plant design while raising the needed capital. In the process, problems of technology transfer, shifting government policy, and limitations of China’s capital market plagued them. Yongli’s challenge of Brunner, Mond’s formidable hold on the “well regulated” market and technology was both risky and difficult, which in turn made the task of raising the necessary capital even more daunting as it battled the Rev- enue Inspectorate over the gabelle waiver. Problems of Technology Transfer As Chen Diaofu and his colleagues demonstrated in Fan Xudong’s backyard, the chemistry behind the Solvay process was a public good. However, the engineering to make it work on an industrial scale was not.1 Sodium chloride (salt), one of the three main raw materials for the process, must be purified as a solution cleared of dirt, magnesium, and other impurities. The other essential chemical, ammonia, could be generated through burning coke, or added in liquid form. Reaction is then carried out by passing the concentrated and purified brine through the first of two absorption towers. Ammonia bubbles up to saturate the brine (NaCl + NH3, Step I). Separately, carbon dioxide is produced by heating limestone in a kiln at 950–1100°C. The calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the limestone, the third main ingredient, is partially converted to quicklime (calcium oxide, CaO) and carbon dioxide: CaCO 3 → CO 2 + CaO ( Step II) The carbon dioxide and ammoniacal brine are then fed into a second tower for carbonation. -
Subject Listing of Numbered Documents in M1934, OSS WASHINGTON SECRET INTELLIGENCE/SPECIAL FUNDS RECORDS, 1942-46
Subject Listing of Numbered Documents in M1934, OSS WASHINGTON SECRET INTELLIGENCE/SPECIAL FUNDS RECORDS, 1942-46 Roll # Doc # Subject Date To From 1 0000001 German Cable Company, D.A.T. 4/12/1945 State Dept.; London, American Maritime Delegation, Horta American Embassy, OSS; (Azores), (McNiece) Washington, OSS 1 0000002 Walter Husman & Fabrica de Produtos Alimonticios, "Cabega 5/29/1945 State Dept.; OSS Rio de Janeiro, American Embassy Branca of Sao Paolo 1 0000003 Contraband Currency & Smuggling of Wrist Watches at 5/17/1945 Washington, OSS Tangier, American Mission Tangier 1 0000004 Shipment & Movement of order for watches & Chronographs 3/5/1945 Pierce S.A., Switzerland Buenos Aires, American Embassy from Switzerland to Argentine & collateral sales extended to (Manufactures) & OSS (Vogt) other venues/regions (Washington) 1 0000005 Brueghel artwork painting in Stockholm 5/12/1945 Stockholm, British Legation; London, American Embassy London, American Embassy & OSS 1 0000006 Investigation of Matisse painting in possession of Andre Martin 5/17/1945 State Dept.; Paris, British London, American Embassy of Zurich Embassy, London, OSS, Washington, Treasury 1 0000007 Rubens painting, "St. Rochus," located in Stockholm 5/16/1945 State Dept.; Stockholm, British London, American Embassy Legation; London, Roberts Commission 1 0000007a Matisse painting held in Zurich by Andre Martin 5/3/1945 State Dept.; Paris, British London, American Embassy Embassy 1 0000007b Interview with Andre Martiro on Matisse painting obtained by 5/3/1945 Paris, British Embassy London, American Embassy Max Stocklin in Paris (vice Germans allegedly) 1 0000008 Account at Banco Lisboa & Acores in name of Max & 4/5/1945 State Dept.; Treasury; Lisbon, London, American Embassy (Peterson) Marguerite British Embassy 1 0000008a Funds transfer to Regerts in Oporto 3/21/1945 Neutral Trade Dept. -
Untitled Essay, 1946 Intelligence Overload These Days
CONTENTS OVERVIEW ................................................................. vi INTRODUCTION: The Name of the Game: Let’s Define Our Terms ........... vii CHAPTER 1 HOW TO DECEIVE: Principles & Process 1.1 Deception as Applied Psychology....................................... 1 1.2 The Basic Principle: Naturalness........................................ 6 1.3 The Structure of Deception ............................................ 7 1.4 The Process of Deception............................................ 13 CHAPTER 2 INTERFACE: Deceiver versus Detective 2.1 Weaving the Web .................................................. 16 2.2 Unraveling the Web................................................. 17 CHAPTER 3 HOW TO DETECT: 10 General Principles 3.1 Cognitive Biases that Inhibit Detection .................................. 20 3.2 Overcoming Information Overload...................................... 20 3.3 The Analysts: Minimalists versus Compleatists ........................... 22 3.4 The Analyst’s Advantage............................................. 23 3.5 Categories ........................................................ 24 3.6 Know Your Enemy: Empathy & Inference................................ 32 3.7 Channels ......................................................... 34 3.8 Senses & Sensors.................................................. 35 3.9 Cultural Factors.................................................... 39 3.10 Asymmetries: Technological & Cognitive ................................ 40 CHAPTER 4 HOW TO DETECT: 20 -
Military Tribunal, Indictments
MILITARY TRIBUNALS CASE No.6 THE UNITED STATES OK AMERICA -against- CARL KRAUCH, HERMANN SCHMITZ, GEORG VON SCHNITZLER, FRITZ GAJEWSKI, HEINRICH HOERLEIN, AUGUST VON KNIERIEM, FRITZ.a'ER MEER, CHRISTIAN SCHNEIDER, OTTO AMBROS, MAX BRUEGGEMANN, ERNST BUERGIN, HEINRICH BUETEFISCH, PAUL HAEFLIGER, MAX ILGNER, FRIEDRICH JAEHNE,. HANS KUEHNE, CARL LAUTENSCHLAEGER, WILHELM MANN, HEINRICH OSTER, KARL WURSTER, WALTER DUERR FELD, HEINRICH GATTINEAU, ERICH VON DER HEYDE, and HANS KUGLER, officialS of I. G. F ARBENINDUSTRIE AKTIENGESELLSCHAFT Defendants OFFICE OF MILITARY GOVERNMENT FOR GERMANY (US) NURNBERG 1947 PURL: https://www.legal-tools.org/doc/1e951a/ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 PURL: https://www.legal-tools.org/doc/1e951a/ 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTORY 5 COUNT ONE-PLANNING, PREPARATION, INITIATION AND WAGING OF WARS OF AGGRESSION AND INVASIONS OF OTHER COUNTRIES 9 STATEMENT OF THE OFFENSE 9 PARTICULARS OF DEFENDANTS' PARTICIPATION 9 A. The Alliance of FARBEN with Hitlet· and the Nazi Party 9 B. F ARBEN synchronized all of its activities with the military planning of the German High Command 13 C. FARBEN participated in preparing the Four Year Plan and in directing the economic mobilization of Germany for war 15 D. F ARBEN participated in creating and equipping the Nazi military machine for aggressive war. 20 E. F ARB EN procured and stockpiled critical war materials . for the Nazi offensive / 22 F. FARBEN participated in weakening Germany's potential enemies 23 G. FARBEN carried on propaganda, intelligence, and espionage activ:ities 25 H. With the approach of war and with each new act of aggression, F ARBEN intensified its preparation for, and participation in, the planning and execution of such aggressions and the reaping of spoils therefrom 27 I. -
Ambition Counts. the Linde Annual 2007 Worldreginfo - Dcee1832-Ed12-467A-A33f-E81b7dfed269 Linde Financial Highlights
Ambition counts. The Linde Annual 2007 WorldReginfo - dcee1832-ed12-467a-a33f-e81b7dfed269 Linde financial highlights January to December in € million 2007 2006 Change Share Closing price € 90.45 78.26 15.6 % Year high € 91.75 79.56 15.3 % Year low € 75.26 56.32 33.6 % Market capitalisation 15,046 12,579 19.6 % Earnings per share 1 € 5.02 4.66 7.7 % Earnings per share € 5.87 13.30 –55.9 % Number of shares outstanding (in 000s) 166,347 160,736 3 . 5 % Sales 2 12,306 8,113 51.7 % Sales – comparable 3 12,306 10,803 13.9 % Operating profit 2 , 4 2,424 1,586 52.8 % Operating profit – comparable 3, 4 2,424 2,053 18.1 % EBIT before amortisation of fair value adjustments and non-recurring items 1,591 989 60.9 % Earnings after taxes on income 1,013 1,856 – 45.4 % Number of employees 2 50,485 51,038 – 1.1 % Gases Division – comparable 3 Sales 9,209 8,421 9.4 % Operating profit 2,314 2,035 13.7 % Engineering Division – comparable 3 Sales 2,750 1,958 40.4 % Operating profit 240 172 39.5 % 1 Adjusted for the effects of the purchase price allocation and non-recurring items. 2 Continuing operations of The Linde Group: i.e. excluding KION and BOC Edwards Equipment. In 2006, other BOC companies included for four months from September 2006. 3 Prior year figures including twelve months of BOC. 4 EBITDA before non-recurring items including share of income from associates and joint ventures. -
Translations Whatever Happened to Homberg's
9 h plt prr nldn lt f ttnd vn dtr nrl f lbrr rrh t nrvl th tr n Wrdr "rdn f th Cnr n Chtr ld n h rlt hh t ntrtn ppr th Ch Illn At 1 t 193" . A. Ch. S., 193 Whatever Happened To ... ? ln , 35 (n nbr d Otbr 1h ppr r ttrd thrht . A. Ch. S. fr WHATEVER HAPPENED TO HOMBERG'S 193 nd 19 bt r prl dntfd hvn rntd t th PYROPHORUS? Cnr 11 W Clr t l "Intrntnl Chl Cnr" . William B. Jensen, University of Cincinnati A. Ch. S., 19 6, 880. 1h nl ntn f th rl tn b th St "br rphr" dntll dvrd b rrd n th prlnr nnnnt fr th nd Intrntnl Wlhl br (15-1715 t rnd 1 hl Cnr f Appld Chtr hld n r n 19; Ann . ttptn t extract n "drl ht l" fr hn A. Ch. S., 19 , 37 xrnt fr th prp f trntn rr nt lvr (1 In th r f th xprnt br dtlld th xrnt th d vrt f thr trl n f James J. Bohning is Professor of Chemistry at Wilkes College, hh hppnd t b n pth r pt l Wilkes-Barre, PA 18766 and is particularly interested in the [K2(SO4Al2(SO4321 nd ntd tht ftr ln th history of the ACS. He is a Past-Chair of the Division and is pprt nd brn pn th ltn th dr rd n th currently serving as its historian. rtrt pntnl brt nt fl h rlt t ntrll ht br ttntn n f h bdn fntn l tht f n f h ntprr th th prprtn nd td f tr- TRANSLATIONS l hh r thr pntnl nflbl r phph- rnt r bth Indd drn h tdnt trvl n Itl h The following experiment is taken from Tiberius Cavallo' s "A hd nvttd th prprtn nd prprt f th -lld Treatise on the Nature and Properties of Air," London, 1781. -
027402A0.Pdf
402 NATURE [Feb. 22, 1883 x88o they produced x8,8oo tom, and their output is now at the and at the same time will ccnfer an inestimable boon on the towns rate of 52,000 tons per annum. The new works no•v in course where coal is now largely used as fuel. of construction in this country and on the Continent, when com These three couroes, says Mr. Weldon, must be all adopted by pleted, will at once increase the production of ammonia soda by the English soda-maker. If, in addition to doing thi•, the 65,exx> to 7o,ooo tons annually. strictest economy in manufacture is practised and the purest and What then can the manufacturer of Leblanc soda expect save best product that can be made is always turned out, the manu· utter collapse? But the state of the alkali-maker threatens to facturer of soda by the old Leblanc method may yet hope to become even worse than it is. The source of the sulphur which hold his own against the new and wonderfully successful is used in the Leblanc process is pyrites ; the pyrites employed ammonia proce>s. M. M. P. M. in this country is almost exclusively imported by three large companies from Spain and Portugal ; it contains from 2 to 3 per cent. of copper, and very small quantities of silver and gold. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL When the soda manufacturer has burnt off the sulphur, he >ends INTELLIGENCE the residual ore to the -copper extractor, who is able to sell the OxFORD.-The following persons have been elected Members iron oxide which remains when he has taken out the copper at of the Committee for the nomination of examiners in the Natural ab::mt 12s. -
German Scientists in the Soviet Atomic Project
PAVEL V. OLEYNIKOV German Scientists in the Soviet Atomic Project PAVEL V. OLEYNIKOV1 Pavel Oleynikov has been a group leader at the Institute of Technical Physics of the Russian Federal Nuclear Center in Snezhinsk (Chelyabinsk-70), Russia. He can be reached by e-mail at <[email protected]>. he fact that after World War II the Soviet Union This article first addresses what the Soviets knew at took German scientists to work on new defense the end of World War II about the German bomb pro- Tprojects in that country has been fairly well docu- gram and then discusses their efforts to collect German mented.2 However, the role of German scientists in the technology, scientists, and raw materials, particularly advancement of the Soviet atomic weapons program is uranium, after the war. Next, it reviews the Soviets’ use controversial. In the United States in the 1950s, Russians of German uranium and scientists in particular labora- were portrayed as “retarded folk who depended mainly tories working on different aspects of atomic weapons on a few captured German scientists for their achieve- development. It discusses the contributions and careers ments, if any.”3 Russians, for their part, vehemently deny of several German scientists and their possible motiva- all claims of the German origins of the Soviet bomb and tions for participating in the Soviet bomb program. The wield in their defense the statement of Max Steenbeck importance of the Germans’ contributions was reflected (a German theorist who pioneered supercritical centri- in the awards and other acknowledgments they fuges for uranium enrichment in the USSR) 4 that “all received from the Soviet government, including numer- talk that Germans have designed the bomb for the Sovi- ous Stalin Prizes in the late 1940s and early 1950s. -
History of the Chemical Industry, 1750 to 1930
History of the Chemical Industry 1750 to 1930 – an Outline Copyright: David J M Rowe, University of York (1998) Introduction The aim of this survey is to sketch the history of the chemical industry (mainly in Britain), for the period 1750 to 1930, and its relationship with contemporary political, social, and scientific developments; much detail will inevitably be omitted for brevity. It will be argued that the development of the chemical industry arose largely in response to contemporary social needs; and that whereas the development gained much from scientific discoveries, problems encountered in industry also provided fertile ground for scientific enquiry. It is often supposed that pure science is a necessary precursor of technological development but a study of history reveals many cases in which scientific understanding of technology lags behind the technology, sometimes by a long way. Political Background Some major events: • American War of Independence 1775-1783 • French Revolution and Napoleonic Period Revolution 1789, First Empire (Napoleon I) 1804-1815 • American Civil War 1861-1865 • Unification of Italy; completed 1870 • Franco-Prussian War 1870-71 • Unification of Germany; foundation of German Empire 1871 • First World War 1914-1918 • Second World War 1939-1945 Emergence of Britain as the dominant world economic power between the end of the Napoleonic Wars (1815) and the First World War, but rise of Germany as a strong economy after 1871. Emergence of the USA as a powerful economy towards the end of the 19th century, to become -
Soda Ash Sodium Carbonate
Alkali-Chlorine & Allied Chemicals Course : ACCE-2221 2nd Year : Even Semester Group-A : Chapter-2 30 January 2016 Course Outline 1. Alkali, Chlorine and Allied Chemicals 2. Sodium Chloride as raw material 3. Manufacture of soda ash, Caustic soda, Chlorine. 4. Manufacture of hypochlorite's and bleaching powder. 30 January 2016 Alkali In chemistry, an alkali is a basic, ionic salt of an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal chemical element. Some authorsalso define an alkali as a base that dissolves in water. A solution of a soluble base has a pH greater than 7.0. 30 January 2016 Allied Chemicals Caustic potash Caustic soda Chlorine compressed or liquefied Potassium carbonate Potassium hydroxide Sal soda (washing soda) Sodium bicarbonate Sodium carbonate (soda ash) 30 January 2016 Alkali Metal 30 January 2016 Alkali 30 January 2016 Alkali 30 January 2016 Common properties of Alkali Moderately concentrated solutions (over 10−3 M) have a pH of 7.1 or greater. This means that they will turn phenolphthalein from colorless to pink. Concentrated solutions are caustic (causing chemical burns). Alkaline solutions are slippery or soapy to the touch, due to the saponification of the fatty substances on the surface of the skin. Alkalis are normally water soluble, although some like barium carbonate are only soluble when reacting with an acidic aqueous solution. 30 January 2016 What is soda ash? Sodium carbonate (also known as washing soda, soda ash and soda crystals), Na2CO3, is a sodium salt of carbonic acid (soluble in water). It most commonly occurs as a crystalline hepta-hydrate, which readily effloresces to form a white powder, the monohydrate.