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Key Sites Of The Hittite Empire

Dirk Paul Mielke

The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE)

Edited by Gregory McMahon and Sharon Steadman

Print Publication Date: Sep 2011

Subject: Archaeology, Archaeology of the Near East

Online Publication Date: Nov 2012

DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0048

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Subscriber: University College London; date: 26 October 2017

Key Sites Of The Hittite Empire

Abstract and Keywords

This article discusses findings from excavations of key Hittite sites: Bo ğ azköy–Hattu ša, Ortaköy– Š apinuwa, Alaca Höyük, Kuşakli–Šarişşa, and Maşat Höyük–Tapikka. These sites shed light on both the characteristic features and diversity of Hittite urban forms.

Keywords: excavations, archaeological sites, urban forms, Bo ğ azköy–Hattu ša, Ortaköy– Š apinuwa, Alaca Höyük, Kuşakli–Šarişşa, Maşat Höyük–Tapikka

Archaeological and historical sources allow us to reconstruct a highly developed and organized system of settlements for the Hittite period (Mielke 2011; Schachner 2009b; and see Glatz, chapter 40 in this volume). It is therefore astounding that so few archaeological sites Click to view larger can be characterized as Figure 48.1. Map of Hittite key sites in key sites for Hittite central Anatolia. research. This state of affairs is partially attributable to the fact that settlement areas have only been exposed extensively in a small number of excavations. Furthermore, significant findings often have been insufficiently published. In this respect documents, in the form of clay tablets, are of particular importance, as they provide concrete historical insights. However, such tablets have only been discovered at a few locations (van den Hout 2011:fig. 5, and see van den Hout, chapter 41 in this volume). For these reasons, the field of Hittite archaeology has been largely dominated to date by the excavations at Boğazköy-Ḫattuša. Due to space constraints, only a small selection of key sites is presented in the following discussion (figure 48.1). Nevertheless, because of their varied significance, they illuminate the diversity of Hittite settlements. For a survey of additional important excavation sites, the reader should consult the overview by Genz and Mielke (2011) as well as Seeher’s contribution to this volume (chapter 16). The Capital: Boğazköy-Ḫattuša

The impressive ruins of Boğazköy (Çorum province) drew the attention of numerous travelers to the Near East as early as the nineteenth century (figure 48.2), yet English and German archaeologists initially struggled in vain to obtain a license (p. 1032) for excavating this most promising site (Alaura 2006). Ultimately it was a Frenchman, Ernst Chantre, who made the first test Click to view larger excavations at Boğazköy in Figure 48.2. Plan of the capital Boğazköy- 1893–94. Not until the Ḫattuša (Boğazköy expedition). excavations led by Hugo Winckler and Theodor Makridi Bey in 1906–7 and 1911–12 were the ruins identified on the basis of textual finds as Ḫattuša, the capital city of the Hittites. These early excavations were directed primarily toward the discovery of clay tablets, but Heinrich Kohl and Otto Puchstein excavated the ruins in parallel and undertook an initial comprehensive survey of the architectural remains and topography, which remains valuable for research to this day (Puchstein 1912). The excavations organized between 1931 and 1939 by the German Archaeological Institute and the German Oriental Society, under the direction of Kurt Bittel, were then able to expand on this earlier work. These excavations, which focused on the royal citadel of Büyükkale, were able to place both the temporal depth and the material basis of Hittite culture on a solid foundation for the very first time.

Interrupted by World War II, research at Boğazköy resumed once again in 1952 under the direction of Kurt Bittel (until 1977) (Bittel 1970, 1983). From 1952 to the present, excavation work has continued at Boğazköy without interruption. The work on Büyükkale lasted until 1966. Since then, research has concentrated on the lower city, but unfortunately has not led to any comprehensive publications. Under the new director of excavations, Peter Neve (1978–93), the focus of work shifted to the upper city and its numerous temples (Neve 1996). His successor, Jürgen Seeher (1994–2005), then brought the economic life of the city to the attention of scientific (p. 1033) (p. 1034) research through excavations on Büyükkaya and in the upper city (Seeher 2000). In addition, a new comprehensive topographic survey (Seeher 1999) was completed, and, in a major archaeological experiment, a portion of the city wall was reconstructed (Seeher 2007). The work he initiated in the western upper city has been continued more recently under Andreas Schachner, the most recent director of excavations (since 2006), and expanded through new research in the lower city. In addition to innumerable archaeological finds, about 30,000 clay tablets or fragments thereof have been unearthed in Boğazköy to date. These fragments have formed the basis for a discipline in its own right—Hittitology—and continue to lead to numerous new insights (van den Hout 2011).

The more than 100 years of research undertaken at Boğazköy have brought forth an immense wealth of publications, only the most significant of which can be cited here. Preliminary reports on the excavations were initially published in the Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft (35, 1907; 70–106, 1932–74), and have regularly appeared since 1979 in the journal Archäologischer Anzeiger. Individual findings from archaeological work were published in the series Boğazköy (I–VI, 1935–84), and its sequel, Boğazköy- Berichte (7–8, 2004–6). In addition, the final publication series, Boğazköy-Hattuša: Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen (I–XXII, 1952–2008) is of great importance. The directors of excavations have published periodic summary papers about the current state of excavation work (Bittel 1970, 1983; Neve 1996; Seeher 2006e; Schachner forthcoming). Special publication series were founded for the numerous cuneiform texts, including Keilschrifturkunden aus Boğazköy (KUB I–LX, 1921–90), Keilschrifttexte aus Boğazköi (KBo 1–60, 1916–2009), and Studien zu den Boğazköy-Texten (StBoT 1–48, 1965–2006).

The settlement of Boğazköy is situated at the end of the long Budaközü valley that opens to the northeast. This valley was settled as early as the Chalcolithic period (see Schoop, chapter 7 in this volume). In the vicinity of the ruins of the Hittite city, archaeological evidence indicates continuous habitation since the early Bronze Age. The city is first mentioned in historical records with the name Ḫattuš during the kārum period (see Michel, chapter 13 in this volume). This settlement was largely destroyed, and an Old Hittite text even records its execration (Neu 1974:13, l. 48), yet after a brief hiatus, resettlement took place under the name Ḫattuša.

In the following 470 years (1650–1180 B.C.E.), Ḫattuša, as the capital of the Hittite Empire, was one of the most important cities of the ancient Near East. The site of Boğazköy also provides important remains for the Iron Age period (see Kealhofer and Grave, chapter 18 in this volume). The remains of the Hittite city stretches out over a surface area of 180 ha. The area enclosed by the city fortifications rises from the north to the south, and its topography is sharply divided by mountain ridges, rocky crags, plateaus, and basins. The distinctive rocky crag of Büyükkale is located halfway up the eastern edge of the city and was the site of the so-called Royal Citadel. The postern wall that runs toward the west from this point divides the city area into an upper and lower city. Because the fortifications of the upper city are symmetrically aligned with the gigantic passageway complex of Yerkapı (Neve 2001), it was long believed that this area of the city was a later expansion. (p. 1035) Newer studies have shown, however, that the lands of the upper city already belonged to the municipal area at the time of the Old Hittite Kingdom (Schachner 2009b; Seeher 2006a, 2006b, 2008). The fortifications of Ḫattuša remain to be fully studied, but it is clear, especially in the lower city, that there were numerous intermediary walls that divided off individual districts (Neve 2004). A number of typical Hittite gate structures, with a passageway between two massive gate towers, guarded access to the city at a number of different places (Puchstein 1912; Seeher 2006e). A few of them were decorated with relief sculptures, such as the famous Lion Gate or the King’s Gate in the upper city. Some of the walls, such as the postern wall mentioned previously and those of Büyükkaya, additionally featured underground vaulted passageways, whose exact function—as a failsafe during sieges or for the daily passage of people and animals—has not yet been sufficiently clarified (Miglus 2005).

Excavations in different districts over the years have generated a complex chronological framework (see the summary in Mielke 2006a:14–18), and it has proven problematic to link the sequence of layers with the historical record (Klinger 2006; Seeher 2008). Only in the past few years, thanks especially to the introduction of scientific dating methods, has it been possible to establish a discrete and independent chronological framework, which has made it clear that historical events and archaeological developments seldom occur synchronously (Schoop and Seeher 2006).

The heart of the city was the so-called royal citadel on the rocky crag of Büyükkale (Bittel 1983:87–132; Neve 1982; Seeher 2002b). This was the palace area of the Hittite kings, which developed into a complex series of structures over the course of time. Most of the exposed ruins come from the last period of utilization, the time of the Late Kingdom (thirteenth century B.C.E.). At this time, Büyükkale was equipped with its own fortifications and encompassed an area of about 32,000 m2. The central feature of this palace complex was an array of courtyards, around which were grouped a number of different rooms and buildings with colonnades. The courtyards were connected by gateways.

The lower city was dominated by the Great Temple 1, which was located in a spacious storehouse district (Neve 1969, 1995/1996). This complex, which originates from the period of the Great Kingdom, exemplifies through architecture the important position of temples in the Hittite economic system. Toward the south of the temple, there was a second area of storehouses, along with what seem to have been artisan workshops. Between the temple complex and the city wall lay a narrowly cropped area with simpler residential houses. New investigations in the lower city have brought new insights about the complex history of the fortifications in this area, as was the case in the excavations at Büyükkaya (Neve 1994:294–312; Seeher 1995:600–604). During the late Empire period (thirteenth century B.C.E.), a series of large silos were dug into these mountain ridges, designed for the long-term storage of grain (Seeher 2000). An older, immense granary from the sixteenth century B.C.E., still entirely filled with carbonified remains, was also discovered at the postern wall (Seeher 2006c).

(p. 1036) The urban layout of the upper city was of a different character (Neve 1996). To date, thirty temples built in this area since the end of the Old Hittite period have been unearthed (Seeher 2006a, 2006b, 2008). Most of them are located in the so-called central temple quarter (Neve 1999), while the largest temples (temples 2, 3, 5, 30, and 31) were built at other prominent locations in the upper city. In addition, on a few striking cliff formations in this portion of the city, there are small, self-contained building complexes that may have also been connected to religious activities (Seeher 2006e; van den Hout 2002). The precise function of these so-called rock castles of Sarıkale, Yenicekale, and Nişantaş remains obscure. Newer investigations in the upper city have additionally revealed the existence of several large pond structures that provided water to the city (Neve 1996:63–80; Seeher 1998:216–17, 2001:341–61, 2002a:59–70) and also had a religious function, as revealed by the two stone chambers in the wall of the eastern pond (Neve 1996:67–80). In the upper city, buildings with an official character have also been found. The most prominent of these is known as the West Building, which has been the source of the largest inter-related set of clay bullae bearing an official seal ever discovered (Herbordt 2005; Neve 1996:52–58). The North Building, which is similarly located at Büyükkale, may have been the site of the royal stables (Mielke 2011:171). The function of the “square buildings” that were unearthed during new excavations in the western upper city, however, remains unclear (Schachner 2008:121–29; Seeher 2004:59–66, 2006d:171– 78). The upper city also underwent significant changes over the course of its history, which encompasses many centuries. Thus, many of the temples were no longer functioning during the period of the late Hittite Empire. During this time, pottery workshops and small, simple houses had made themselves at home in amongst the ruins of the temples (Neve 1999).

Despite 100 years of research, many areas of the Hittite capital still remain unknown. Through the more intensive application of geophysical prospection methods (see excavation reports in Archäologische Anzeiger from 1998 onward) and thanks to a new micro-survey (Schachner 2007, 2008, 2009a), these knowledge gaps will be closed little by little. The surrounding countryside is also being subjected to greater scrutiny. A survey of the local area has already been completed and has led to new discoveries about the city’s ties with the surrounding environment (Czichon 1997, 1998, 1999). New geophysical prospections in this surrounding area indicate the existence of reservoir dams and artificial ponds outside of the city wall (Schachner 2008:142–46). The much earlier discovery of the rock sanctuary of Yazılıkaya, located about a kilometer northeast of the city, already afforded some understanding of such environmental ties (Bittel, Naumann, and Otto 1941; Bittel et al. 1975). The pictorial representations of a procession of gods found there, which largely originates from the thirteenth century B.C.E., are among the most impressive legacies of Hittite culture.

Knowledge about the material culture of the Hittites, derived from long-term excavations, has made the excavations at Boğazköy the standard for all other Hittite discovery sites with regard to the typology of ceramics or temples. Only in recent (p. 1037) years has Boğazköy’s “monopoly” of the field been broken by new research at other Hittite settlements. Without any doubt, however, the ruins of Boğazköy-Ḫattuša are among the most significant archaeological sites anywhere in the world, and for this reason, they have been included on the World Heritage List since 1987 (see http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/ 377). The Royal Residence: Ortaköy-Šapinuwa

The excavations at Ortaköy (Çorum province) are among the new investigations that have shown that remarkable surprises can still be anticipated in Hittite studies (figure 48.3a). In 1990, Aygül and Mustafa Süel began their work at Ortaköy, which has continued to this day. Aside from regular but brief reports on the excavations in the Kazı Sonuçları Click to view larger Toplantısı (14, 1993; 17–21, Figure 48.3. (a) Sketch of the residence 1996–2000; 23, 2002; 25– city Ortaköy-Šapinuwa, according to 27, 2004–5; 29, 2007), satellite images (author). (b) Ground plan several general overviews of Building A of Ortaköy-Šapinuwa (after have appeared in print (A. A. Süel 2002:fig. 4, modified by the Süel 1992, 1998b, 2002, author). (c) Ground plan of Building B of 2009; M. Süel 1998, 2008a, Ortaköy-Šapinuwa (after M. Süel 2001: 2008b); however, many 681, modified by the author). important questions regarding the site remain unresolved. It is, as yet, difficult to understand the site’s history from the excavation record and get a coherent picture of the urban layout. Nevertheless, Ortaköy is of extraordinary importance in Hittite studies. With more than 3,500 clay tablet fragments, this site has brought forth the largest quantity of cuneiform texts found anywhere in Hittite Anatolia outside of Boğazköy (A. Süel 1997, 1998a, 2002:163–65, 2005).

The location of the city on a level plain, which is only interrupted in the north and west by deeply cut creek valleys, is itself quite unusual. No comprehensive topographic plan has been published yet that would allow a more precise assessment of the location of the city or the connections between its individual buildings. Presently, the only sources of information helpful in this regard are published aerial photographs (M. Süel 2008b) and publicly accessible satellite images. The excavations currently stretch over an area of about 400 m. Although some fragments of fortifications have indeed been excavated, especially in the area of Building A, it remains unclear whether they surrounded the entire city or only a palace district. The excavators’ suggestion that the dimensions of the city encompass nine square kilometers (A. Süel 2002:165) is as yet unsupportable, especially given that no evidence has been presented for such an exorbitant size.

According to evidence from the clay tablets, the ruins of the city unearthed thus far seem to date to the Middle Kingdom and the early Hittite Empire (fifteenth to the fourteenth century B.C.E.). There appear to have been at least two distinct phases of construction. Dendro-datable wood remains are available from several buildings (A and B), but the samples are problematic and there is also no contextual information known about them, making them of little value for resolving questions of chronology (Mielke 2006b:89). The city was apparently destroyed in the fourteenth century B.C.E. and was never rebuilt.

(p. 1038) The excavations have concentrated until now on individual buildings, which have been named in alphabetical sequence. Only an incomplete plan for Building A (figure 48.3b) has been published, but it shows the characteristics of a palace (Mielke 2011:165– 66; A. Süel 2002:158–62 with fig. 4; M. Süel 2008b:13–21). The southwestern front—the longest unearthed—stretches almost eighty meters and shows a symmetrically structured wing consisting of different groups of chambers with recesses on their exterior side. It is unclear whether the structure contained a courtyard. Newer investigations have shown that the building was surrounded by pavement (p. 1039) stones and had a ramp-like entrance. Although much remains unclear about this building, we are clearly dealing with an imposing and significant edifice, which originally contained additional rooms on a second storey.

Building B (figure 48.3c), which is located about 100 m east of Building A, appears to be a storehouse with an irregular floor plan and a surface area of about 1,250 m2 (A. Süel 2002: 162–63; M. Süel 2001, 2008b:22–27). The structure was full of numerous pithoi and large jars. Many of the storage vessels were placed on recessed clay pedestals that were arranged in rows or at right angles. About 120 m south of this unusual storehouse, the small Building C was unearthed, which has been interpreted as a religious structure (M. Süel 2008b:28–32). The most recently uncovered Building D is located about 260 m southeast of Building A (M. Süel 2008b:33–35). Its dimensions are about 20 × 20 m with a surface area of about 600 m2. The remarkable thing about this structure is its entrance, which is furnished with an ornate orthostat. The orthostat depicts the lower half of a figure that probably represents a king as warrior with a bow and spear (M. Süel 2005).

Since 2000 there have also been excavations on a plateau that is situated about 500 m north of Building A, which is divided from the first excavation area by a deeply cut creek valley (M. Süel 2008a, 2008b:36–61). Aside from a number of different architectural ruins, storage pits and a great multilevel platform were discovered. It is thought that the platform was used for religious activities. It is questionable whether this plateau still belonged to the actual urban area.

Thanks to clay tablet evidence, the Hittite settlement of Ortaköy can be identified as Šapinuwa, an important city already known from the Boğazköy texts. The archaeologists who excavated it consider Šapinuwa the second capital of the Hittite kingdom or perhaps a royal residence. Since the excavations and the research regarding the texts have only been partially reported, they have generated a number of questions as yet unanswered. We must therefore await future publications to evaluate the interpretations advanced by the excavators. However, on the basis of its important artifacts and ruins, it is certain that the settlement of Ortaköy-Šapinuwa will achieve a special status among Hittite cities.

The Cult City: Alaca Höyük

The small settlement mound of Alaca Höyük (Çorum province) is located only twenty-five kilometers northeast of Boğazköy, known since W. J. Hamilton visited in 1836 (figure 48.4a). The first major archaeological work was undertaken by Theodor Makridi Bey in 1907, but it was not until the excavations by Hâmit Zübeyr Koşay, Remzi Oğuz Arık, and Mahmut Akok Click to view larger between 1935 and 1983 Figure 48.4. (a) Plan of the cult city Alaca that large areas were Höyük (after Koşay and Akok 1973:taf. 85 opened up. These and Çınaroğlu and Genç 2007:fig. 1, newly excavations led to created by the author). (b) Sketch of the numerous discoveries, Sphinx Gate of Alaca Höyük (after including rich Hittite layers Naumann 1971:fig. 65). and the renowned Early Bronze Age burials (see Steadman, chapter 10 in this volume). In 1997 a new excavation project was launched by Aykut Çınaroğlu. (p. 1040) A number of monographs have been published about the earlier excavations (Arık 1937; Koşay 1938, 1951; Koşay and Akok 1966, 1973), yet these older monographs provide an incomplete picture of the archaeological work conducted, as a great deal of important information remains to be reported. For example, the excavators only established a very rough chronological classification of the layers (Koşay and Akok 1973:57–60 with pl. XCIII), which was subsequently reevaluated in 1993 by Tahsin Özgüç (1993:473–75; for more details see Mielke 2006a:18–19). Results from the new (p. 1041) excavations have appeared in issues of Kazı Sonuçları Toplantısı (21, 2000; 23–30, 2001– 8). A general overview of Alaca Höyük with further bibliographic references is also provided by Özgüç (2002a). The approximately fifteen meters high and almost round höyük of Alaca had a long history of continuous settlement layers, encompassing all phases of the Hittite epoch. Because of the informational gaps in older publications, it is often difficult to relate archaeological artifacts to the structural findings, thus reducing the significance of Alaca Höyük for resolving questions of chronology. Thus, the architectural remains themselves lend Alaca Höyük its significance. In this connection, attention must be drawn to the detailed architectural reconstructions made by Akok in the older publications.

The mound, which is about 250 m in diameter on average, was surrounded by a city fortification, of which only the two gates on the western and southeastern sides have been partly excavated. A third gate is also likely to exist on the northern side. The city was very small, with an area of only five hectares. The remarkable Sphinx Gate was exposed at a very early date (Koşay and Akok 1966:123–24; Makridy 1908; Naumann 1971:285), and on its exterior side, it exhibits a unique orthostat frieze with figural representations (Bittel 1976:figs. 209–27). The scenes show various activities in a religious festival and display the royal couple among the principal actors (figure 48.4b). Comparable representations have only been found on Hittite artifacts, like relief pottery or metal vessels. It is probable that the Sphinx Gate served as the principal entrance to Alaca Höyük, both on account of the uniqueness of its representations as well as its location in the immediate proximity of the palace area. The second gate, located on the western side, has only been partially excavated and was named after a postern that runs beneath the gateway (Koşay and Akok 1966:124–25). This is a special feature of Hittite gates (Miglus 2005). The dating of the fortifications remains problematic. They were assigned to Layer II of the second cultural layer, which encompasses the entire Middle and Late Bronze Age. It is generally accepted that this layer dates from the time of the Great Hittite Empire, and thus from the second half of the fourteenth and the thirteenth century B.C.E., but a closer approximation has not been possible.

The so-called Temple Palace of Alaca Höyük (Koşay and Akok 1966:121–28; Naumann 1971 :401–4), which, with its 3,600 m2 area, occupies almost the entire eastern half of the city, also belongs to Layer II. However, doubts remain whether all the assigned architectural remains were originally part of one palace complex. The unfortunate appellation was assigned by the excavators due to evidence of cult activities in the northwest portion of the building (Koşay and Akok 1966:126). This evidence should not have led to the functional characterization of the entire building, however. The building complex actually has all the hallmarks of a palace and is one of very few palace ruins excavated over such a large area (Mielke 2011:165). A central courtyard that unifies an agglomeration of variously grouped rooms (often featuring colonnades) is the distinguishing feature of Hittite palace complexes. A visitor arriving at the palace of Alaca Höyük first steps into a vestibule before going through a double-gated structure to enter into the actual elongated courtyard. (p. 1042) The central area on the eastern side is dominated by a colonnade, which provides access to the group of rooms that lies behind it, which clearly represented an important area. Numerous additional rooms are located around the courtyard, whose function remains indeterminate. The silo structures discovered in the new excavations on the eastern side of the palace complex are a testament to its administrative and redistributive functions (Çınaroğlu and Genç 2003:280–81, 2007:527), an interpretation which is also corroborated by written sources. The palace complex of Alaca Höyük probably had a Middle Hittite precursor in the earlier Layer III, but it has only been exposed in small sections (Naumann 1971:403–4 with fig. 537).

Of the remaining architectural ruins at Alaca Höyük—which probably represent additional official buildings or simple residential houses—there is little additional information available. Newer investigations have led to the discovery of a nearby reservoir dam, whose specific relation to the city still remains a question (Çelik 2008; Çınaroğlu and Genç 2003, 2004, 2005, 2007:529).

The impressive Hittite architectural ruins of Alaca Höyük have often been identified with the cult cities of Arinna (Erkut 1992) and Zippalanda (Popko 2000) mentioned in Hittite texts, but there have been no clay tablets or other sources discovered at the site itself to confirm this association. Nevertheless, the unique Sphinx Gate and palace, which is large in relation to the small size of the city, do suggest a special status for Alaca Höyük, so the designation of “cult city” would seem to be justified. The Province Center: Kuşakli-Šarišša

Thanks to an Figure 48.5. Plan of the provincial center interdisciplinary approach Kuşaklı-Šarišša (Kuşaklı expedition). and good archaeological conditions, the excavation at the site of Kuşaklı near Başören/Altınyayla (Sivas province) has transformed the face of Hittite archaeology inside the space of only a few years (figure 48.5). Between 1992 and 2004, Andreas Müller-Karpe headed the excavations at Kuşaklı. The excavation reports were published in the Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft (127–34, 1995–2002; 136, 2004; 138, 2006). A dedicated publication series with final reports (Kuşaklı-Sarissa 1–5, 1997–2010) and comprehensive summaries (Müller-Karpe 2002a, 2002b) make the research findings readily accessible.

The geophysical field survey that was undertaken at the site remains unique in its scale and comprehensiveness. Both the city and surrounding area were assessed in a survey that still stands as a model for the successful application of geophysical prospection methods. Optimal geologic conditions made it possible to recognize almost all urban structures, and the entire city fortifications could be reconstructed without putting a spade into the ground. The fortifications at the site consist of four gates at the ends of the two principal axes of the city and a “Kastenmauer” defensive wall. The city wall sits on its own raised rampart, which encircles a central acropolis-like hill whose sides slope steeply to the wall. In total, the fortifications encompass (p. 1043) an area of eighteen hectares. The city is embedded at the base of a long mountain range. Over the course of twelve excavation seasons, the acropolis was substantially exposed and excavated at various locations both inside and outside the city walls. Research has shown that the settlement was newly founded in the last quarter of the sixteenth century B.C.E. based on the dendrochronological investigation of numerous carbonized wooden remains (see the summary of Mielke 2006c: 266–69). The city subsequently went on to experience an active history of repopulation and change that lasted until the end of the Hittite period (Müller-Karpe 2004:108–11). Some 100 years later parts of the former Late Bronze Age town were occupied by a small Middle Iron Age settlement.

One of the most significant buildings dating from the Hittite foundation period is the structure known as Building C on the acropolis, which is likely to represent a (p. 1044) temple of the local weather god (Müller-Karpe 1999/2000, 2000). This massive structure is the largest temple from the entire Hittite period to be excavated to date. A second temple, also of large proportions, has been completely excavated on the north terrace (Müller- Karpe 1995:9–21, 1996). Not far from this second temple, near the northeast portal, a larger stable complex has been exposed. This building is of great significance for the understanding of Hittite vernacular architecture (Müller-Karpe 2007). During these excavations, a number of buildings from this early period were also discovered on the western slope, including some with an official character, and others that might be described as simple residential dwellings (Mielke 2006a:3–6). Among the four entryways previously mentioned, two gates, the Northwest and the Southeast Gates, have been almost completely excavated (Mielke 2004). Because of their good state of preservation, the architectural remains have yielded important new insights regarding Hittite city gates in general, as well as about the wood and mudbrick architecture of Hittite buildings (Mielke 2009). In addition, there are two structures first made visible by means of geophysical prospection that should be mentioned, as they demonstrate the evolved level of urbanization in the city. One structure is the large, half-underground silo complex at the southern cusp of Kuşaklı, which could hold more than 700 tons of cereal grains (Mielke 2001:237–41). The second structure is a large dam unearthed outside the city walls at the Northwest Gate. Its function was to collect water that flowed down from the surrounding mountains (Hüser 2007). The geophysical prospection has indicated the existence of more of these structures around the city wall, but these were investigated only with small trenches (Hüser 2007). The study of the nearby and more distant surroundings has additionally led to the discovery of a sanctuary located in the mountains above the city, with an artificial pond and a temple structure (Müller-Karpe 1999:79–91). Research that has been conducted beyond the actual city walls has made it clear that the city’s construction apparently occurred against the backdrop of a deliberate reshaping of the landscape.

In the fourteenth century B.C.E., the city was completely destroyed in the course of violent conflicts. The traces of this catastrophe are visible in virtually all of the older buildings. However, there was another later phase of rebuilding and settlement that lasted until the end of the thirteenth century B.C.E. A series of smaller new structures of an official character was built on the acropolis (Arnhold 2009; Müller-Karpe 1999/2000). In one of these, Building A, a substantial archive of clay tablets was found (Wilhelm 1997). On the western slope, new residential buildings were built atop the old architectural remains (Mielke 2006a:3–6), while near the abandoned silo on the south summit, a pottery workshop was found (Mielke 2001:241–43). Within the city, there must have been ruins that remained exposed that were not cleared or overbuilt, such as those of the massive Building C. The remains suggest that the city gates, as well as the entire fortifications of the city, were no longer functional but were used as dwellings. The city was then apparently abandoned little by little toward the end of the thirteenth century B.C.E. In this connection, several buildings on the acropolis show signs of fire damage.

(p. 1045) The excavations generated numerous new insights regarding Hittite cities. The clay tablet fragments discovered during the course of the excavations were essential in this regard, as they allowed the ruins to speak for themselves. Thus, the ancient name of the city—Šarišša—could be identified for the first time. This, in turn, allowed connections to be established to other ancient Hittite texts, which identify Šarišša as a provincial center in the so-called Upper Land (Siegelová 2001; Wilhelm 1997). Elsewhere mention is also made of the ḫuwaši shrine discovered in the mountains, which was apparently of special significance, as the Great King traveled from Ḫattuša to visit it during a spring festival (Wilhelm 1997). The excavations in Kuşaklı have acquired a key position in Hittite archaeology not only on account of these important historical and cultural discoveries but also primarily because of the unusually good conditions of the findings and, as a result, the high reliability of their scientific dating (Mielke 2006b, 2006c; Müller-Karpe 2003).

The Border City: Maşat Höyük-Tapikka

The mound of Maşat Höyük (figure 48.6) is located on a fertile plain about twenty kilometers south of Zile (Tokat province) near the contemporary village of Yalınyazı. It consists of a steep rock massif elevated about thirty meters above the plain, which slopes away more gently only on the southeastern side. Click to view larger Spurred by the discovery of Figure 48.6. Plan of the border city Maşat a Hittite clay tablet Höyük. Building remains of layers III and II (Güterbock 1944), initial (after Özgüç 1982:plan 3 and 4, newly investigations took place created by the author). there in 1945, but it was not until the later excavations conducted between 1973 and 1984 under the direction of Tahsin Özgüç that Maşat Höyük was transformed into an important site of discovery in Hittite research. This was the first time outside Boğazköy that a large number of clay tablets had been uncovered in central Anatolia (see Beal, chapter 26 in this volume). Although findings from the excavations were presented in two monographs (Özgüç 1978, 1982) and in several surveys (Özgüç 1980, 2002b), detailed information on some discoveries is still lacking. The presentation of the clay tablet finds (Alp 1980, 1991a, 1991b) led to several important additional publications (e.g., Beckman 1995; Klinger 1995; van den Hout 2007).

The settlement area at Maşat Höyük is not very large. Its greatest dimension is only about 225 × 450 m, and it consists of a “citadel” on the rock massif and a “lower city” stretched out over the southern slope. The most significant remains originate from the Hittite period, but other settlement phases from the Early Bronze Age, kārum period (Hittite Layer V), and Iron Age have also been identified. The four Hittite building layers cover the entire time period from the Old Hittite Kingdom (sixteenth century B.C.E.) to the end of the Great

Empire era (end of the thirteenth/beginning of the twelfth century B.C.E.). All layers show traces of major fires, which are interpreted as evidence of violent destruction. To date, no fortifications have been found, yet it can be assumed that the settlements from different periods were originally surrounded by a wall (Özgüç 1982:89). From the Old Hittite Layer IV (p. 1046) there are only a few ruins remaining in the lower city, which do not allow for a more detailed description (Özgüç 1982:85–89).

The most important building complex at Maşat Höyük is associated with the Middle Hittite period Layer III (fifteenth to the first half of the fourteenth century B.C.E.). Without doubt, we are dealing with a palace that occupied essentially the entire cliff top of the “citadel” (Özgüç 1978:11–17, 1982:73–83). The building complex could not be fully excavated because of subsequent redevelopment, destruction, and erosion, but one can nevertheless recognize all the typical elements of a palace (Mielke 2011:165). The groups of rooms contained on the northern and eastern sides are organized into elongated wings, which are oriented toward a courtyard by colonnades. The excavated portions cover an area of about 3,300 m2, but there were comparable groups of rooms on the western and southern sides of the courtyard, such that the original area may have been twice as large. From the inventory one can determine the functions of the different areas; in addition to archival rooms, the complex contained storage chambers with large embedded pithoi and silo bins. Based on the conditions at the site, however, the rooms of the archive must have been located in an upper storey. The clay tablets discovered at the site not only revealed the Hittite name for Maşat Höyük—Tapikka—but also showed that the (p. 1047) settlement served as the base for a border commander (BĒL MADGALTI). From the texts it has been possible to gain valuable insights concerning the positioning of a Hittite border post in relation to the enemy territory of Kaška. The palace complex was set off from the lower city by retaining walls. The excavations in the lower city have uncovered a few architectural remains from this layer, but they have been only fleetingly described in print (Özgüç 1982:85–89).

In the succeeding early Hittite Empire Layer II (fourteenth century B.C.E.), the city was completely rebuilt. The western part of the citadel was henceforth dominated by a large “altar building” (Özgüç 1982:80–83), in which both clay tablets and imperial seal impressions have been found. In the lower city as well, rebuilding took place (Özgüç 1982: 85–89). As is the case with the preceding Layer III, this layer bears evidence of a major fire catastrophe.

In the final Hittite Layer I, which is generally dated to the New Kingdom Period (thirteenth century B.C.E.), no additional large buildings were constructed (Özgüç 1982:73–83). Clay tablets and seal impressions have also been found from this settlement period. Of particular significance is the discovery of some Late Helladic IIIA2/IIIB Mycenaean vessels in a smaller building on the acropolis (Genz 2011:309; Özgüç 1978:66, 1982:102–3), whose precise location cannot be determined from the documentation. Dendrochronological data from this building are also available, but they are unfortunately not usable for the precise dating of the artifacts or structural remains (Mielke 2006b:84–87). Without a doubt, Maşat Höyük ranks among the most important Hittite archaeological sites. Existing publications contain some deficiencies with respect to the categorization of artifacts and architectural remains, and the limited selection of finds and brief architectural descriptions also leave many questions unanswered, yet the textual and archaeological discoveries still provide us with significant insights into a border city 150 km distant from the Hittite capital.

Conclusion

Despite its brevity, this overview of key sites sheds light on both the characteristic features and diversity of Hittite urban forms. In classifying Hittite settlements, archaeologists have generally used the contrasting terms “höyük” to indicate older settlements and “mountain city” to describe newer foundations. However, these terms—which actually refer to topographic circumstances—are in no way appropriate for characterizing the complex system of Hittite settlements (Mielke 2011:153–54). Analytical approaches employed by modern urban geography that conceive of cities as a reflection of social and political structures—thus paying tribute to the human forces that shape them—are much more appropriate than these outmoded concepts. Indeed, the adoption of new analytical approaches should make it possible to survey in a fitting manner the general characteristics of Hittite cities as well as questions pertaining to settlement politics and hierarchies.

(p. 1048) Such a survey would require a thorough reassessment of the existing archaeological and philological record, an effort that has only been undertaken on a limited basis to date on account of the fragmented nature of archaeological sources (Mielke 2011). Clearly, a categorization solely based on topography is inadequate, as Hittite urban structures are strongly influenced by administrative and religious factors—this is true, however, of cities from many different cultures and times. More specifically, Hittite urban structures should be characterized in terms of the architectural and conceptual design of their temples, palaces, fortifications, storage installations, and so on, and the social organization behind that. The special characteristics of these Hittite urban forms are Anatolian in origin and in many instances have their roots in the preceding kārum period. The social and organizational forms that defined Hittite settlements were not perpetuated into the subsequent Iron Age, as the collapse of the Hittite state led to a new social and political order. Only the Hittite successor states in southeastern Anatolia and northern Syria display remnants of Hittite urban forms, yet these remnants are subsumed into structures with their own unique characteristics (see Matney, chapter 19 in this volume). References

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Dirk Paul Mielke Madrid, German Archaeological Institute

Dirk Paul Mielke is Research Associate at the Madrid Department of the German Archaeological Institute.

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