MASARYK UNIVERSITY Faculty of Education Department of English Language and Literature Gender in the Work of Terry Pratchett

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MASARYK UNIVERSITY

Faculty of Education

Department of English Language and Literature

Gender in the Work of Terry Pratchett

Bachelor thesis

Brno 2021

Supervisor: Author:

Mgr. Jiří Šalamoun, Ph.D. Magdaléna Jirásková

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor Mgr. Jiří Šalamoun, Ph.D. for his kind approach, valuable guidance, and helpful advice during the process of writing.

Declaration

I hereby declare that I worked on the following thesis on my own and that I used only the sources in the list of references.

Prohlášení

Prohlašuji, že jsem závěrečnou bakalářskou práci vypracovala samostatně, s využitím pouze citovaných literárních pramenů, dalších informací a zdrojů v souladu s Disciplinárním řádem pro studenty Pedagogické fakulty Masarykovy univerzity a se zákonem č. 121/2000 Sb., o právu autorském, o právech souvisejících s právem autorským a o změně některých zákonů

(autorský zákon), ve znění pozdějších předpisů.

V Brně dne 19. dubna 2021 …………………

Magdaléna Jirásková

Abstract

The thesis aims to discuss Terry Pratchett’s work and analyse his portrayal of gender topics, such as gender equality, stereotypes or gender identity and expression, in his Discworld series throughout his career as a writer. The thesis also seeks to determine how Pratchett’s female characters evolved during this time. In the first, theoretical, part of the thesis, concepts relating to sex and gender are introduced and explained with reference to several notable authors of the 20th and 21st century, such as Judith Butler or Simone de Beauvoir. In the second section of the thesis, three selected novels, Equal Rites, Feet of Clay and Monstrous

Regiment, are analysed, taking into account the period when the novels were published, as well as topical contextual issues present in society at that time. The thesis’s outcomes offer a deeper insight into Pratchett’s portrayal of gender issues and his evolution as a writer.

Key words

Terry Pratchett, Discworld, gender, gender norms, gender analysis, gender identity, gender expression, gender equality, Monstrous Regiment, Equal Rites, Feet of Clay

Anotace

Předkládaná práce pojednává o dílu Terryho Pratchetta a analyzuje způsoby, jakými autor ve své sérii Zeměplocha ztvárnil genderová témata, jako je například rovnost mužů a žen, genderové stereotypy a genderová identita a její vyjádření, během své kariéry spisovatele.

Dále si práce klade za cíl určit, jakou transformací Pratchettovy ženské postavy s postupem

času prošly. V první, teoretické, části práce jsou představeny koncepty vztahující se k problematice pohlaví a genderu a rozdíly mezi nimi s ohledem na stanoviska několika význačných autorů 20. a 21. století, jako je například Judith Butler a Simone de Beauvoir.

Druhá část práce analyzuje tři vybrané knihy série, Čaroprávnost, Nohy z jílu a Podivný regiment. Zvláštní pozornost je věnována době, kdy byly knihy vydány, a také genderovým problematikám, které byly v dané době ve společnosti aktuální. Výsledky této práce poskytují porozumění otázce Pratchettova vylíčení genderových témat a jeho vývoji jako autora.

Klíčová slova

Terry Pratchett, Zeměplocha, gender, genderové normy, genderová analýza, genderová identita, genderové vyjádření, rovnost žen a mužů, genderová rovnost, Čaroprávnost, Nohy z jílu, Podivný regiment

Table of Contents

Introduction ...... 1

1 Practical Section ...... 3

1.1 Introduction to Sex and Gender ...... 3

1.1.1 Sex and Gender – What is the Difference? ...... 3

1.1.2 The Sex Spectrum ...... 4

1.1.3 What is Gender? ...... 6

1.1.4 The Impact of Gender on Our Lives ...... 8

1.1.5 Gender Roles and Stereotypes ...... 9

1.1.6 Outside the Gender Binary ...... 11

1.2 The Work of Terry Pratchett ...... 13

1.2.1 Introduction to Pratchett ...... 13

1.2.2 Fantasy and Criticism of the Genre ...... 14

1.2.3 In Pratchett’s Defence ...... 15

2 Analytical Section ...... 18

2.1 Equal Rites ...... 18

2.1.1 Plot Summary ...... 18

2.1.2 Pratchett’s Female Protagonists ...... 20

2.1.3 The Threat of Essentialism ...... 22

2.1.4 What It Means to Be a Hero ...... 23

2.1.5 The Stereotype Threat Theory ...... 23

2.1.6 Second-wave Feminist Movement ...... 26

2.1.7 The Portrayal of Women in Equal Rites ...... 26

2.2 Feet of Clay ...... 29

2.2.1 Plot Summary ...... 29

2.2.2 Cheery Littlebottom, the First Female Dwarf ...... 30

2.2.3 Gender Expression among the Dwarves ...... 31

2.2.4 Themes Concerning Gender in the 1990s ...... 34

2.2.5 The Portrayal of Women in Feet of Clay ...... 35

2.3 Monstrous Regiment ...... 38

2.3.1 Plot Summary ...... 38

2.3.2 Subverting Tropes ...... 39

2.3.3 A Stylized Repetition of Acts ...... 41

2.3.4 Sergeant Jackrum – An Example of a Transgender Character? ...... 42

2.3.5 Why Monstrous Regiment? ...... 44

2.3.6 Choosing the Setting ...... 45

2.3.7 The Gender Recognition Act 2004 ...... 45

2.3.8 The Portrayal of Women in Monstrous Regiment ...... 45

Conclusion ...... 48

List of References...... 52

Introduction

Terry Pratchett is one of the biggest names in the world of fantasy literature. We may often find him on lists of top fantasy authors alongside, for example, J. R. R. Tolkien, J. K.

Rowling, G. R. R. Martin or Neil Gaiman. During Pratchett’s writing career spanning decades

– from 1971, when he published his first novel, The Carpet People, to his death in 2015 – he was among the most successful and prolific authors of his generation. Both The Guardian and

BBC described Pratchett as Britain’s best-selling author of the 90s, who was only overtaken by Rowling at the turn of the century (Weale, 2002; Terry Pratchett in Conversation, n.d.).

Though Pratchett’s popularity is immense, some literary critics consider his books to be too unimaginative or straightforward to be considered literature, as Joe Queenan writes in his

1990 review of Good Omens in The New York Times (Queenan, 1990), or “more entertainment than art”, which is the opinion of British art critic Jonathan Jones (Jones, 2015).

However, it could be argued that Pratchett actually utilises his carefully crafted Discworld as a satirical setting to comment on the world we live in while retaining a certain distance. He creates a universe just different enough from our own to engage his readers and push many of our preconceived notions while managing to discuss a variety of challenging topics, ranging from nationalism, racism and bigotry to social and gender equality, war and religion. The topic of gender, in particular, makes an appearance throughout the entire scope of his work and is one of the themes Pratchett touches on most often as he approaches it from various angles.

This thesis aims to examine how Pratchett chooses to discuss gender topics and what themes he focuses on, such as gender equality, gender roles and feminism, gender identity and various aspects of being a woman, throughout his Discworld series. The thesis also seeks to determine how Pratchett’s female characters changed and evolved, based on the analysis of three selected novels discussed in the second section of the thesis.

The thesis is divided into two parts. In the first, theoretical, part, concepts relating to sex and gender are introduced and explained with regard to the research of several notable authors of the 20th and 21st century, such as Judith Butler and Simone de Beauvoir. The following chapters of the section introduce Pratchett’s work and some of the critical opinions concerning the author.

The subsequent section presents an analysis of selected novels of the Discworld series in which the topic of gender is most prevalent, beginning with the third book of the series and the first of the Witches sub-series, Equal Rites (1987), which discusses gender equality through the main character, the nine-year-old Eskarina. The other examined works are Feet of

Clay (1996), where the theme of gender expression is explored through Cheery, a female dwarf, and Monstrous Regiment (2003), one of the later novels of the Discworld series, which touches on not only equality and the absurdity of gender stereotyping but also gender identity.

The analysis takes into consideration the period when the novels were written in terms of some of the most discussed and most pressing gender issues of that time and whether

Pratchett decided to incorporate these topics into his work.

1 Practical Section

1.1 Introduction to Sex and Gender

From the time we are very young, ideas concerning gender surround us. They seem to govern everything from food preferences and humour to career plans and relationship conflicts. Gender is so vital to our understanding of the world around us and ourselves that we often accept these ideas as scientific facts. Furthermore, in our minds, gender is often inseparable from sex, especially regarding how we perceive our identity and the identity of the people around us. Our gender identity – “a person’s internal sense of being male, female, some combination of male and female, or neither male nor female” (Merriam-Webster, n.d.) – and gender expression – “the physical and behavioral manifestations of one’s gender identity”

(Merriam-Webster, n.d.), are one of the cornerstones of our personal identity – a sense of self, cultivated throughout our entire lives. Moreover, both gender and sex have widely established hegemonic definitions within our Western society, a binary system of male/female and man/woman that is traditionally relatively rigid and definitive. Within our culture, a common practice is to group all women and men; the widespread belief is that there exist certain fundamental differences between men and women as well as boys and girls, though many suggest that both gender and sex are actually quite fluid (Fausto-Sterling, 1985; Richards et al., 2016; Vijlbrief et al., 2019; Lindqvist et al., 2020). This notion is especially interesting in relation to the analysis of the third novel discussed in the following section, Monstrous

Regiment, where one of the topics explored is constructing one’s gender identity.

1.1.1 Sex and Gender – What is the Difference?

When contemplating gender and sex, one of the first challenges is that they are quite frequently used interchangeably. These instances often happen in our daily lives, such as when filling out medical forms or other official paperwork, but this seems to occur in professional writing as well, as noted by Pryzgoda and Chrisler (2000). They pinpointed how

3 psychologists writing about sex and gender use both “sex differences” and “gender differences” while not conscientiously defining the two terms (p. 554). However, sex and gender are two unique parts of one’s identity and are delicately interwoven while remaining clearly separate. Caplan et al. (1997) offer the following definition of the two terms:

“Sex” marks an essentially biological distinction between women and men that may

be based upon their anatomical, physiological, or chromosomal properties. “Gender”

marks a sociocultural distinction between men and women on the basis of the traits

and behavior that are conventionally regarded as characteristic of and appropriate to

the two groups of people. (p. 7)

This definition seems to align with the views of most researchers and authors quoted in the following chapters of the thesis and is thus one of the main ones on the basis of which the analysis in the subsequent practical section is carried out.

1.1.2 The Sex Spectrum

The term sex, with its biological and medical connotations, seems to be the easier one to explain. It simply categorises animals, as well as humans, as females or males, depending on their primary sex characteristics, such as the possession of a specific reproductive system, hormones or DNA. The Oxford dictionary defines sex as “either of the two main categories

(male and female) into which humans and many other living things are divided on the basis of their reproductive functions” (Oxford English Dictionary, n.d., Definition 1). This is, however, where the distinction gets more complex. For example, in her article “The Five Sexes: Why

Male and Female Are Not Enough”, Ann Fausto-Sterling (1993) relies on proof from intersexuality to criticise Western society’s two-party sexual system, saying it is actually “in defiance of nature” (p. 21). According to her, rather than only two separate sexes, at least five sexes lie along the spectrum. Other than male and female, Fausto-Sterling distinguishes three

4 other significant subgroups: the true hermaphrodites (or “herms”), people with one testis and one ovary, the male pseudohermaphrodites (or “merms”), individuals that possess testes and some elements of the female genitalia except ovaries, and the female pseudohermaphrodites or (“ferms”), who have ovaries and certain elements of the male genitalia but no testes (1993, p. 21). She, however, stresses the fact that each of these categories is actually very complex as the characteristics may be varied enormously even among the members of the same subgroup.

Fausto-Sterling is firm in her belief that “sex is a vast, infinitely malleable continuum that defies the constraints of even five categories” (1993, p. 21). In her book, Sexing the Body –

Gender Politics and the Construction of Sexuality, Fausto-Sterling furthermore argues that sex is actually socially constructed, stating “what bodily signals and functions we define as male or female come already entangled in our ideas about gender” (2000, p. 4).

Gender scholars Kessler and McKenna share Fausto-Sterling’s ideas concerning sex being a social construct, and they also criticise the view that sex is a self-evident, obvious fact.

In their book Gender: An Ethnomethodological Approach, the authors discuss the fundamental process of sex attribution at birth and in our everyday lives, stating it is a

“deceptively easy procedure” (1978, p. 8). In their writing, they eliminate the term sex and only use gender as they believe that biological sex differences are only a physical manifestation of gender (1978, p. 164). More recently, there have been studies that pointed to how complex the process of sex determination truly is. For example, Eric Vilain, physician- scientist and director of the Center for Gender-Based Biology at the University of California, best known for his research in the field of genetics of disorders/differences of sex development (DSD), stated that “there is no one biological parameter that clearly defines sex”

(Vilain, 2008). According to his research, the number of people with some form of DSD, meaning their sex chromosomes do not align with their sexual anatomy, could be 1 in 100, with even more variation beyond that (Ainsworth, 2015, p. 290). Vilain, however,

5 acknowledges how difficult it is to exist outside the binary system, as “in most countries, it is legally impossible to be anything but male or female” (Ainsworth, 2015, p. 291).

1.1.3 What is Gender?

On the other hand, the term gender as we understand it today has been in use only for several decades. The distinction between gender and sex was first made by sexologist John

Money in 1955, who defined gender as a particular mode of behaviour or a role that differentiates one sex from the other (Udry, 1994, p. 561). However, as specified by Money, the word gender had not been commonly used in this context for several decades until feminist writers such as Simone de Beauvoir embraced and popularised this differentiation between gender as a social construct and the biological sex.

De Beauvoir’s The Second Sex (1949) is often recognised as one of the most notable works of feminist philosophy. At the time of publication, de Beauvoir’s views sparked many debates, primarily due to the author’s outlook on equality and female sexuality – she, for example, spoke in favour of birth control and abortion (1956, pp. 139–142). It is often said that the book was ahead of its time, and its topics were “especially shocking in Catholic

France” (Coffin, 2007, p. 125). De Beauvoir, however, was also one of the first authors who explored the idea of gender and sex being separate. Her phrase “one is not born, but rather becomes, a woman” (1956, p. 273) still appears in conversations our Western society is having on the topic of gender some 60 years later. According to de Beauvoir (1956), gender is acquired throughout time, not linked to the aspect of the body, but rather something constructed by society, a learned mode of behaviour depending solely on one’s culture. She primarily looks at gender as a normative structure that is meant to oppress women and control them, which might be a reflection of the period when the book was written, as well as of the author’s own life experiences (Coffin, 2007, p. 125). After all, the right of French women to vote was only granted in 1944, five years before The Second Sex was first published. Though

6 controversial at the time, the views she introduced paved the way for the second wave feminism that emerged in the 1960s, which pursued many of the issues de Beauvoir highlighted, such as the sex/gender distinction (Coffin, 2007, p. 124).

This separation of gender and sex played a chief role in the feminist movement of the following decades, as it was an essential political and conceptual tool in their fight for equality. Notably, the movement focused on moving on from the notions perpetuated by

American sociologist Talcott Parsons that prevailed during the 1950s and 60s. He argued that different roles in society for men and women were natural and established by the biological differences between them (Friedman, 2006). The idea of sex and gender being separate allowed feminists to argue that though the biological differences between men’s and women’s bodies do exist, the inequality and different roles within society could be changed (Friedman,

2006; Fausto-Sterling, 2000, pp. 3–4).

Judith Butler, an American gender theorist and philosopher whose ideas strongly influenced third-wave feminism (Snyder, 2008, p. 185), believes that gender is performative, meaning that it is constantly being constructed, interpreted and re-formed. She is of the opinion that “what we take to be an internal essence of gender is manufactured through a sustained set of acts, posited through the gendered stylization of the body” (2011, p. 15). In other words, gender is the process of repeating specific actions that our society sees as gendered. These gender norms or expectations put on both men and women vary widely both when comparing cultures and within a singular culture, as well as throughout time, as has been already proven in the past. They can also change in many ways. For example, in recent history, pink used to be the colour associated with boys. According to the Smithsonian

Magazine, a June 1918 article from a trade publication says that “pink, being a more decided and stronger color, is more suitable for the boy” (Maglaty, 2011). However, this custom has been completely turned on its head within several short decades, proving how changeable

7 gender norms are. Butler also compares gender to a “cultural play” and points out that although it is an “innovative affair”, there are “strict punishments for contesting the script by performing out of turn or through unwarranted improvisation” (1988, p. 531). She also believes that when a person performs their gender in a way that is in the eyes of their society wrong, they are usually punished in various direct and indirect ways (1988, p. 528). This notion will be explored in more depth later in the chapter as we look at what it means for individuals outside the gender binary prevalent in our Western culture. The theme of being punished for one’s gender performance or expression is also touched on in the second analysis chapter focused on Feet of Clay.

1.1.4 The Impact of Gender on Our Lives

Gender is a certain kind of a social label, given to people instantly and without conscious thought. Separating humans into men and women is an intrinsic part of all cultures, while our gender identity has a tremendous effect on our life experiences (Beall et al., 2004, p. 1). Our gender and sexual identity influences more of our life than we realize – or in some cases, would like to realize. For example, according to 2016 data from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, women constitute 63% of all illiterate adults and 57% of all illiterate youth. The

“Global Wage Report 2018/19” by the International Labour Organization highlights the global gender pay gap, which stands approximately between 16% and 22%, depending on the measure used (p. 15). The report also finds that education contributes less than 1% of the gender pay gap in high-income countries. Perhaps surprisingly, it is also not a prominent factor in explaining it in middle and low-income countries. Actually, “women in paid employment tend to be more highly educated than men within similar occupational groups” (p.

16). According to one of the authors of the report, Rosalia Vazquez-Alvarez, the real problem is the undervaluation of women’s work (p. 17).

The United Nations Development Programme, which focuses on eliminating gender disparities worldwide, created the Gender Social Norms Index measuring the global social beliefs around gender. According to the 2020 Tackling Social Norms: A Game Changer for

Gender Inequalities analysis, almost 90% of men and women globally hold some bias against women. About 50% of both men and women feel that men make better political leaders (p. 1),

40% feel that men have more right to a job than women (p. 11), and almost 30% of people globally think that it is justifiable for a man to use physical violence against his partner (p. 9).

All of these statistics highlight that identifying as a man or as a woman, or being perceived as belonging into one of those categories, is a factor that directly affects us in many ways. Women and men seem to lead very different lives. Furthermore, while gender infuses most parts of both men and women’s lives, it often materializes as a female disadvantage.

There are also a plethora of stereotypes surrounding traditional gender roles established within our society that are incredibly stifling and damaging, such as the stereotype threat discussed in the following chapter. Moreover, unequal distribution of power, male privilege and the effect of the stereotype threat are themes explored later in the analysis of Pratchett’s

Equal Rites.

1.1.5 Gender Roles and Stereotypes

According to Roger Levesque (2014), author of the Encyclopedia of Adolescence and

Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Youth and Adolescence, whose research focuses mainly on the nature of the rights of children and adolescents, gender roles are a set of traits that “reflect expectations a society holds toward men and women” (p. 2622). Generally, these are social roles imposed on an individual from a very early age, a set of rules and expectations on how men and women should behave. These encompass what is considered appropriate behaviour in the given society, which may vary slightly depending on the culture. These roles are also often rooted in traditions. Children start learning these roles at an early age from their parents

9 and the surrounding environment – Cahill (1986) believes that this happens as early as when the child is three years old (p. 295). People who do not conform to these roles often face harsh consequences in their personal and professional lives, such as harassment and even discrimination and violence.

These roles are likewise associated with a number of harmful and restrictive stereotypes. These are generalisations that are believed to apply to every individual of a specific gender. While gender stereotypes affect both men and women, and frequently negatively, they more often than not cast men in a more positive light than women (Berk,

2013, p. 531). The most common stereotypes one might encounter in day-to-day life are oversimplifications that disadvantage women in various ways, such as during the hiring process – especially in management or other leading positions (Gorman, 2005 pp. 704–705;

Heilman, 2001, p. 660). In our culture, these occupations are perceived as masculine, meaning they require the prospective applicant to be aggressive, independent, and competitive and hold up well under pressure. These traits are not ones traditionally ascribed to women, after all.

Stereotyping thus presents a severe obstacle in achieving gender equality and may lead to gender discrimination.

There are several other reasons why gender stereotypes are dangerous – one of which is the stereotype threat. According to psychologists Steele and Aronson (1995), “stereotype threat is being at risk of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one’s group” (p. 797). This means that when a negative stereotype is widely known and accepted, a person might subconsciously change or repress themselves to fit into it. An example of this can be seen in Pratchett’s Equal Rites. The novel’s protagonist Eskarina – a gifted magic user

– repeatedly fails to use her powers only after being made aware of the stereotype that women are not capable enough to wield wizards’ magic.

Steele furthermore argues that the stereotype threat is actually incited by the “mere recognition that a negative group stereotype could apply to oneself in a given situation”

(1997, p. 617). This means that an individual does not need to believe the negative stereotype but simply be aware of it. However, there are also those who cannot find themselves in the clear cut binary definitions of female and male and who often struggle even with being recognised or respected and might encounter stigmatisation, harassment, and even discrimination and violence.

1.1.6 Outside the Gender Binary

In our Western culture, it is increasingly discussed whether the binary system of gender as either masculine or feminine is entirely adequate to account for the entirety of humankind. The umbrella terms for gender identities outside this binary world are genderqueer or non-binary (Richards et al., 2016, p. 95). These might be used to refer to individuals who incorporate both masculine and feminine elements while having a stable identity, who may identify as androgynous or mixed gender. In other instances, people might move between genders in a fluid way and identify as pangender, gender-fluid or bigender.

There are also those who disagree with the entire concept or have no gender at all, who might identify as agender, gender-neutral or non-gendered (Richards et al., 2016, p. 96). Gender identities that are non-binary are not a new concept (Herdt, 1996, p. 21), though the terminology is. Vijlbrief et al. suggest that the increasing number of people who publicly identify as non-binary is due to the increased representation of gender diversity in popular culture and mainstream media as well as the increasing importance and widespread usage of the internet, which has become a safe space for people to educate themselves as well as others

(2019, p. 90). Furthermore, the umbrella term transgender is used to describe people whose assigned gender at birth does not align with their gender identity as they define it (Lindqvist et al., 2020, p. 3).

Transgender and gender-nonconforming individuals may experience discrimination, which can take many forms, such as racial, economic or job-related, and may even culminate in a physical assault (Bockting et al., 2013, p. 943). In general, they “report experiencing high levels of discrimination and violence, as well as high levels of safety concerns and a need to be vigilant to the safety of their environs” (Veldhuis et al. 2018, p. 26). These experiences lead to higher stress levels and increase the risk of psychological illnesses, such as depression and anxiety, and coping behaviours that are health-harming (Veldhuis et al., 2018, p. 26).

According to 2020 data compiled by Transrespect versus Transphobia Worldwide, a comparative qualitative-quantitative research project initiated by the Transgender Europe organisation, legal change of gender is possible in 62 countries/territories. However, out of those, 54 countries/territories require a mental disorder diagnosis, 29 require sterilisation or gender reassignment surgery, and only four offer a third gender marker option. In some countries, however, change of gender is either not legally possible or is prosecuted, while in several, even wearing clothing that does not match the gender assigned at birth is considered a crime (Legal Gender Recognition: Change of Gender, 2020). Additionally, data concerning gender change has not yet been collected for much of the world, and discussions surrounding the topic are few and far between. In some parts of the world, such discussions might even be considered taboo.

From gender identity and expression to bias and deep-rooted stereotypes, the topic of gender is vast and complex. As many as there are facets to gender, there are perhaps ten times as many diverse opinions on every single one. The overview presented here simply strives to briefly outline the few key topics that will be revisited further in the following chapters during the analysis of Pratchett’s work. As will be presented, the topic of gender was clearly one that the writer was drawn to and chose to portray and examine from various angles and with skilful nuance.

1.2 The Work of Terry Pratchett

1.2.1 Introduction to Pratchett

Writing indeed was Terry Pratchett’s calling – after the publication of his first story

(“The Hades Business”) in 1963 when he was only 13 years old, he decided to abandon his A levels and went on to pursue a career as a journalist at age 17. His first book, The Carpet

People, was published in 1971 when he was only 23 years old. He was reportedly very dissatisfied with this first literary creation of his and completely rewrote it in 1992. In 1983, he published his first Discworld novel, The Colour of Magic, the start of his phenomenally successful series.

Pratchett’s career as a writer lasted over 50 years, during which he authored 59 books and co-authored 30 more. Although book sales figures and statistics are notoriously hard to find, as publishers generally do not make that information public, both The Guardian and

BBC described Pratchett as Britain’s best-selling author of the 90s, who was only overtaken by Rowling at the turn of the century (BBC – Wiltshire – Theatre – Terry Pratchett, n.d.;

Beckett, 2010, p. 146; Lea, 2017). Various online sources establish his worldwide sales to be around 70–85 million (Lea, 2017; ITV News, 2015). In 2011, the 39th Discworld novel Snuff became the third fastest-selling adult-audience novel in the UK since records began, with just under 55,000 physical copies sold in only three days. His works were adapted for both television screen and stage and so far have been translated into 37 languages.

Though his Discworld series might be the most popular with 41 titles, Pratchett also wrote children’s books, science fiction and short stories, some of which he created in collaboration with other authors. The most notable of those would be The Long Earth (2012 –

2016) series he worked on with Stephen Baxter and the award-nominated novel Good Omens

(1990) he co-authored with Neil Gaiman, his close friend. Good Omens was also recently adapted as a successful television series.

Pratchett received numerous awards and honorary degrees throughout his life and was even knighted; his enormous success seemed to puzzle even him. In an interview with the

BBC in 2008, he mentioned being “flabbergasted” to be awarded a knighthood (Jones, 2008).

The award he was most proud of was the Carnegie Medal that he won for his children’s book

The Amazing Maurice and His Educated Rodents (2001) (About Sir Terry, 2020). All of these accomplishments show how skilled and popular Pratchett was, though the author clearly remained humble in the face of success.

1.2.2 Fantasy and Criticism of the Genre

Pratchett was a well-versed author who experimented with various genres; however, the one genre he had a soft spot for was fantasy. In Imaginary Worlds, Real Stories, Pratchett writes that he considers himself a genre author, stating, “I think I write fantasy. If it looks like a duck, walks like a duck and quacks like a duck, then you might as well stick an orange in its bottom and eat it with green peas” (2000, p. 160). According to Merriam-Webster’s

Encyclopedia of Literature, fantasy literature is “imaginative fiction dependent for effect on strangeness of setting (such as other worlds or times) and of characters (such as supernatural or unnatural beings)” (1995, p. 403). Matthias Stephan, a researcher in the field of science fiction and fantasy based at the Aarhus University in Denmark, also sought to define the genre.

According to him, “fantasy literature is fiction that offers the reader a world estranged from their own, separated by nova that are supernatural or otherwise consistent with the marvellous, and which has as its dominant tone a sense of wonder” (2016, p. 4). The most prominent features of the genre seem to be its portrayal of things that are unreal or impossible. This might be one of the reasons why fantasy literature is often criticised and seen as irrelevant

(Haberkorn, 2018, p. 137).

As Pratchett’s work is usually categorised as humorous fantasy, it is no surprise that it received similar commentary. Notably, Jonathan Jones, a British art critic, referred to his

14 novels as mediocre and ordinary in his 2015 article for The Guardian, stating that “it’s more entertainment than art” and that he “believe(s) the best prose lives in the real world.”

Especially his quote, “everyone reads trash sometimes, but why are we now pretending, as a culture, that it is the same thing as literature?” (Jones, 2015), has irritated many. The article went viral among both avid readers of Pratchett’s work and the general public and sparked heated debates online. A number of people, such as Sam Jordison, co-director of Galley

Beggar Press, or Annie Coral Demosthenous, a researcher at the University of Western

Australia, criticised Jones’s elitist and exclusionary views of literature (Demosthenous, 2015;

Jordison, 2015). This was prompted mainly by Jones’s comparison of Pratchett’s work to

Austen’s and his strong belief in the absolute superiority of the latter’s writing and presenting the authors as polar opposites. The fact stands that Pratchett’s work is regularly belittled, primarily since it is classified as genre fiction. Many people, similarly to Jones, do not consider his novels literature – however, the question stands whether this dismissal of

Pratchett’s writing is justified.

1.2.3 In Pratchett’s Defence

To answer this question, the first step is to look at what exactly literature is. The basic dictionary definition deems it as “writings having excellence of form or expression and expressing ideas of permanent or universal interest” (Merriam-Webster, n.d., Definition 1).

However, Sollors Werner, Harvard professor of literature and author of the 2009 A New

Literary History of America, defines literary works as “not only what is written but also what is voiced, what is expressed, what is invented, in whatever form” (Werner, 2011, p. 4). That would classify maps, cartoons, speeches or, for example, travel journals under this umbrella term. Other definitions have been made based on prototypes with characteristics such as

“careful use of language, being written in a literary genre (poetry, prose fiction, or drama), being read aesthetically, and containing many weak implicatures” (Meyer, 1997, p.1). These

15 conflicting views seem to suggest that exactly understanding what literature is presents a challenge – defining it is difficult, and the definitions are changeable. Furthermore, a lot of it is based on the reader’s individual experience, which adds another layer.

Interestingly enough, the reception of Jane Austen’s work, compared to which

Pratchett’s was found lacking, was not overly favourable when it was published. She lived during a time when professional reviewers looked down on the genre of her novels, which meant that her work was often overlooked. Her novels were not necessarily classified as high culture. Their success was primarily due to the everyday readers, who were often women

(Brodie, 1995, p. 56). In Opinions of Mansfield Park (1814) and Opinions of Emma (1815),

Austen collected various comments from her casual readers that depict why they were drawn to her writing and their opinions of it. From the reader’s own comments, it is obvious they immensely enjoyed Austen’s use of irony, as well as the way she crafted her characters to be remarkably relatable and her elegant use of language (Brodie, 1995, p. 58). This actually highlights the similarities between Pratchett and Austen and their writing. For example, both authors were underestimated by the critical authority while being popular with the everyday readership. Furthermore, their use of irony and wordplay in new and surprising ways adds a layer of complexity to their otherwise straightforward writing. Both authors are also wry observers of human nature.

As was mentioned, another reason why critics of Pratchett often dismiss his work is that he is a genre author. Fantasy is too often considered escapist and somewhat separate from reality (Baker, 2012, p. 438). Some researchers, such as Rosemary Jackson, however, present an interesting view of the genre. According to them, fantasy is difficult to define due to it being associated with imagination and feelings; however, this “resistance to definition” is precisely why it is so valuable (1981, p. 9). They see the genre’s potential in its freedom – especially fantasy authors having more flexibility while working with space, time, chronology,

16 or characters. This freedom might be one of the things that attracted Pratchett to fantasy, as his Discworld novels seem to break even the few rules of fantasy that exist. Tolkien touched on some of these rules in his essay On Fairy-Stories (1947); he mentions that the author should never ridicule the magic of the fantasy world itself as it would “break the spell” and ruin the reader’s immersion (1965, p. 37). This is, however, one of the things Pratchett does quite often – he breaks the fourth wall with his footnotes and commentary referencing reality, satirizes magic itself and thoroughly revels in the absurd world he created. Nevertheless, none of these is disruptive to the reader and almost seems to enhance the experience (Luthi, 2014, pp. 125–126). The most probable explanation why this does not break the reader’s immersion is that Pratchett’s use of humour – parody and satire – relates to the real world and would not be successful if it did not connect to actual events, people or texts outside of the novel.

Luthi also argues that though one of the reasons for Discworld’s ongoing success is

Pratchett’s unique humour, the main cause is actually how the series evolved. Rather than simply humorous, Pratchett began addressing more severe and relatable issues while allowing his characters to mature and gain depth (2014, p. 126). Though his books are categorised as fantasy, Pratchett does not avoid the real world. His work distinctly criticises stereotypes and tropes while maintaining a playful attitude. Pratchett is not afraid of portraying heavy subjects such as xenophobia, war, environmentalism or gender conformity, and while the novels remain humorous, these topics are never trivialised. Another author that supports this point is

Haberkorn, who emphasises how relevant Pratchett’s Discworld novels are and stresses that they should not be categorised as escapism or dismissed as irrelevant (2018, p. 150).

2 Analytical Section

In this section, the three selected novels, Equal Rites (1987), Feet of Clay (1996) and

Monstrous Regiment (2003), are analysed based on the information presented in the theoretical section. As these three novels were published several years apart during a period of sixteen years, they help one understand how Pratchett’s portrayal of female characters evolved and on what themes relating to gender he focused. To ensure this, each novel’s plot summary is presented, followed by an overview of relevant research on the topic. Finally,

Pratchett’s portrayal of female characters in each selected novel is discussed, and a particular notice is given to when they were published and possible real-world influences that might have affected Pratchett while writing.

2.1 Equal Rites

2.1.1 Plot Summary

Equal Rites, published in 1987, is the third novel of the Discworld series and the

Witches subseries’ first instalment. The novel opens with Drum Billet, an elderly wizard aware of his impending death, who travels to the village of Bad Ass, where the eighth son of an eighth son is rumoured to be born. As number eight has magical and mysterious properties in Discworld, this is a sign that the baby will one day become a great wizard, and Billet intends to pass on his wizard’s staff to the child before his death. However, the wizard is careless and does not notice in his rush that the newborn is actually a girl – Eskarina Smith.

Eskarina, or Esk, thus becomes the first female wizard – something wholly unheard of in Discworld, as women can only ever become witches. Wizard magic and witch magic are, after all, fundamentally different. Wizards take a highly scientific approach to magic, spend many years getting as many university degrees as possible, and read an uncountable amount of books. On the other hand, witches focus on social work, doctoring and rely more on common sense, hard work, herbology and headology – a peculiar type of persuasive

18 psychology – than on actual magical acts. Though it cannot be said that one type of magic is superior, as they seem to be completely different fields of study, in Discworld, only men can gain higher education in magic, and wizards generally enjoy more respect among the public.

Esk’s father and the midwife, a local witch, Granny Weatherwax, decide to hide the magical staff and pretend nothing happened. However, it soon becomes apparent that Esk has immense magical powers when she defeats a pack of hungry wolves and subsequently becomes the first-ever pupil of Granny Weatherwax. However, the older witch disagrees with women being wizards and only teaches Esk the magic she deems appropriate for a girl to learn. In time, it becomes clear that Esk’s powers are so intense that she struggles to control them, which often results in magical accidents that could harm both her and others. Thus,

Granny and she set out for the all-male Unseen University in the city of Ankh-Morpork to help the nine-year-old Esk gain the knowledge necessary to manage her powers.

Granny and her protégé are separated for most of the journey after Esk decides to explore the first town they visit on her own and unwittingly joins a band of travellers. Before they are reunited, Esk meets the Vice-Chancellor of the University and his apprentice Simon.

After learning that Esk intends to become a wizard, the Vice-Chancellor explains how absurd her plan is, as women are under no circumstances allowed to be wizards or study at the

University. This unsettles Eskarina greatly, and she vows to master both the power of the witches and wizards to prove the world wrong.

Failing to demonstrate her abilities once she reaches the University, Esk is mocked and sent away while the Vice-Chancellor’s apprentice Simon, praised for his powers, is admitted at once. It is not explicitly said why Esk is unable to use her powers; however, the deriding attitude of the wizards and pressure put on her as the only female candidate might have played a role. On the other hand, Simon reaps the benefits of his privilege – not only as a man but also as the Vice-Chancellor’s apprentice – and is given overwhelming support.

However, Granny Weatherwax finds another way in – joining the all-female cleaning staff. Esk then witnesses Simon’s progress while sneaking into lectures she finds incomprehensible, as she cannot read. It must be noted that the one reason why Esk is not discovered is because of how overlooked the cleaning staff is – the wizards clearly see them as something in the background, not worthy of note – almost similar to the surrounding furniture. The cleaners’ quarters are also in the basement, under the classrooms and the wizards’ chambers, suggesting their lower status in the university’s hierarchy.

While doing her duties, Esk seems to be the only one who perceives the true depths of

Simon’s power and the danger it brings. The Things from the Dungeon Dimensions, creatures with no shape or existence that feed on magic, seem to be stalking him, and Esk is the only one to notice. Simon unintentionally opens a portal to the other dimension, through which the

Things try to enter; however, in an attempt to protect Esk, her staff knocks him unconscious.

This closes the portal but also traps Simon’s mind in the Dungeon Dimension. Esk thinks the staff attacked Simon and decides to throw it away. Esk attempts to rescue him and is sucked into another dimension, where she battles the Things.

Meanwhile, Granny and the Archchancellor cooperate to find Esk’s staff that has now washed out to the sea. Esk and Simon discover the weakness of the creatures and defeat them.

They manage to transport back into the University with the staff’s help, which has now been retrieved, and the Archchancellor accepts Esk as a wizard. In the future, Esk and Simon develop an entirely new field of magic while the Archchancellor considers the possibility of allowing women into the University.

2.1.2 Pratchett’s Female Protagonists

Equal Rites was Pratchett’s first Discworld novel with a female protagonist, who was drastically different from the protagonist of the first two novels of the series, Rincewind.

Mark Burrows, in his The Magic of Terry Pratchett (2020), suggests that Pratchett’s young

20 daughter actually inspired the free-spirited and steadfast Esk and that the heroine based on a girl he knew on such an intimate level is the novel’s “greatest asset” (p. 116). He especially notes the difference compared to Pratchett’s only previous female central protagonist Kin

Arad – the heroine of the stand-alone science fiction novel Strata (1981) – whom Burrows actually considers “one of the few failings of the novel” (p. 116). Burrows even describes Kin

Arad as “not flawed enough to be interesting, and not developed enough to be relatable”

(p. 82). However, while discussing Equal Rites, Burrows is convinced that compared to The

Colour of Magic (1983) and Light Fantastic (1986), which he sees as quite light-hearted novels with not much substance, Equal Rites is the novel that clearly encompasses Pratchett’s realisation that he could achieve more with his fantasy writing than just entertain. He sees the novel as a story with “a strong moral centre, focused on a feminist message” (p. 118).

According to him, it is the first novel of Pratchett’s that genuinely has an important message it wants to convey – that women are capable of everything men are, despite any obstacle they may encounter. This is not to say that the two previous Discworld novels had no substance; however, Pratchett’s central aim seemed to be to make a parody of popular fantasy tropes and create something immediately funny rather than provide a more profound message.

Lian Sinclair, a researcher at Murdoch University, analyses why Pratchett might have chosen to discuss gender issues in one of his fantasy novels in the first place. She believes that by raising the question of what would happen if a girl was given powers traditionally only wielded by men in a distinctly more patriarchal society than ours, “the very nature of gender as an imaginary historical construct is raised in ways that might not be possible or at least more complicated in our own world” (2015, p. 9). This supports Burrows’s notion of Pratchett realising he could utilise the power of fantasy in a new and innovative way to portray real- world issues in Equal Rites.

2.1.3 The Threat of Essentialism

Both Sinclair and Burrows point out that while the novel does have a feminist message and focuses on Esk’s struggle against the dismissive male world of wizards, it additionally does not minimize the potentially damaging effects of ignorance and adamant adherence to traditional gender roles of other women, in the novel depicted as Granny Weatherwax

(Sinclair, 2015, p. 9; Burrows, 2020, p. 118). For example, after Esk is given her staff as a baby, Granny insists that it should be burned: “Female wizards aren’t right either! It’s the wrong kind of magic for women, is wizard magic, it’s all books and stars and jommetry.

She’d never grasp it. Whoever heard of a female wizard?” (Pratchett, 1988, p. 16). Granny thinks that the essential way in which the brain of men and women operate is different. This reasoning is dangerous as it suggests that there are disparities between men and women that are established at birth and cannot be changed. In our world, this not only encourages and reinforces gender stereotyping but might also be used to justify social inequalities, such as an excuse why jobs traditionally held by women are less respected and have lower pay. Gender essentialism is also directly against the idea of gender and sex being a spectrum and is thus especially harmful to any people who are outside the binary system. There is no place for Esk or people similar to her in Granny’s world – women who have the abilities coded as masculine or desire roles with masculine connotations. However, as this is exactly what Esk does and wants to achieve, Esk’s very existence challenges Granny’s preconceived notions.

She is not only able to master Granny’s teachings but also harness the raw magical power and utilise it as wizards do. Before Esk even reaches the University, she has a clearly defined notion of what she wants to achieve with her magic:

Why was it that, when she heard Granny ramble on about witchcraft she longed for

the cutting magic of wizardry, but whenever she heard Treatle speak in his high-

pitched voice she would fight to the death for witchcraft? She’d be both, or none at

all. And the more they intended to stop her, the more she wanted it. She’d be a witch

and a wizard too. And she would show them. (Pratchett, 1988, p. 136)

This could be Pratchett’s way of saying that there is actually nothing limiting those who are clever enough to realize that both worlds are open to them and are prepared to face struggles to achieve this (Sinclair, 2015, p. 10).

2.1.4 What It Means to Be a Hero

Dr Santaulària Capdevila looks at Pratchett’s witches from another angle – namely, the topic of age and the inherent value of both femininity and older women. She applauds

Pratchett’s decision to create a female protagonist that does not adopt male ways of being a hero and, instead of “turning women into honorary men” (2018, p. 63), actually changing the existing parameters of being a hero. She believes that Pratchett does this by presenting the traditionally feminine jobs that make up the core of the magic of the witches – associated with fertility, midwifery, healing or helping those in need – as something “tough, necessary and, above all, heroic” (2018, p. 63). Though she admits that this portrayal might reinforce the idea that taking care of others is predominantly a woman’s job and is to be expected of them,

Santaulària Capdevila says that by writing his witches the way he had, Pratchett offered an alternative to a woman needing to imitate the physical strength or fighting abilities of traditional male heroes in order to become one (Santaulària Capdevila, 2018, p. 64).

2.1.5 The Stereotype Threat Theory

Steele’s (1995, 1997) stereotype threat theory was briefly introduced previously – it argues that if a stereotype with a negative connotation relating to a specific group of people is widely known, it may actually affect the performance of individuals from that group in academic domains, as they may subconsciously repress themselves to adhere to it (1995, p. 797). It is unclear whether Pratchett intended to do so; however, there are several instances

23 in the novel where it could be argued that the effects of the stereotype threat are depicted. Esk is clearly significantly affected both times when she is mocked for her plan to become a wizard. The first instance is when the dismissive Vice-Chancellor tells Esk why women are not allowed into the Unseen University and expresses his belief in their general lack of intelligence, saying that: “High magic requires great clarity of thought, you see, and women’s talents do not lie in that direction. Their brains tend to overheat” (p. 134). Esk runs away and, after an emotional breakdown, is asked by Granny Weatherwax to light a fire – a task that Esk has found remarkably easy in the past and was actually the first example of wizard magic she was able to do (p. 74). However, Esk tells Granny that she does not think she can light the fire but provides no explanation for her sudden inability (pp. 139–140).

This incident marks a turning point in the story and is incredibly formative to Esk. Her failure to light the fire seems to indicate she has unconsciously internalised the Vice-

Chancellors opinion on her abilities – she accepted what she heard and let it define her and her skills, however briefly. Throughout the story, Pratchett made sure to emphasize how powerful Esk is, which is why this failure seems especially jarring. However, to view the scene properly, one needs to remember that this is the first time Esk has been directly told that she cannot accomplish something and will always be unable to. Not because of lacking a skill she might be able to learn, but for the simple and unchangeable fact that she is a woman.

Coming from a person she perceives as an authority figure – an older wizard, Vice-Chancellor of the university she wishes to attend, and someone she seems to have been looking for advice from – is entirely devastating for her.

Interestingly, the comment was not even told with any actual malice; the intent was not to hurt or insult, though the wizard does seem to have some misogynist beliefs. The Vice-

Chancellor told Esk what he perceived as the truth – women simply are not capable of being wizards in his world. He dismissed her plan, her struggle, and her abilities with an off-handed

24 remark. This dismissal and being treated as inferior affects Esk significantly. After briefly unconsciously accepting the wizard’s remark and failing to light the fire, she gets angry instead, recognising that the wizard is wrong and choosing her own path – mastering both the magic of wizards and witches.

The second instance is after Esk arrives at the university and asks to be admitted. The

Archchancellor calls the idea “laughable” and tells her that she cannot do wizard magic because women simply do not have the ability. Subsequently, when Esk tries to demonstrate her powers, nothing happens (p. 163). This occurrence is similarly not explained further in the novel, and Esk simply complains to Granny that she could feel her magic but could not channel it (p. 172). Once again, this failure to demonstrate her powers seems to be directly related to the dismissal she faces from those she perceives as wise authority figures. However, instead of just one wizard, Esk is surrounded by several wizards who have an unshakeable belief that she will fail. This pressure is too intense, and she once again succumbs to the expectations of those who are convinced they know the limit of her capabilities.

Both of these instances are curious as, thorough the story, Esk accomplishes feats that trained wizards struggle with or find impossible, such as summoning her staff with no previous training in this type of magic (pp. 117–118). Pratchett even especially notes that the fact that no one had told Esk that the task was impossible was the deciding factor why she was able to accomplish it: “Esk, of course, had not been trained, and it is well known that a vital ingredient of success is not knowing that what you’re attempting can’t be done” (p. 118).

Osborne, who conducted further research in the stereotype threat theory, also argues that

“similar results are found for girls and women in ‘traditionally male’ domains, such as mathematics, computers, and engineering” (2001, p. 292). Taking all this into account, it could be interpreted that what caused Esk’s underperformance in both instances was nothing other than the effect of the stereotype threat. Both incidents happen directly after she is made

25 aware of a negative stereotype that relates to her as a girl and has a connection with a traditionally male field – the magic of wizards.

2.1.6 Second-wave Feminist Movement

Pratchett began working on his third Discworld novel, Equal Rites, in 1985, and the novel was finally published in 1987. Several critics of that time, such as David Langford, who was asked to review the yet-unpublished Equal Rites by the Victor Gollancz Ltd publishing house to decide its profitability, noted how determined Pratchett seemed to be to make the book more serious (Burrows, 2020, p. 113). He also mentioned that the novel had “a hardening recognition that not everything in Discworld need be funny” (Burrows, 2020, p. 113). The real-world issues Pratchett most probably witnessed while working on the novel, such as the discussion surrounding the second-wave feminist movement, which began in the

1960s and continued into the 1990s, might have inspired this turn to more serious themes. The movement was rooted in the anti-war and civil rights movements and discussed principles such as equality and justice. For example, in Britain, the Equal Pay Act outlining the terms and conditions of employment and preventing discrimination between men and women in the workplace was only enacted in 1970 (Equal Pay Act, 1970). Pratchett’s Equal Rites seems to be directly influenced by these ideas, as the central theme of the novel is the struggle of a young female protagonist to enter a male-dominated space and her continuous overcoming of obstacles placed into her path by those who believe in the traditional gender roles and stereotypes.

2.1.7 The Portrayal of Women in Equal Rites

Gender relations and inequality is a topic that concerned Pratchett from the very beginning of his writing career. In 1985, just two years after the publication of his first

Discworld novel, he gave a spirited talk titled “Why Gandalf Never Married”, where he addressed some profoundly ingrained gender stereotypes in fantasy literature. In particular, he

26 points out the “very clear division between magic done by women and magic done by men”

(1985). Pratchett had been a lifelong fan of fantasy literature, and he could not help but notice several reoccurring deep-rooted clichés while he was looking for inspiration for his own work.

He was disturbed by the notion that “in the fantasy world, magic done by women is usually of poor quality, third-rate, negative stuff, while the wizards are usually cerebral, clever, powerful, and wise” (1985). In Equal Rites, he portrays this fight against stereotyping and unequal distribution of power among men and women and the struggle for equality through Esk and her mentor, Granny Weatherwax.

In Discworld, witchcraft is essential to the very life of the witches’ communities.

Witches, in Equal Rites represented by Granny, take care of the births and deaths, provide medicine and tonics, and help with conflicts among the residents. Pratchett tells us that wizard magic is not in any way superior to witch magic; they are simply different specialisations within one field, with witchcraft being just as valuable and heroic. Through Esk, he also establishes that women are more than capable of both if they desire to do so and are given the opportunity to develop their abilities. However, Pratchett also determines that women do not need to possess the same characteristics as men to be the heroes of their own story.

The central protagonist, Esk, is a well-developed character with her own agency that struggles against the system and makes space for herself in a traditionally male-dominated space of wizards. These old wizards act as gatekeepers and decide who gets to be admitted into the university not based on skills but rather obsolete essentialist notions and privilege. It could be interpreted that Pratchett ensues a particular warning that gatekeeping and stereotyping might actually deprive the society of talent and is profoundly damaging to women who thus might not be able to unleash their full potential. The novel was indeed a reflection of the period when it was written, as similarly to Esk, millions of women in Britain

27 and overseas during the 1980s fought for equal pay and equal opportunities, persuaded employers to enact family-friendly policies and stood against discrimination in the workplace.

Though Esk is a compelling character, with her own agency and motivations, she is not as developed as some of Pratchett’s later female protagonists. Pratchett does not show us much of her inner world, and it may be argued that she is not very multi-faceted and that her motivations are somewhat singular. There might be several reasons for this, such as that Esk is supposed to be a nine years old child – she is still developing her own opinions on the world – and also the fact that Pratchett was still at the beginning of his writing career with little previous experience with writing female characters.

2.2 Feet of Clay

2.2.1 Plot Summary

Feet of Clay was published in 1996 and is the 19th novel in the Discworld series and the third in the City Watch storyline. The story is a police mystery and follows the various

City Watch members as they try to solve a poisoning of the Patrician Vetinari, supreme leader of the city of Ankh-Morpork, and several murders seemingly committed under baffling circumstances. It opens with an unfamiliar businessman being approached by a group of golems, clay creatures shaped like humans forced to obey their masters, who offer to sell him a golem for a great price. The businessman is suspicious as golems are usually expensive, but after some price negotiation, agrees to buy the golem, though it is strange, made of white clay rather than red and resembles a sculpture.

Sometime later, we witness the violent murders of an old, harmless priest and then a curator of a Dwarf Bread Museum, committed by an unknown being. Commander of the City

Watch, Samuel Vimes, is informed of the priest’s murder and also of a dwarf that wishes to see him. This dwarf is Cheery Littlebottom, who is given a job as the very first member of the forensics department. Two other members of the Watch, werewolf Constable Angua and

Captain Carrot, visit the Dwarf Bread Museum together and discover the curator’s body.

While examining the crime scene, Angua is surprisingly unable to identify the killer, as they left no scent at all. Meanwhile, Vimes investigates the priest’s murder and gathers clues together with Corporal Littlebottom.

Later, Vimes has an appointment with the Patrician, Lord Vetinari, and discovers him sprawled on the floor in critical condition. A doctor, together with Cheery, determines that

Vetinari has been poisoned by arsenic; however, Vimes is baffled as to how this was accomplished. The food is, after all, taste-tested by the cook’s own children.

With the Patrician removed, the public and the nobles wonder who will be his successor. Angua confronts Cheery after discovering the dwarf is actually a woman; together, they analyse the clues, conclude that the murderer was a golem and later approach a golem named Dorfl working in a nearby factory. Strangely, Dorfl gives himself up to the police and admits to committing every unsolved crime in the city. However, it soon becomes evident that the golem is innocent. While following Dorfl’s trail, Angua finds out he has met with several other golems who had a heated discussion and then used matchsticks to draw lots. Dorfl being the loser then went to the Yard to give himself up.

The following day, Vetinari’s condition worsens, and several golems commit suicide leaving cryptic notes expressing their shame and sorrow. The mystery then starts to unveil – the golems decided to create a king golem and placed instructions in his chem that would lead them to freedom. However, something went wrong; the golem went mad and killed the priest who wrote his chem and the curator who baked the golem in his oven. The golems could not allow their king to be destroyed, so they drew lots to determine who would take responsibility for his crimes. Carrot and Dorfl, who has been given ownership of himself, defeat the golem king, and Vimes confronts a member of the city elite, who conspired to remove Vetinari and instigated the whole thing by having golems make poisoned candles.

2.2.2 Cheery Littlebottom, the First Female Dwarf

In her Essay’s on Female Characters of the Discworld, Tansy Rayner Roberts discusses Feet of Clay. She compares the novel to the previous ones in the City Watch subseries, noting how Feet of Clay introduces notably more female characters with more explicit motives and better characterisation, while the novel itself discusses intriguing gender issues. She also notes the importance of the friendship between the two female supporting characters, Cheery and Angua, to the plot (2018, p. 20). Roberts also appreciates Pratchett’s

30 portrayal of Cheery’s struggle to conform to the expectations of traditional dwarfish culture and her subsequent experiments with gender presentation (2018, p. 26).

Cheery is one of the novel’s supporting characters; however, the dwarf plays a crucial role, contributes significantly to the plot, and has her own agency. Cheery is introduced to the reader as a male dwarf using a “he” pronoun – this is not a trick, as previous novels established that masculine pronouns are the default for all dwarves. Though dwarfish women most certainly exist, dwarves simply recognise only one gender, and that is male. Cheery’s conversation with Angua, the only other female member of the Watch, who recognised that

Cheery is a woman due to her werewolf senses, clarifies Cheery’s predicament. When Angua says that: “There’s plenty of women in this town that’d love to do things the dwarf way. I mean, what’re the choices they’ve got? Barmaid, seamstress or someone’s wife. While you can do anything the men do…”, Cheery responds with: “Provided we do only what the men do” (Pratchett, 1997, p. 112). This sets forth the idea that masculinity is somewhat strictly enforced in dwarfish society. However, Roberts explains that though this does mean female dwarves are equal to male dwarves, the condition is that dwarfish women have to “look, act and appear exactly like male dwarves, which, of course, is not equality” (2018, p. 26). This most certainly limits the possibilities and opportunities of people similar to Cheery, who is attracted to more traditionally feminine modes of behaviour.

2.2.3 Gender Expression among the Dwarves

As was discussed previously, gender expression is one of the critical components of one’s personal identity and something we actually never stop cultivating. It is how a person chooses to communicate their gender identity to others, and it may vary depending on the different gender norms that are normal for a given culture (Watson, 2019, p. 298). As dwarves do not recognise a second gender, for them, the only possible gender expression is as a male.

However, Cheery fails at the acts that are seen as traditionally dwarfish – meaning male. In a

31 conversation with Angua, she exclaims: “I’m scared of fights! I think songs about gold are stupid! I hate beer! I can’t even drink dwarfishly! When I try to quaff I drown the dwarf behind me!” (Pratchett, 1997, p. 113). However, after arriving in the metropolitan Ankh-

Morpork and encountering the various possible ways of expressing one’s gender, Cheery decides to try out several human ways of expressing her femininity, such as wearing earrings

(p. 212), lipstick (p. 220), mascara (p. 245), then a skirt (p. 267), nail varnish (p. 315) and finally metal boots with high heels that she welded on herself (p. 338). She also chooses to change her name’s pronunciation, from Cheery to Cheri (pp. 245–246).

Cheery experiments with these various ways of expressing femininity and subsequently chooses the ones she feels most comfortable with. For instance, Cheery never even considers shaving her beard (p. 245) – she does not wish to simply emulate the human way of presenting as a woman but desires to do so on her own terms. Through these actions,

Cheery is creating her gender expression – trying out and picking the facets that she enjoys and deems as appropriate for herself and discarding those she does not, though others around her might feel that the way she presents herself is in some way wrong. This could be interpreted as Pratchett implying that one’s gender expression is not only evolving constantly but also that it is not necessary to simply accept what society deems as an acceptable way of expressing one’s gender identity. Though Cheery’s usage of makeup, high heels, and accessories may be viewed as distinctly and traditionally feminine by both the reader and

Cheery’s human colleagues, Cheery is not limited by this narrow category of “femininity”.

Her beard is unmistakably in conflict with this, a feature that is generally attributed to men and viewed as highly masculine; however, having it feels correct for Cheery. She will not be shaving it off to cater to anyone’s idea of what a “woman” should be and look like – Cheery is a dwarf woman with a beard, and this way of expressing her gender identity feels most comfortable to her.

However, precisely as Butler theorizes (1988, p. 528), Cheery most definitely experiences various punishments by performing her gender in a way that is seen as wrong in the traditionally dwarfish society’s eyes. For example, in one of the following novels of the sub-series, The Fifth Elephant, first published in 1999, Cheery is called the derogatory

Dwarfish term “Ha’ak” by some of the traditionalists when she visits the king of Dwarves in

Überwald together with Vimes (Pratchett, 2000, p. 195). She is also shunned in several other ways by her people, such as being “denounced” when visiting predominantly dwarfish establishments, such as bars, across the whole city (Pratchett, 2000, p. 51).

Cetiner-Oktem (2017), who discusses both Cheery and Esk from Pratchett’s Equal

Rites, argues that it was nothing other than the multicultural environments of Ankh-Morpork and the City Watch that gave Cheery the opportunity to openly express her femininity for the first time as both create an “entwining space where Cheery is emancipated from ancient customs” (p. 100). She compares the institutional environments of Esk’s Unseen University and Cheery’s City Watch and notes the differences in how Pratchett portrays these two female characters and their struggles, as they share quite a few similarities, though they have different goals and motivations. Both Esk and Cheery are women who suddenly enter a male- dominated environment and make a space for themselves; however, Cetiner-Oktem is especially fascinated by the difference in how Esk and Cheery operate within these spaces.

After all, Esk is ignored by the male wizards she cleans for and tries to learn from them with little to no success, while Cheery is an accomplished alchemist who is vital to the City Watch, and though shy, she never fades into the background among her mostly-male colleagues.

Cetiner-Oktem also points to the fact that while Esk’s eventual acceptance into the university did not result in any significant change for other women trying to enter the male-dominated space, Cheery was able to not only get the society to accept her but also inspire other dwarves to express their gender as they saw fit (2017, p. 108). Cheery’s impact on the whole dwarfish

33 society becomes more evident in the following novels in the City Watch sub-series, such as

The Fifth Elephant (1999).

2.2.4 Themes Concerning Gender in the 1990s

While Feet of Clay is predominantly a parody of a police mystery, Pratchett might have been influenced by the emerging third wave of feminism while writing some of the novel’s subplots, such as Cheery’s experimentation with different ways of gender expression.

The goal of this third wave that emerged in the mid-1990s was, for example, raising awareness of how society influences one’s gender identity, constructing and freely expressing one’s authentic gender identity (Burkett & Brunell, 2020). Other significant themes were sex positivity and reclaiming the very symbols that the previous two phases of the movement identified with women’s oppression, such as lipstick or high-heels (Rampton, 2008).

The median marriage age of women also changed significantly in the 1990s. Though the indicator did not change much in the USA throughout the previous 100 years, staying around 20–22 years, it increased to 24 in 1990, reached 25 in 1997 and has since continued to rise (United States Census Bureau, 2020). By postponing marriage and having children, women could devote more time to their careers and studies, which meant that their economic power increased. They were also able to enter and flourish in more male-dominated professions. One of the indicators of this is that occupational sex segregation, which is the tendency for men and women to work in specific occupations and is viewed as one of the reasons for gender discrimination in the workplace, decreased drastically during the 90s in developed countries, Middle East and Latin America. In the USA specifically, this amounted to about a 30% decrease of men in male-dominated occupations between 1970 and 1991 and about a 10% decrease of women in female-dominated occupations during the same period

(Anker et al., 2003). During this time, women seemed to be entering spaces previously

34 reserved only for men, steadily working towards decreasing the gender wage gap, among other examples of gender inequality in the work sector.

2.2.5 The Portrayal of Women in Feet of Clay

In Feet of Clay, there are two notable female characters that contribute the most to the plot – Cheery and Angua – the only female members of the City Watch. Angua is a reoccurring character, and her narrative in Feet of Clay is mainly focused on her relationship with Carrot. Nevertheless, though Cherry is similarly not the main protagonist of the novel, she does have her compelling narrative arch, and her character undergoes a significant change throughout the story. She is the recruit of the Ankh Morpork City Watch, a capable alchemist that is immediately accepted into the ranks and her opinion is valued as that of an expert. This does not change throughout the novel in any way, even when Cheery starts to experiment with her appearance while figuring out her own way of expressing her gender. Though some of her colleagues, such as Commander Vimes and Captain Carrot, seem slightly baffled by the change, as Cheery at first did not actually tell anyone she was a dwarf woman, they accept it in stride with little explanation from her, suggesting how much respect for her and her abilities they have.

Cheery is a very well developed and highly nuanced character with clear motivations and goals. She is a capable woman who finds herself in an environment – the metropolitan

Ankh Morpork – that suddenly offers her the possibility of exploring her gender presentation in a way she was unable to before. Cheery’s quest to change her appearance to align with what being a woman means for her is, however, just one aspect of her narrative – she is above all a skilled member of the Watch, a woman who makes space for herself in a male-dominated field. She seems to reflect a 1990s woman who is focused on her career and does not lag behind her male colleagues in any way.

Pratchett’s first novel with a female protagonist, Equal Rites – discussed in the previous chapter, and Feet of Clay were published nine years apart. This makes it possible to see how Pratchett’s female characters evolved during this time, especially since it could be argued that Cheery and Esk, the protagonist of Equal Rites, share certain similarities – such as being women entering a male-dominated environment (the City Watch for Cheery and the

Unseen University for Esk) and then operating within them. For example, both characters are undeniably depicted as strong and capable. Esk is gifted in magic and able to defeat any monsters that stand in her way, while Cheery is a proficient alchemist able to solve murder mysteries due to her skills. What is different is the way the people around them treat them – for example, the men in a position of power do not acknowledge Esk’s skills at any point, she is not admitted into the university, has to find another way in and subsequently works as a member of the cleaning staff. Cheery’s admittance into the City Watch is treated as a matter of course – she was presumably chosen based on her skills and willingness to work. Captain

Carrot and Commander Vimes, Cheery’s male superiors within the Watch, always treat

Cheery with respect and view her opinions as that of an expert in her field – which she is. It could be argued that this is due to the fact that while Cheery is an adult dwarf woman, Esk is only a girl. Nevertheless, other female characters in Equal Rites, such as Granny Weatherwax or other members of the university’s cleaning staff, are treated with similar dismissal by the male wizards, which suggests that this is an underlying problem within the institution.

Pratchett seems to be focusing on different aspects of gender equality in the two novels – while Esk was struggling even to be permitted to learn a male-dominated occupation and her abilities were dismissed without them being given any notice, Cheery’s skills are acknowledged, and her space is not questioned. On the other hand, Cheery is still a pioneer – one of the only two female members of the Watch – and both her career and how she

36 experiments with expressing her gender work as examples for other women, dwarfish or other, who in later Discworld novels start to follow in her footsteps.

2.3 Monstrous Regiment

2.3.1 Plot Summary

Monstrous Regiment, the 31st Discworld novel, was published in 2003 and tells the story of Polly Perks, who secretly joins the army disguised as a boy to find her older brother

Paul, who is missing in action. Polly’s reason is that even though she is much more qualified to take over the family pub than her naive and gullible brother, in Borogravia, where the story takes place, women cannot own property. Borogravia is a tiny and conservative country of people who worship a temperamental god called Nuggan and try to live according to his increasingly strange and harmful prohibitions. These are called the “Abominations Unto

Nuggan” and include, for example, babies, the colour blue, crop rotation, girls knowing how to write, barking dogs or the smell of beets. The desperate people of the land often choose to pray to their Duchess instead, which has unforeseen consequences, as belief has immense power in Discworld. Borogravia is at war with the neighbouring country of Zlobenia over a border dispute; however, though there are rumours that the war is going poorly for Borogravia, the country’s stubborn leadership refuses to acknowledge any problems.

Polly assumes the name Oliver and, while committing several Abominations, joins the army under Sgt. Jackrum and Lieutenant Blouse. She meets her fellow recruits, a strange group of people, including a vampire, troll, and an Igor (member of a clan with strong surgery skills). The next day, the cohort sets out for the training camp, and over the following days,

Polly finds out that most of the recruits are also women. Gradually, the group receives confirmation of how dire Borogravia’s situation is – there are no other new recruits, most of the militia is captured, and there are almost no supplies. The regiment also encounters a group of fleeing civilians and soldiers who are badly injured and often missing limbs. Though the inexperienced Lieutenant Blouse is the commanding officer, the real leader of the regiment is

Sgt. Jackrum, a seasoned and ruthless soldier. The group decides to infiltrate the enemy’s base

– the Keep – and on the way, is ambushed by an elite enemy detachment that they outwit and thus humiliate. They are not aware that one of the enemy soldiers was Zlobenia’s prince

Heinrich. After a picture of the humiliated cohort ends up in the newspaper, the group’s progress piques the outside world’s interest, including that of Commander Vimes, who secretly aids them.

Polly and her regiment disguise as women and are able to infiltrate the Keep in order to free the captured Borogravian troops. They are successful and retake most of the Keep; however, when Polly is forced to admit they are women, their own army removes them from the conflict, and they are brought in front of a war council. The group is saved by Sgt.

Jackrum, who, after asking some members of the council to leave, reveals that everyone left in the room is, in fact, a woman in disguise – including all the commanding officers. Amid this revelation, the Duchess, empowered by her people’s belief, momentarily becomes strong enough to possess Wazzer, a member of Polly’s cohort. She urges all the generals to end the war and repair their country.

The regiment is sent to the enemy, peace is successfully negotiated, and the law is changed so that women can join the military. Polly then confronts Jackrum and reveals that she knows Jackrum is (physically) a woman. She persuades Jackrum to return home to his adult son and hints that there is no reason for him to reveal his gender. Polly then finds her brother, and they return home together with Sufti, a pregnant member of Polly’s squad.

Sometime later, conflict breaks out again. Polly decides to leave the tavern to join the army again, this time as a commander wearing her assigned female uniform but with trousers underneath her skirts.

2.3.2 Subverting Tropes

Tansy Rayner Roberts notes how impressed she is by Monstrous Regiment, calling it the best Discworld novel (2018, p. 80). According to her, the novel subverts many popular

39 tropes and thus keeps surprising the reader. She sees the first trope being subverted as the

“young man goes to war” story as these narratives often lack prominent secondary female characters. Roberts believes that though women disguising themselves as men is a quite popular trope in literature, it comes with a clear disadvantage. As the disguised female protagonists enter male-dominated spaces to achieve their goals, they do not usually interact with other women or have a chance to build connections with them (2018, pp. 80–82).

Pratchett, however, decides to subvert this trope, and the reader discovers throughout the book that not one, not the whole regiment, but actually around a third of the entire army consists of women. After all, if there exist such circumstances that one woman would choose to disguise herself to enter the army, why not more? This enables Pratchett’s female protagonist Polly to interact with other women in the same situation and form various interesting connections with them, such as her friendship with Maladicta or mentor-student relationship with Sgt. Jackrum.

Roberts mentions, “If Polly had been the only one disguised as a boy in this story, there would have been no point in telling it” (2018, p. 83).

Roberts then focuses on the question of gender essentialism and praises the message of the novel – namely, that gender is frequently considered necessary in situations where it should be insignificant (2018, p. 84). The chief example is Polly being denied her inheritance

– the tavern – because of her gender despite being the person most capable of running it, or

Igorina, who as a woman is not allowed to use her surgical skills in the field. Roberts then points out how the novel touches on how gender and sex may not necessarily correlate and also on issues relating to transgender and non-binary people while not explicitly using language we would use today to discuss them. She also notes how several characters in the novel are clearly contemplating their personal gender identity, performance and presentation throughout the story up to its end (2018, pp. 79–80).

2.3.3 A Stylized Repetition of Acts

Jacob Held, Professor of Philosophy at the University of Central Arkansas, attempts a philosophical approach to Pratchett’s work. In his article (2014), he analyses Monstrous

Regiment through the lens of Butler’s theory of gender being a social construct and its performative nature. He considers the fact that not only the main character Polly but also her entire regiment, their Sergeant Jackrum, as well as a significant part of the military leadership, are actually women passing as men as an example of “gender being performed throughout in various ways, each calling into question the stability of gender categories” (p. 16).

Held then delves deeper into the characters of Polly Perks and Sergeant Jackrum.

Based on sex being determined by characteristics such as genitalia or hormones, he establishes that both characters can be considered biologically female; however, he emphasizes that this fact does not make them women. Polly adopts stereotypical masculine characteristics and behaviour and successfully convinces her surroundings. However, she does not do this to convey her own gender identity but simply as a performance. Nevertheless, the fact stands that Polly and the other members of her squad are so convincing in their performance, they are seen as men in the eyes of society (p. 17). One such instance occurs when the regiment needs to infiltrate the Keep and dress in women’s clothes in order to sneak in through the back entrance. However, their male commanding officer, Blouse, disqualifies them from the mission, as he claims to have noticed habits, such as “the occasional exploration of a nostril maybe, and the tendency to grin after passing wind, a natural boyish inclination to, ahem, scratch your...selves in public...that sort of thing” (Pratchett, 2003, p.

219). According to Blouse, these would give them away as men, and it would be evident to any observer that they are simply men in women’s clothes.

Furthermore, as a matter of fact, Commander Blouse is right – after the members of the regiment disobey his order and try to sneak in, they are immediately caught and accused

41 of being male soldiers (Pratchett, 2003, p. 254). As was mentioned previously, Butler thinks that the “internal essence of gender is manufactured through a sustained set of acts, posited through the gendered stylization of the body” (2011, p. 15). Held interprets it as Polly and her comrades having constructed “the illusion of masculinity through the repetition of masculine acts” (2014, p. 17). However, he admits that it should not be claimed that they are men, as

Polly and the others only perform the gendered actions that make the others see them as masculine out of necessity; they do not identify as men. Held considers this to be especially illuminating when comparing with Sergeant Jackrum, as he actually considers him “Terry

Pratchett’s first transgender character” (2014, p. 18).

This could also be interpreted as Pratchett using comedy, as he does often, to raise interesting questions about both gender stereotyping and gender identity. He examines and challenges what exactly makes one a man or a woman in society’s eyes and hints at the absurdity of specific behaviour and attire being gendered. This is interesting in relation to

Cheery from Feet of Clay, another female character of Pratchett’s who not only did not conform to her dwarfish society’s expectations on what a woman should look like and how she should behave but also embraced some aspects of outward appearance coded as male, such as her beard. It seems to be a reoccurring theme in Pratchett’s portrayal of women, though explored in much more depth in Monstrous Regiment in comparison to Cherry’s journey in Feet of Clay.

2.3.4 Sergeant Jackrum – An Example of a Transgender Character?

Held refers to Jackrum as “he” throughout his article as he feels it is the correct pronoun. To Jackrum, though he might be biologically female, performing as a woman seems unthinkable. When the regiment is about to dress in women’s clothes and infiltrate the Keep, he says – while in slight distress – that, “You won’t get me in skirts. Everyone has their place, right?” (Pratchett, 2003, p. 248). Jackrum is comfortable as a man and with his gender

42 performance as it is. As Butler states, repeating these gendered acts can “congeal over time to produce the appearance of substance, of a natural sort of being” (2011, p. 45). The novel informs the reader explicitly that it has been years and years since Jackrum has entered the army as he has a grown-up son (Pratchett, 2003, p. 340). It is thus hinted that Jackrum has been performing acts gendered as masculine for quite some time. At the end of the novel, it is strongly implied that Jackrum did take Polly’s suggestion to return to his son as a long lost father, a celebrated army officer, rather than a mother (Pratchett, 2003, p. 343). Held believes that because there was no reason to conceal his sex further and adopt a man’s facade after leaving the military, Jackrum decided to do so simply because he is a man – it is his true gender identity. Held mentions that we, as the reader, are actually “given a glimpse into

Jackrum the trans-man (...) who transitioned to a man some time ago and only now fully realizes and accepts it” (2014, p. 19).

However, while Sergeant Jackrum might be read as transgender, it seems unlikely that

Pratchett wrote him as such. After all, Monstrous Regiment was published in 2003 when discussion on transgender topics was even less common than it is today. Nevertheless,

Jackrum does not explicitly address his own gender identity. He also seems remarkably uncomfortable behaving in a way that might be seen as feminine, such as vehemently refusing to dress in women’s clothes. It is also interesting to note that Jackrum does not acknowledge his own sex even during the courtroom scene when he reveals that all the military leaders are female – almost as if he did not consider himself to be one of them. Additionally, it is implied that Jackrum continues to present as a man, though both Polly and the reader never find out his reasoning for doing so. Furthermore, though assigning the character the label of transgender might be slightly presumptuous, Pratchett himself refers to Jackrum with male pronouns throughout the story. The only brief 2-page exception is when Jackrum and Polly discuss his reasoning for joining the military towards the end of the novel. What Pratchett

43 might have been trying to achieve through this character is once again turning gender stereotypes and presumptions on their head and showing their illogicality, as he tricked both

Polly and the reader into thinking Jackrum to be male, as he truly embodies all the characteristics one might expect a stereotypical seasoned military man to have.

2.3.5 Why Monstrous Regiment?

The title Monstrous Regiment has an interesting history; John Knox first used this term in his pamphlet The First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstruous Regiment of

Women (1558), where he argued that female rule, or gynarchy, was against both nature and the Bible. It was published at a time when both England and Scotland were governed by female rulers - Mary, Queen of Scots and Mary I of England. Knox believed that women were not only unfit to rule in society but also an inferior reflection of God, naturally weak, and that virtue from God was for women to serve men (Jordan, 1987, pp. 432–433). During the 20th century, the pamphlet’s title was reclaimed by the feminist movement and used in feminist literature, such as the 1917 novel Regiment of Women by Clemence Dane (Winifred Ashton) or the 1995 novel by Laurie R. King, A Monstrous Regiment of Women. The name was similarly adopted by the British feminist theatre company Monstrous Regiment Theatre, established in the 1970s, which was committed to improving women’s position in theatre

(Wandor, 1993, p. 15). As the name has strong feminist connotations, it is probably no coincidence that Pratchett chooses to use it for his novel that deals with such serious themes.

He relies on the feminist history of the title and uses it to give the reader an idea of what themes the novel will deal with, such as gender stereotyping and the flimsiness of traditional gender roles. At the same time, Pratchett is interpreting the title literally in a humorous way, as a regiment of women, including a troll, vampire and an Igor, which can thus be seen as genuinely monstrous, is one of the main plot points of his narrative.

2.3.6 Choosing the Setting

Marc Burrows, in his The Magic of Terry Pratchett, notes that though Pratchett previously explored the main themes of Monstrous Regiment – gender stereotypes and the futility of war – in other novels, this time they were done “by an author arguably at the peak of his narrative powers” (2020, p. 222). Pratchett first toyed with the idea of setting the novel in Europe and not making it a part of the Discworld series at all. He must have done extensive historical research as his editor was doubtful whether women could actually enter the army and pass as soldiers. During his research, Pratchett explored queer-focused literature as well as contemporary accounts and found out that women served by the hundreds in the American

Civil War and achieved high ranks in European armies – all in disguise. In the end, however,

Pratchett decided to match the novel to Discworld’s tone and thus deepen and expand the franchise (2020, p. 222).

2.3.7 The Gender Recognition Act 2004

As was mentioned, Monstrous Regiment is a multi-faceted novel that explores several themes – the futility of war, gender stereotypes as well as gender performance and identity.

Out of these, the topic of gender identity is not one that Pratchett had explored deeply in his previous novels. One of the things that could have influenced Pratchett was the situation in

Europe surrounding the rights of transgender people, namely the discussions around the

Gender Recognition Act 2004 passed in the United Kingdom that “removes many of the injustices experienced by the transgendered and permits acquired gender to be legally recognised” (Tirohl & Bowers, 2006, p. 83). The Act gives individuals with gender dysphoria the right to change their gender.

2.3.8 The Portrayal of Women in Monstrous Regiment

Monstrous Regiment seems to be the culmination of Pratchett’s thoughts about gender inequality and the absurdity of gender stereotypes. It is his first and only novel where all the

45 leading and most supporting characters are female – though their sex is revealed at various points throughout the story. The novel’s female-to-male characters ratio is arguably extreme, as the number of prominent male characters could be counted on one hand. Furthermore, out of the Discworld novels, Monstrous Regiment also has the most diverse cast of female characters – featuring women both young and old, military leaders, prostitutes, barmaids, soldiers (one of which is pregnant the entire time) as well as a female head of state that turns into a goddess.

Pratchett is subverting the trope of a woman disguising herself as a man to infiltrate a male-only space – in this case, the army. In these narratives, the woman is then surrounded only by male characters and thus unable to create meaningful relationships with other women.

At the same time, this trope simultaneously reinforces the idea that it is somewhat unusual for a woman to be just as capable as men or desire the same things. In Monstrous Regiment, all the recruits in the cohort that Polly joins are women who decided to join the army for various compelling reasons. For some, being a soldier is a calling; others only joined the army for a specific personal gain, and few do so out of necessity and fail at even the simplest tasks. This way, Pratchett not only tells us that women wanting to enter male-dominated spaces and fields is not unusual but also presents the idea of how utterly ridiculous gender stereotypes are.

There is no one correct way how to be a woman, and Pratchett makes sure to emphasise this via his varied and multi-faceted female characters, each with her distinct motives and struggles.

Gender stereotyping and its pointlessness and absurdity are among the novel’s central ideas that Pratchett devoted much attention to, especially when it comes to specific behaviour coded as masculine or feminine. His band of female army recruits are so good at behaving like men that they are immediately discovered as soldiers when they try to infiltrate an enemy base while disguised in women’s clothes. Interestingly, it is not a simply repeated imitation of

46 actions that the society saw as gendered; the women adopted these habits coded as masculine by their society. Polly, the novel’s main character, was more comfortable in trousers, braver with a sword in her hand and stood taller with her hair cut short. None of these, however, made her any less of a woman.

Above all, Pratchett seems to emphasise that what one chooses to do regarding his or her outward appearance or career should be his or her choice, as Polly tells the new female recruits at the end of the novel: “Oh, you can join as men if you want,” said Polly. “We need a few good men.” The girls looked at one another. “You get better swear words,” said Polly.

And the trousers are useful. But it’s your choice” (Pratchett, 2003, p. 352). After successfully completing her goal and finding her brother, Polly herself once again sets off to war wearing her new uniform skirt but with trousers underneath.

Conclusion

This thesis explored the question of what various gender-related topics Terry Pratchett discusses in three selected novels of his Discworld series, Equal Rites (1987), Feet of Clay

(1996), and Monstrous Regiment (2003), taking into account the time when the novels were published and how this could influence Pratchett’s portrayal. Furthermore, the thesis also delved into how the novels’ female characters, through which Pratchett chooses to discuss these topics, evolved and changed and what this tells us about Pratchett as an author.

In the first analysed novel, Equal Rites, Pratchett explores the theme of gender inequality, especially relating to women struggling to enter male-dominated fields, through his nine-year-old Esk and her mentor Granny Weatherwax. While portraying themes such as the unequal distribution of power and male privilege, he also warns of the dangers of the stereotype threat and gatekeeping and their potential impacts. Pratchett uses Equal Rites to express his frustration at the way magic in fantasy literature is usually divided between the two genders – meaning how male wizards usually utilise “high” or more valued and respected type of magic while witches’ magic is usually portrayed as lower quality or in a negative light.

However, though Esk’s goal is to learn the magic of the wizards, Pratchett stresses that women do not need to adopt male behaviour or change in any way to be respected and valued, as he portrays both types of magic as equally heroic and necessary.

In Feet of Clay, the second analysed novel, Pratchett discusses gender expression and presentation while also revisiting the theme of a woman making a space for herself within a male-dominated field – in this case, the police force, or the City Watch in Discworld. He does so through the character of Cheery, a dwarf woman who longs to express herself freely in a society where being male is the only acceptable option. She experiments with her outward appearance and behaviour, changes the pronunciation of her name and adopts both feminine and masculine traits while discovering how she wishes to express her gender identity. Cheery

48 also rejects the limitations of her conservative dwarfish society and the opinions of others concerning her gender presentation. Cheery is a pioneer – both as the second female member of the City Watch and as a dwarf fully embracing her femininity – and she inspires other dwarf women in later novels to follow her example.

Monstrous Regiment is a novel where Pratchett truly developed his ideas concerning gender stereotypes and presumptions – namely, how absurd he found them. The novel’s protagonist Polly and all the other members of the regiment are revealed to be women at different points throughout the story, which means that the reader’s assumptions about the gender of the characters are continuously turned on their heads. Pratchett’s portrayal aligns with Butler’s view on gender being performative and the notion of people continuously designing and performing their genders and constructing their own gender identity.

In all three novels, one of the themes Pratchett seems to be focusing on is the struggles and challenges of a woman entering a male-dominated space. However, in Equal Rites, Esk is not admitted into the all-male university and has to find another, somewhat demeaning, way to learn the skills necessary to control her powers – joining the all-female cleaning staff and listening to the lectures at the back of the halls. Once Esk proves her powers during the novel’s climax, the Archchancellor admits her into the university; however, her journey and struggle do not have any lasting impact, as women’s position within the institution does not change, and no other girls are allowed to enter. The reader also does not see any reaction to her being a female wizard other than the initial firm rejection and disdain. On the other hand, though Cheery is similarly the newest member of the City Watch and one of the only two women, her place is not questioned, and her opinion and skills respected as that of an expert.

Pratchett seems to have moved on from discussing the struggle of a woman trying and failing to insinuate herself in a predominantly male space to portraying how she might flourish within such space. Cheery’s struggle comes in the form of trying to formulate her own gender

49 expression while rejecting the deep-seated gender stereotypes and norms of her race.

Compared to Esk, this struggle of Cheery’s has a significant lasting impact, though predominantly in later novels of the series, as she genuinely starts a revolution within the dwarfish society.

In Monstrous Regiment, this theme is approached from a slightly different angle. At first, the reader is convinced that Polly is another pioneer, the only woman out of the recruits.

Throughout the novel, as more and more characters reveal their gender, Pratchett tells us both that women wanting to enter male-dominated spaces are not rare and that the differences between them and their male counterparts, in terms of skills and capabilities, are negligible.

Pratchett also pokes fun at gender stereotypes as well as the readers’ assumptions concerning gender. Above all, throughout all his novels, Pratchett seems to value the individual’s choice regardless of his or her gender, be it in their career, gender expression or personal life.

This way, we can see how Pratchett’s portrayal changed between 1987, when Equal

Rites were published, to 2003 and Monstrous Regiment. Essentially, the author seems to have always drawn inspiration from the world around him. In the 80s, he was at the beginning of his writing career – a father of a young daughter wanting to portray the asymmetrical distribution of power and privilege among genders, perhaps influenced by the discussion surrounding discrimination of women in the workplace or the ideas of the second-wave feminist movement of the 80s. In the 90s, with Feet of Clay, Pratchett expanded on this idea, choosing to portray how a woman might flourish in a male-dominated professional field while having the freedom to express her femininity as she sees appropriate. Similarly, during this time, the author could have drawn inspiration from the emerging third-wave feminism or career-oriented women of the 90s who were steadily working towards decreasing the gender wage gap and other common examples of gender inequality in the work sector.

In 2003 with Monstrous Regiment, Pratchett was an author at his prime, who seemingly chose the novel to express his frustration with stereotypes and gender being seen as relevant in situations where it should be insignificant. This novel, which could be seen as the culmination of Pratchett’s thoughts concerning gender equality, seems to highlight the author’s belief in personal freedom of choice – be it one’s attire, occupation or gender expression.

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