GLOBAL FIRE INITIATIVE

Technical Report Fire Management Assessment of the Eastern Steppe, Mongolia

January 2009

GFI technical report 2009-1a Citation: Johnson, Darren, Oyunsanaa Byambasuren, Ronald L. Myers and Michael Babler. Fire Management Assessment of the Eastern Steppe, Mongolia. GFI technical report 2009-1a. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, VA.

For more information:

Global Fire Initiative The Nature Conservancy Tall Timbers Research Station 13093 Henry Beadel Drive Tallahassee, FL 32312 USA 850-668-0827 [email protected]

Cover Photo: Bogd khan Uul Strictly Protected Area, Töv province. Photo by Darren Johnson. Acknowledgements The assessment team wishes to acknowledge the following organizations and individuals:

TNC Mongolia - Enkhtuya Oidov, Galbadrakh Davaa, Baigalmaa Dembereldash, Delgermaa Zagd, Susan Antenen, Mr. Gongor (driver and guide), Mr. Zorigoo (herder Umnudelger Soum), the Caretaker of the Baldan Bereeven Monastery, Mr. Batsaikhan (herder Batshireet), Mr. Bazarsad (former Governor Delgerkhaan Bag), Mr. B. Gankhuyag (WWF Project Officer Dadal), Mr. Monh-erdene (State inspector Dadal), Mrs. D. Oyungerel (Governor Dadal), Mr. Ganbat (Governor Norovlin), Mr. Shijir- Erdene (Town Manager Norovlin), Mr. Ulzii (Herder Bayan-Uul), Mr. Ganbat (Governor Bayan-Uul), Mrs. Ch. Oyunchimeg (State Inspector Bayan-Uul), Mr. Ganbaatar (Herder Tsagaan Ovoo), Mr. Nyamdorj (Ranger Tsagaan Ovoo), Mrs. Dulamkhand (Head of Parliament Tsagaan Ovoo), Mr. Batsaikhan (Herder Mandal Tolgoy), Mrs. Tsevelmaa (Mandal Tolgoy), Mr. Amar (Chief Ranger Toson Hulstay Nature Reserve), Mr. Ganbat (Director of Dornod Aimag Environmental Protection Agency), Mr. B. Batdorj (GIS Specialist for the Eastern Mongolia Protected Area Administration), Mrs. P. Amarzaya (Forest Fire Specialist in the Fire Prevention Department of the Mongolia National Emergency Management Agency), Mr. Namsrai (Commissioner of the Mongolia National Emergency Management Agency), Mr. Ganbaatar (staff member in the Forest Policy Department in the Ministry of Nature and Environment), Bob Gray and Stefan Teusan (World Bank fire and forestry consult- ants).

2 contents contents

Section Page

Introduction ...... 1 Purpose ...... 1 Objectives & Focus ...... 1 Background on Mongolia ...... 2 General Ecology of the Eastern Steppe ...... 3 Trans-Baikal Conifer Forest Ecoregion ...... 4 Moist Lowland Meadow Steppe Ecosystem ...... 5 Daurian Forest Steppe Ecoregion ...... 5 Mongolian-Manchurian Grassland Ecoregion ...... 8

Fire and Fire Management in Mongolia ...... 10 Fire Management History and Structure ...... 10 National Level ...... 10 Regional Level ...... 12 Provincial (Aymag) Level ...... 12 District (Soum) Level ...... 12 Township (Bag) Level ...... 13 Fire Environment and Fire Effects ...... 13 Boreal Coniferous Forest ...... 14 Sub-Boreal Coniferous Forest ...... 14 Forest Steppe ...... 15 Steppe Grasslands ...... 16

Observations and Interpretations ...... 19 Protected Areas ...... 19 Toson Hulstay Nature Reserve ...... 20 Bogd khan Uul Strictly Protected Area ...... 21 Ignition Sources and Suppression Responses ...... 23

Proposed Fire Management Conceptual Framework ...... 26 Integrated Fire Management ...... 26

Conclusions & Recommendations ...... 29 Socio-Economic Necessities and Perceptions Related to Fire ...... 29 Fire Management Options and Strategies ...... 29 Fire Management Options ...... 29 Fire Management Strategies ...... 30

Next Steps ...... 33

References ...... 34

iii

introduction 1introduction Purpose preliminary insights into the status of fire The purposes of this assessment were management and fire ecology in Mongolia threefold: 1) to gain some preliminary as a whole. insights into the current status of fire management in the Eastern Steppe of (4) Provide The Nature Conservancy Mongolia; 2) to assess the role of fire in (TNC) in Mongolia with a conceptual the regeneration and maintenance of the framework for identifying and addressing dominant vegetative life forms present in fire-related threats to biodiversity conser- the terrestrial ecosystems found there; and vation at their priority conservation areas. 3) to provide recommendations based on the collected information that will be use- (5) Provide fire managers and conserva- ful in future conservation and fire manage- tion management specialists with recom- ment efforts in the Eastern Steppe region. mendations of long-term strategies and The specific objectives of the assessment actions that reduce fire-related threats in were to: the Eastern Steppe.

(1)Gather information on fire manage- (6) Introduce ecological concepts related ment needs and issues in the Eastern to fire that could be adapted to conserva- Steppe of Mongolia that may be important tion management strategies in northeast- in biodiversity conservation and manage- ern Mongolia. ment in the region. Objectives and Focus (2) Assess the extent to which fire plays a In July of 2008 a team of four fire ecolo- role in the regeneration and maintenance gists visited the Eastern Steppe region of of the forest steppe and grassland ecosys- Mongolia including the provinces of Töv, tems in northeastern Mongolia. Khentii and Dornod. The 12-day assess- ment took the team from the capital city (3) Evaluate fire management planning, of Ulaanbaatar east to Jargaltkhaan and training, research and information needs then north Bayangol, Batshireet and in northeastern Mongolia, and gain some Binder. From Binder the team continued

Team Members — Darren Johnson, Fire Ecologist, Global Fire Team, The Nature Conservancy, USA — Oyunsanaa Byambasuren, Ph.D. Student, Georg-August-Universitaet, Goettingen, Germany — Ronald Myers, Ph.D. Fire Director, Latin America and the Caribbean, Global Fire Team, The Nature Conservancy, USA — Michael Babler, Fire Manager, Colorado Field Office, The Nature Conservancy, USA

1 west to Dadal and then south to Norovlin. landscape geology and plant vegetation. Crossing from Khentii into Dornod The Mongolian steppe grasslands also have province the assessment team first made structural and functional similarities with its way to Bayan-Uul and then traveled the steppe grasslands of Patagonia in south to Tsagaan-Ovoo. Just south of southern Argentina. Tsagaan-Ovoo the team visited the Toson Hulstay Nature Reserve and concluded the Background on Mongolia field portion of the assessment in Mongolia is located in central Asia, bor- dered by Russia to the north and by China

introduction Choybalsan (Fig. 1). The four-person team, representing the United States, to the south, east and west. The climate Canada and Mongolia, was assembled by can be categorized by short dry summers the Conservancy’s Global Fire Initiative. and long cold winters, with temperatures ranging from -15° and -30°C (-5° and -22°F) in winter to 10° and 27°C (50° and The information in this report is based on 80°F) in summer. The country has an area observations by, and discussions among, 2 the members of the Assessment Team and of approximately 1,564,116 km (604,250 their Mongolian hosts during two days of square miles) and a population of meetings in Ulaanbaatar and nine days in 2,951,786, of whom 812,000 reside in the capital city Ulaanbaatar. Forests cover 10 the field in the Eastern Steppe. This percent or about 13 million hectares (ha); assessment builds on and draws informa- grasslands cover about 70–80 percent of tion in part from North American vegeta- all of Mongolia. tion descriptions developed by the Conservancy and its partners in the U.S. The terrain in Mongolia consists primarily LANDFIRE national mapping project of mountains and rolling plateaus. Overall, (www.landfire.gov). Many of the LAND- the land slopes from the high Altai FIRE vegetation descriptions developed in Mountains of the west and the north, to the United States are analogous to systems plains and depressions in the east and the that were observed in Mongolia. The south. The highest point (4,374 meters northern and central Rocky Mountain [m]), Khuiten Orgil (Mount Friendship), region (Idaho, Montana), and the north- is located in western Mongolia, where the ern part of the Great Basin (Idaho, Mongolian, Russian and Chinese borders Wyoming) have a great deal in common meet. The lowest point is 560 meters in with Mongolia (Gray 2006). For example the eastern Mongolian plain. The coun- the lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) ecosys- try’s average elevation is 1,580 m (Worden tems of western Wyoming and Montana, and Savada 1989). and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) sys- tems of Utah are ecologically similar in Mongolia has three major mountain terms of vegetation structure and fire ranges. The highest is the Altai Mountains, regimes to the boreal and sub-boreal stretching across the western and the coniferous forest ecosystems found in southwestern regions of the country. The northeastern Mongolia. Similarly, Khangayn Nuruu range is older and more Colorado’s Front Range ecosystem bears eroded than the Altai and occupies much of central and north-central Mongolia. some distinct similarities to Mongolia’s The Khentiin Nuruu range, near the Eastern Steppe grasslands which possess Soviet border to the northeast of commonalities in both the structure of the 2 introduction

Ulaanbaatar, has the lowest elevation of General Ecology of the Eastern the three ranges. Much of eastern Steppe Mongolia is occupied by a plain known as The Eastern Steppe region of northeastern the Mongolian steppe grasslands. The Mongolia is bordered by Russia to the rivers drain in three directions: north to north and China to the south and east and the Arctic Ocean, east to the Pacific and encompasses the provinces (aymags) of south to the deserts and the depressions of Khentii, Dornod and Sukhbaatar (Fig. 1). Inner Asia. Rivers are most extensively The region covers almost 280,000 km2 developed in the north; the country’s (108,109 square miles) and represents major river system is the Selenge-Moron, three distinct ecoregions: the Trans-Baikal which drains into Lake Baykal. Rivers in conifer forest, the Daurian forest steppe northeastern Mongolia drain into the and the Mongolian-Manchurian grassland Pacific through the Argun and Amur zone. The following ecological system (Heilong Jiang) rivers, while the few descriptions are based in large part on streams of southern and southwestern Ferree’s (2008) classification and ecosys- Mongolia run into salt lakes or deserts tem mapping work for northeastern (Worden and Savada 1989). Mongolia.

Figure 1. A map of northeastern Mongolia illustrating the locations visited by the assessment team and the terrestrial ecosystems associated with that portion of Mongolia. The Eastern Steppe region of Northeastern Mongolia is bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south and east. The Eastern Steppe includes the provinces of Khentii, Dornod and Sukhbaatar, which collectively cover an area of approximately 286,208 km2 (Ferree 2008). 3 Trans-Baikal Conifer Forest Ecoregion ous species that include Siberian pine The Trans-Baikal conifer forest ecoregion (Pinus sibirica), Siberian larch (Larix sibirica), occupies a relatively small area of the Siberian spruce (Picea obovata) and Siberian Eastern Steppe and is composed primarily fir (Abies sibirica) (Fig. 2). The understory is of three terrestrial ecosystems: boreal typified by a shrub layer that includes coniferous forest (taiga), sub-boreal conif- blueberries (Vaccinium spp.), round-leaved erous forest and moist lowland meadow dwarf birch (Betula rotundifolia) and a variety steppe. The latter is usually found in the of grasses, perennial forbs and mosses. bottoms of narrow high-elevation valleys. Fire, insect outbreaks and wind are the introduction primary disturbances in these forests. The boreal coniferous forest ecosystem is located almost entirely within the Trans- The sub-boreal conifer forest or “light Baikal Conifer Forest Ecoregion where it taiga” ecosystem consists of pure or mixed occurs in the Eastern Steppe. It occurs on stands of Siberian larch (Larix sibirica) summits, upper and lower slopes and in and/or Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris) in the narrow valleys from elevations of 1,300 m foothills of Khentii and east Khentii to about 2,000 m. The tree layer is either province, at elevations 300 to 400 m monospecific or a mix of several conifer- lower than the boreal coniferous forest.

Figure 2. Dense, even-aged stand of Pinus sibirica on lower slope of Bogd Khan Uul Protected Area south of Ulaanbaatar. Though dominated by Pinus sibirica, this forest has scattered stands of Pinus sylvestris and a few scattered individuals of Picea obovata. Fire scars on the trees are common throughout; recently burned patches of several hectares are scattered throughout. As adult trees the three species seem to be able to tolerate low-intensity surface fires. In more severely burned areas, bark beetle infestations were evident. Photo by Darren Johnson. 4 introduction

They occur on soils with permafrost. The the bottoms of the narrow high-elevation stand density of sub-boreal coniferous for- valleys, in the riparian zones of small est is more open than boreal forest and it streams at lower elevations and in the may be more fire-prone due to the abun- drier steppe landscapes in areas adjacent to dance of fine fuels in the understory. South lakes and ponds. Vegetation consists of a of the town of Batshireet in Khentii variety of graminoids, and forbs (Fig. 4). province the assessment team observed that north- and east-facing slopes are Daurian Forest Steppe Ecoregion dominated by larch on the flats and lower The Daurian forest steppe, also known as slopes, mixing with Scotch pine and birch the mountain forest steppe zone, consists (Betula platyphylla) and/or aspen on the of forest steppe, upland meadow steppe mid-slopes. The ground cover under the and moist lowland meadow steppe; the lat- larches and pines consisted of a wide ter occurs in the riparian zones of small diversity of grasses and forbs along with streams at lower elevations. This ecoregion scattered shrubs like Rhododendron sp. and is dissected by large rivers such as the Salix spp. (Fig. 3). These observations were Onon, which drains east to the Amur consistent with Ferree’s (2008) descrip- River, and the Ulz. tion of the species composition and struc- ture for sub-boreal coniferous forest The forest steppe can be typified as a ecosystems in northeastern Mongolia. savanna-type system, largely composed of open grasslands and meadows with inter- Moist Lowland Meadow Steppe mittent patches of forest and woodland. Ecosystem The forest predominates on north- and The moist lowland meadow steppe ecosys- east-facing slopes; the grassland predomi- tem most often occurs in narrow bands in nates on south- and west-facing slopes.

Figure 3. Sub-boreal coniferous forest (Scotch pine, larch, birch) southeast of Batshireet, Khentii province. Past fires are evident throughout as fire scars, charred stumps and trunks and fire-killed stands. Photo by Ronald Myers. 5 The wooded patches and savanna consist Upland meadow steppe, as the name sug- primarily of Siberian larch (Larix sibirica) gests, is found in hilly landscapes at eleva- and Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris) (Fig. 5). tions just below the forest steppe. This Tree densities vary widely: Betula spp. and ecosystem occupies approximately 15 per- Ulmus sibirica woodlands occur on stonier cent of the Eastern Steppe and represents sites such as rocky outcrops; willow (Salix a transition zone between forest and forest spp.) and aspen (Populus tremula) occur steppe to its north and the steppe ecosys- along the shores of lakes and rivers. tems to the south. Annual precipitation Annual rainfall of about 350 mm provides amounts of 300 mm are less than in areas introduction adequate moisture for a forb-rich herb dominated by forest steppe. This low rain- layer and a well-represented sedge and fall likely accounts for the sporadic occur- grass component. The forest steppe has a rence of trees across the system. Like the broad elevation range occurring from forest steppe, there is enough moisture to about 750 m to 2,000 m. In his descrip- support a variety of forbs, sedges grasses tion of the northeastern Mongolian forest and shrubs (Fig. 6). Many of the forbs and steppe ecosystem, Ferree (2008) suggests low shrubs that occur in this system, such that the woodland patches typical of this as Artemisia, Thalictrum, Aster, Polygonum, type may well be relics of contiguous forest Potentilla, Carex and Galium, are also charac- (sub-boreal coniferous) that historically teristic of larch-dominated forest ecosys- dominated this landscape. He goes on to tems classified as forest steppe. This state that changes in large-scale processes species association may be an indication of over the last 1,000 years such as fire, an ecosystem in flux due to changing dis- drought, grazing and logging may have turbance regimes that have included exces- resulted in a gradual change from dense sive grazing, logging and/or fire over many forest to the forest steppe that now occurs. hundreds of years.

Figure 4. A moist lowland meadow steppe system adjacent to the Onon River in Dornod province. Willow (Salix spp.) shrubs are evident closer to the river. Photo by Oyunsanaa Byambasuren. 6 introduction

Figure 5. Mixed pine and larch forest steppe ecosystem west of Dadal, Khentii province. Bark char on trees was pervasive. Lack of regeneration may indicate that seedling establishment is episodic, occurring in occasional fire-free periods. Photo by Ronald Myers.

Figure 6. Upland meadow steppe north of Batshireet, Khentii province. In addition to grasses such as Festuca lenesis, Festuca sibirica, Poa attenuate and Helictotrichon schellianum, a wide variety of forbs make this a botanically diverse system. Photo by Oyunsanaa Byambasuren. 7 introduction

Figure 7. Moderately dry steppe between Dadal and Norovlin, Khentii province. The gently rolling topogra- phy is typical of this ecosystem, which occurs at slightly higher elevations than dominant dry steppe ecosystem. This photo shows the dry steppe vegetation several weeks after rains ended a protracted sea- sonal drought. Photo by Ronald Myers.

Mongolian-Manchurian Grassland sition, particularly the relative abundance Ecoregion of grass and forb species. The third and largest ecoregion of the Eastern Steppe, the Mongolian- The moderately dry steppe occupies about Manchurian grassland, is composed of 26 percent of the Eastern Steppe, occur- moderately dry steppe, dry steppe and ring between 550 and 1,600 meters eleva- moist lowland meadow steppe. The latter tion with average 250 mm annual precipi- occurs adjacent to ponds and lakes in the tation. This type is characterized by rolling drier steppe landscapes. Dry and moder- grasslands that occur at lower elevations ately dry steppe ecosystems make up the and receive significantly less moisture than majority of the grasslands of the Eastern the upland meadow steppe (Fig. 7). Steppe of Mongolia, covering nearly Predominant vegetation consists of Stipa, 250,000 km2 (96,525 square miles). These Festuca, Agropyron, Cleistogenes, Poa, Elymus and grasslands have been subject to extensive Koelaria. Biophysical characteristics, such as grazing by domesticated livestock for mil- soil moisture and topography, combined lennia. Over time, disturbances such as fire with grazing and other disturbances, and drought could result in a significant including fire, determine the species com- change in vegetation structure and compo- position across this ecosystem type.

8 introduction

Figure 8. Dry steppe located on the northern side of Toson Hulstay National Reserve, Dornod province. The dominant grass, Stipa krylovii, is in bloom. Photo by Ronald Myers.

The dry steppe is the most widespread ecosystem in the Eastern Steppe, occupy- ing approximately 33 percent of that area. It occurs at elevations that are slightly lower than the moderately dry steppe. As its name suggests, the dry steppe also receives less annual precipitation than the moderately dry steppe. The average annual rainfall is between 130 and 270 mm. The dominant species in the eastern extent of this ecosystem is Stipa krylovii. An increased presence of Artemisia adamsii, Caragana micro- phylla, Cleistogenes squarrosa, Artemisia frigida and Agropyron cristatum are often indicators of overgrazing (Fig. 8).

9 2fire and fire management in Mongolia

Fire Management History and ments have been restructured and new Structure in Mongolia ones created at all levels—national, provin- There is no information available on fire cial and district—with responsibility for management and the use of fire in disaster management, including fire sup- Mongolia prior to Soviet control of the pression. Resources, in terms of capital, country which began in the early 1920s. equipment and trained personnel, have Under Soviet domination, the military diminished, increasing the reliability on (Civil Defense Branch) maintained exclu- affordable technology to detect and moni- sive authority to manage wildfires, coordi- tor fire location and size. Figure 9 illus- nate fire training and maintain equipment. trates the current Mongolian fire manage- Fire suppression and prevention were the ment hierarchy. rule. We speculate that during this period any fire culture that may have existed was National Level lost. The faltering of the Mongolian The National Emergency Management Soviet-era regime in the mid 1980s Agency (NEMA) is responsible for fire brought a significant decline in resources fighting at the national level and was cre- to support national fire suppression efforts ated in 2004. Before 1996 NEMA had a that, among other things, required rural large smokejumper program that was inhabitants to fight fires. Today, most rural established in 1968 with assistance from inhabitants fight fires only when their the former Soviet Union. The program property or pastures are directly threat- was officially known as the Mongolian ened. Protection and Aerial Patrol Service. Its primary function was to provide early The loss of a centrally controlled fire man- detection and response to fires. At that agement apparatus has had a direct effect time, there were eight aircraft in use and

fire and fire management in Mongolia and fire fire on the ability of the government to effec- 200 trained smokejumpers located in tively suppress many of the fires. It may seven provinces; however, due to the high also be a factor in an increased number of cost, the program has been reduced to 40 larger fires being reported, although the people based in Ulaanbaatar. MODIS recent advent of Moderate Resolution satellite imagery, obtained under contract Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) from the Information and Computer and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Centre, National Remote Sensing Centre, Administration (NOAA) satellite imagery is now used to detect fires. may have simply increased the capacity of Mongolian authorities to detect and report The MODIS data are received on-line at fires. the central offices in Ulaanbaatar and then distributed to the provinces. The The fire management infrastructure in Meteorological Agency also provides pre- Mongolia has changed significantly since cipitation and temperature data used to the Soviet regime began to falter in the determine a fire danger rating and then early 1980s. Existing government depart- 10 fire and fire management in Mongolia

Figure 9. Mongolian fire management structure (2008). predict red flag days. On average, about 10 rence information, laws/policy and other lightning fires are reported annually, but administrative issues but does not actively recently the number has jumped to 20 per participate in suppression-related activi- year and the distribution seems to be ties. The Forest Policy Department within changing. This is most likely due to this ministry is primarily responsible for improved fire detection techniques such as forest protection and fire policy, except MODIS that have become available in the within protected areas. Another depart- last several years. Smokejumpers are dis- ment within the Ministry of Nature and patched to large fires via a privately con- Environment has jurisdiction over protect- tracted helicopter. Smokejumpers also ed area policy. During and after fires the serve as ground crews in fire fighting Forest Policy Department calculates and efforts. There are currently more than produces reports regarding the cost of lost 2,000 firefighters, both structural and livestock, burnt pasture land and other wildland, in Mongolia. agricultural losses resulting from fire. The districts, called soums, and provinces are The Fire Prevention Department exists responsible for providing the Department within NEMA and is primarily responsible with all necessary information for the for forest and steppe fires. It is headed by a compilation of these reports. forest fire specialist and a structural fire specialist. The Forest Policy Department also issues permission for salvage logging or “clean- The Ministry of Nature and Environment ing” in burned areas. Two types of permits is responsible for disseminating fire occur- are available: commercial and fire wood.

11 The commercial permits cost 1,000 house specialists (semi-army level) who Tugriks/m3; the fire wood permits cost create fire reports. 700 Tugriks/m3. The Center for Water and Forestry Inventory monitors salvage Provincial Level (Aymag) logging and forest inventory activities and Each province has a Provincial Emergency reports its findings to the Forest Policy Unit that consists of 10-person crews Department. The Forest Policy whose members receive formal fire man- Department is being re-structured; there- agement training when they join a team. fore, titles and positions will change in the Ongoing training occurs in the provinces near future. Currently there is little or no during the winter months prior to the fire coordination within multi-lateral projects season. The provinces cooperate with each in terms of fire-related policy issues. other when fires burn across provincial However, the Forest Policy Department boundaries by sharing resources, personnel does coordinate with NEMA and the and equipment. In addition to having a Institute of Botany on fire-related issues. specific budget for fire fighting activities, all fire-related costs within the provinces, Regional Level including at the soum and township (bag) The Dornod Provincial Environmental level, are dealt with by the Provincial Protection Agency lies within the Eastern Emergency Units. The Units are responsi- Mongolia Protected Areas Administration ble for coordinating fire fighting efforts in and has jurisdiction over five parks. The protected areas where they also have juris- agency employs four specialists for 1) con- diction. servation, 2) foreign affairs and tourism, 3) research, monitoring and buffer zones District Level (Soum) and 4) public affairs. Seven rangers are Agreements are in place to facilitate and assigned to the five parks. The coordinate fire fighting activities between Administration has been collecting fire soums. In each soum, the governor, state information since 1996, using information inspector and chief of police are responsi- gathered from reports written by the ble for coordinating fire fighting efforts

fire and fire management in Mongolia and fire fire rangers. The reports contain information and collectively make up what is known as such as the location and size of each fire. The assessment team was told that rangers often have difficulty estimating the size of fires; this was apparent when comparing The Administration has fire size data from ranger reports to NOAA spatial data. The problem is most been collecting fire likely due to the fact that rangers make ocular assessments of fires from horseback. information since 1996, The fires may cover many hundreds and in some cases thousands of hectares in rela- using information tively flat terrain. In general terms, the reports provided by the rangers are not gathered from reports accurate, so data are now being compiled from provincial and state emergency written by the rangers. agency reports. These agencies have in- 12 fire and fire management in Mongolia a soum Commission. One of the tasks of fighting the fire. Bayan-Uul was the only the Commission, which is headed up by exception noted by the assessment team. the governor, is to ensure that volunteer There the governor pays firefighters 300 firefighters from each bag are local and Tugriks a day along with food and fuel. In have fire fighting experience. The money most instances volunteers lack any type of to pay for fire fighting expenses, such as formal training; rather, they draw on their food and fuel for volunteers, is allocated by many years of fire fighting experience. the governor from emergency funds; how- Equipment used by volunteer firefighters ever, funding is usually insufficient to consists of fire swatters fashioned from old cover all fire fighting costs. The governor’s tires and wire, Chinese-made leaf blowers, office submits detailed invoices to the and water-soaked, felt saddle blankets. province for reimbursement. Fire Environment and Fire Effects The soums request “expert” fire fighting Between 1981 and 1999, an average of 160 crews from the province in the event of fires per year were recorded in Mongolia, severe fires. In such instances the province each burning an average of 2,933,659 ha seeks approval for the request from the (7,249,229 acres) (Goldammer 1999). In Fire Prevention Department of NEMA. the eight years between 2000 and 2008, The budget for disaster management— an average of 188 fires per year were including fire, flooding and zud (a combi- recorded in Mongolia, each burning an nation of blizzard and bitter cold, preced- average of 3,253,000 ha (8,038,338 acres) ed by drought)—is obtained from the (NEMA 2008). The increased occurrence province and distributed to the soum. of fires in the last decade can be attributed Generally, the budget is not sufficient to in part to an increase in dependency by support all disaster management activities. local populations on natural resources both In terms of fire prevention, official letters for local consumption as well as for sale. indicating how people can prevent fires are Their activities include logging, fuel wood sent out to all families in the soum. Upon collection, collection of non-timber forest receipt of the letter, each family is required products (NTFPs) and hunting. The ces- to sign a document stating that they have sation of Soviet-era, state-subsidized social read, understood and will comply with the services in Mongolia, combined with recommendations; the signed letters are opening of formerly restricted markets, has kept on file in the governor’s office. The made natural resource utilization, includ- result from this approach has been a ing wildlife trade, extremely lucrative marked decrease in local accidental fires. (Brunn 1996).

Township Level (Bag) The fire season in Mongolia begins in Each small town (bag) must provide at February and continues through most of least 10 people when there is a fire in the June. This is followed by a second, short soum; however, it is difficult to find them fire season in September and October. because neither incentive (pay) nor pres- The majority of fires that start during the tige is associated with fire fighting. two fire seasons (spring and fall) are Firefighters from the bag are usually vol- human-caused (Valendik et al. 1998). unteers who are provided with food and, With the exception of 2002 and 2008, in most cases, fuel for equipment while many areas in the Eastern Steppe have 13 experienced drought conditions over the following large-scale disturbances last 10 years, manifested in an average (Schmidt and Alexander 1985). In this reduction in annual winter and summer forest type the primary large-scale distur- precipitation. Fire and drought are strong- bance is a stand-replacing crown fire with ly and positively correlated over short peri- an average fire return interval of 175 years ods of time; fires generally will not occur (Heavilin and Powell 2007; Kramer et al. in fully hydrated vegetation (Brown et al. 2007). Both the physiological characteris- 2005). This relationship makes it difficult tics and fire regime of this ecosystem are to separate the independent contributions comparable with the Siberian pine-domi- or effects that both fire and drought have nated Mongolian boreal coniferous forests. on ecosystems in this region. The assess- In the Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine ment team, therefore, did not attempt to forest, stand-replacing fires are the most draw any conclusions based on annual fire important in shaping stand structures, frequency and climactic variations in the with surface fires playing a minimal role. Eastern Steppe. These large, stand replacement fires create a coarse-grained landscape pattern, while Boreal Coniferous Forest mortality from bark beetles creates a finer- The mature Siberian pine- (Pinus siberica) grained landscape pattern. Over much of and Siberian larch- (Larix sibirica) dominat- its range, lodgepole pine would be replaced ed stands of the boreal coniferous forest by spruce/fir forests without periodic exhibit a closed canopy structure. As a major disturbance events. Where aspen is result grass is less abundant in the under- present, lodgepole pine mortality from story and fires are less frequent than in the bark beetles favors aspen spread through less dense stands of the sub-boreal conif- suckering. Longer periods between fires erous forest and forest-steppe favor spruce and fir regeneration (Kramer (Goldammer 2002). Average fire return et al. 2007). As with Siberian pine, a pro- interval is greater than 100 years and is of portion of cones produced by lodgepole mixed severity, with climate playing an pine are serotinous and release seeds only important role in dictating the flammabili- in the presence of high heat produced by

fire and fire management in Mongolia and fire fire ty of these systems (Gray 2006). intense fires. In addition, seed establish- ment is closely linked to conditions creat- The Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine for- ed by stand-replacing fires such as exposed est ecological system of western North mineral soil (Muir and Loan 1985). America is analogous to the Mongolian boreal coniferous forest ecosystem with Sub-Boreal Coniferous Forest respect to its overstory structure, silvicul- The subtaiga ecosystem, characterized by tural traits and relationship with fire. The stands of Siberian larch (Larix sibirica) and North American system is typified by an Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris), tends to grow overstory dominated by Pinus contorta and a on seasonally freezing soils and is more fire shrub and grass understory (Kramer et al. prone than the boreal coniferous forest 2007). This type encompasses mid- and due to its more open, grassy understory. upper-elevations of west-central Wyoming The fire return interval in this forest type in the western United States. Lodgepole averages once every 30 years on warmer pine is an early successional, shade-intoler- aspects and every 50 years on sites located ant species that typically colonizes areas on cooler aspects (Gray 2006). Fire effects 14 fire and fire management in Mongolia tend to range from mixed-severity to low- severity surface fires, often resulting in patchy ground fires. The overstory is left ... the northern Rocky relatively intact. Fires in this forest type may burn down into the organic litter Mountain... ecological layer, i.e. duff, and smolder for months. The consumption of the duff by smolder- system is very similar... ing combustion may promote early post- fire seedling recruitment of sexually repro- to the Mongolian sub- ducing tree species of pine and larch (St. Pierre et al. 1992; Duschesne and Sirois boreal coniferous forest 1995; Charron and Greene 2002). Often the most favorable seedbeds for pine and type. larch seed germination are thin humus or exposed mineral soil resulting from these smoldering ground fires. tend to dominate stand understories. Surface- and mixed-severity fires occur at In North America, the northern Rocky varying intervals ranging from between 35 Mountain dry-mesic montane mixed and 60 years (Brown and Smith 2000; conifer forest-ponderosa pine (Pinus pon- Crane 1986; Bradley et al. 1992a; Bradley derosa)-Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) et al. 1992b; Barrett 1988; Morgan et al. ecological system (Rust et al. 2005a) is 1996; Brown et al. 1994). Occasional very similar in its overstory structure, life replacement fires may also occur with a history traits and relationship with fire to mean return interval of approximately 300 the Mongolian sub-boreal coniferous for- years. Mixed-severity fire increases and est type. The ponderosa pine ecosystem is surface fires decrease further north and at found in the northern Rocky Mountains of higher elevations as canopy closure western Montana, eastern Washington and increases and the grassy understory northern Idaho at elevations between decreases. This is similar to the change in 760 m (2,500 ft) and 1,200 m (4,000 ft). fire regime exhibited as the Mongolian This system extends south to the Great sub-boreal coniferous forest type transi- Basin. Ponderosa pine is generally the tions to boreal coniferous forest. Insects dominant species on southerly aspects and and disease play an important role, espe- drier sites, with Douglas-fir dominating on cially in the absence of fire. Bark beetles northerly aspects. Southerly aspects sup- such as mountain pine beetle, western pine port relatively open stands while northerly beetle and Douglas-fir beetle are active in aspects support more closed stands. On the mid- and late-structural stages, partic- mesic sites with longer fire return inter- ularly in closed canopies (Ager et al. 1995). vals, Douglas-fir often co-dominates the upper canopy layers. The understory can Forest Steppe be dominated by shrubs such as Ceanothus Annually, the grassy understory of the for- sanguineus, Physocarpus malvaceus and Spiraea est steppe and the adjacent steppe grass- spp., or open grass dominated by Carex spp. lands become very flammable at about the and Calamagrostis rubescens. However, in the same time and historically could have absence of fire, Douglas-fir and grand fir burned with similar frequency 15 (Goldammer 2002; Schulman 1996). The shared with this system’s Mongolian forest forest steppe is thought to have exhibited a steppe analog. Prior to European settle- mixed-severity fire regime, with an average ment, frequent, non-lethal surface fires frequency of less than 10 years. However, were the dominant disturbance, occurring in the last century, intense grazing, which every three to 30 years (Arno and Petersen removes much of the understory fine fuels, 1983; Arno 1980; Fischer and Bradley combined with fire suppression, may have 1987). Mean fire return interval for this altered the historical fire regime of this type ranges from 10 to 15 years, which is ecosystem (Gray 2006). The results are roughly equivalent to the historical fire less frequent low- and mixed-severity fires return interval of the Mongolian forest and more frequent, severe stand-replacing steppe ecosystem. Mixed-severity fire has a fires. This shift in fire regime severity has mean fire return interval of about every 50 significantly altered the vegetation struc- years; stand-replacement fire is rare but ture and composition. will occur where there are closed stands. In those instances the fire return interval is The Northern Rocky Mountain ponderosa approximately 300 to 700 years. Where pine (Pinus ponderosa) woodland and savan- stands are open, stand-replacement fires na ecological system (Rust et al. 2005b) is are uncommon. a close analog to the Mongolian forest steppe ecosystem. In particular, the sys- Steppe Grasslands tems share a characteristic grass-dominat- The steppe grasslands are considered to be ed understory, low tree density, and open both fire-prone and fire-dependent. Fire- canopy. This ecosystem is located through- dependent ecosystems are defined as those out the northern and central Rocky where fire is essential and the species have Mountains in Montana, central Idaho and evolved adaptations to respond positively northeastern Washington. In Idaho, the to fire and to facilitate fire’s spread (Myers distribution is limited to lower slope posi- 2006). Fire return intervals in this ecosys- tions in the Boise, Payette and Salmon tem type average about 10 years and can be river drainages. In northeastern characterized as being low-severity as the

fire and fire management in Mongolia and fire fire Washington, it is found on sites with ele- majority of the biomass is unaffected by vations of less than 1,300 m (4,500 ft), these fires and remains alive below ground. particularly along the Columbia and Kettle As fire-dependent grasslands, many of the rivers and in the Okanogan Highlands. A species have developed physiological prop- healthy savanna often consists of open and erties and morphological features to store park-like stands dominated by Pinus large amounts of resources in their below- ponderosa. Frequent fires promote a grass- ground structures. This enables them to dominated understory with sparse shrubs re-sprout following burning and/or graz- and a ponderosa pine overstory. Understory ing. In addition, because of the short dura- vegetation consists predominantly of grasses tion of many grassland fires and the fact such as Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis), that much of the available fuel is above rough fescue (Festuca campestris), Carex spp. ground, temperatures tend to peak rapidly. and forbs that re-sprout following surface This means that soil heating into the range fires (Fischer and Bradley 1987). The where roots and subterranean buds can be Festuca and Carex representation in the damaged (>60ºC) is minimal (Zedler understory is a characteristic that is also 2007). 16 fire and fire management in Mongolia

The western Great Plains shortgrass and thus the relative fire frequency. prairie system (Milchunnas et al. 2007) is Historically, however, fires that did occur similar to the dry and moderately dry were often expansive. There is a wide vari- steppe grassland systems observed in ability of mean fire return interval across northeastern Mongolia. Most notable are this system, based on precipitation and similarities in fire regimes, species compo- fuel. It is thought that the average fire sition and biophysical conditions, i.e. geol- return interval in shortgrass prairie ranges ogy, topography and precipitation levels. between five and 20 years. This is depend- The North American shortgrass prairie ent on the precipitation gradient east to ecosystem occurs in the Great Plains from west within the system. Both lightning- northeastern Colorado to eastern induced fire and spring fires set by Native Wyoming and Montana and into southern Americans are recognized as important Alberta, Canada. It occurs primarily on flat pre-European components of the fire to rolling uplands with loamy soils ranging regime (Williams 2003). from sandy to clayey. There are north- south bands of productivity within this Brown et al. (2005) suggest that protracted shortgrass vegetation type, corresponding drought (lower than average rainfall for to increased precipitation going east due several years) in North American steppe to the rain shadow of the Rocky grasslands reduces the amount of fine fuel, Mountains. Mean annual precipitation is resulting in fewer and smaller fires. The approximately 300–500 mm, with most same scenario seems to take place in the precipitation occurring in the summer Mongolian steppe. The removal of fine months (Lauenroth and Milchunas 1991). fuels or mulch in grassland ecosystems by Historically, vegetation was dominated by periodic fire can be an important influence short grass, and to a lesser extent on ecosystem function. Fires often have midgrasses and shrubs. Dominant species the effect of enhancing productivity by include Bouteloua gracilis, Pascopyrum smithii, minimizing self-shading and opening the Stipa krylovii, shrub species such as Artemisia habitat for regeneration in many grassland frigida and Gutierrezia sarothrae, which is systems (Launchbaugh 1973; Oesterheld et cyclical and often abundant following al. 1999; Lunt and Morgan 2002). It drought or heavy grazing. Chrysothamnus might be expected that a lack of fire would spp. may also be present. Large-scale result in a grassland community that processes such as climate, fire and grazing exhibits reduced biodiversity due to limit- influence this system. The often dry, semi- ed opportunities for the establishment of arid conditions can decrease the fuel load smaller and shorter-lived species. However, large grazing animals such as horses, cows, sheep, camels and, more Large-scale processes recently, goats have over several hundred years also played an important role in such as climate, fire and shaping the grassland ecology of the Eastern Steppe and western United States. grazing influence this The grasses that dominate the western Great Plains shortgrass prairie system are system. extremely drought- and grazing-tolerant. These species evolved with drought and 17 large herbivores and, because of their cant and that grazing by domesticated ani- stature, are relatively resistant to overgraz- mals can alter fire regimes by reducing fuel ing. It is thought that the shortgrass sys- amounts and fuel bed connectivity (Savage tem adapted evolutionarily with heavy and Swetnam 1990). Heavy grazing of the grazing and, therefore, represents a highly Mongolian steppe combined with altered co-evolved system (Milchunas et al. 1988; fire regimes and drought may over time McNaughton 1985). The degree to which result in degradation of these grassland grasslands and large mammalian grazers systems. A grass-free, shrub-dominated form a type of mutual co-evolutionary type may result as these two life forms ecological system is, however, debated as seem to overlap broadly and coexist these grasslands are also heavily utilized by (Woodward et al. 2004). small mammals such as the Mongolian marmot (Marmota sibirica) or tarvaga (Bonham and Lerwick 1976; Stromberg and Griffin 1996). The same is true of the shortgrass prairie systems in the western United States where black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) are an ecologi- cally important component of the grazing regime (Gober 2000).

There is no doubt that the impact of heavy grazing in natural grasslands can be signifi- fire and fire management in Mongolia and fire fire

18 3observations and interpretations observations and interpretations Protected Areas Protected areas in Mongolia fall into two (5) With permission, tourists are allowed categories: Strictly Protected Areas (SPAs) to camp. and Nature Reserves. These are areas of land dedicated to the protection and (6) Photographing and audio or video maintenance of biological diversity and of recording for scientific purposes are per- natural and associated cultural resources. mitted. SPAs are generally delineated into three zones: pristine, conservation and limited (7) Traditional ceremonies such as ovoo use. (mountain ceremony) are permitted.

Pristine zones are areas in which only pro- (8) Local people can utilize medicinal tection activities are permitted and in plants, traditional food sources and other which only observation-based research or non-timber products with permission. research activities that do not create dis- turbance can be done. The Department of SPA Administration is responsible for implementation of laws Conservation zones have similar restric- and regulations concerning Special tions as those associated with pristine Protected Areas. Its functions include zones with the addition of permitting coordinating activities related to expansion activities that support indigenous plant of the Special Protected Areas network and animal populations. Disaster preven- and implementation of associated pro- tion activities are also allowable as long as grams, projects and actions, as well as pro- there is minimal environmental impact. viding professional and practical assistance to the administrative authorities of SPAs. Restrictions that apply to limited use It focuses on assuring an integration of zones are the same as those for pristine policies and actions promoting sustainable and conservation zones, with the following natural resource use and ecological bal- exceptions: ance. These responsibilities are carried out by developing partnerships with all organi- (1) Additional restrictions are in place to zations engaged in policy implementation, improve soil and plant cover condition. ensuring the effective allocation of resources and organizing and coordinating (2) Forest thinning and sanitary logging their activities in line with government are permitted activities. policy, programs and plans.

(3) Utilization of natural springs for med- Nature Reserves are protected areas that ical purposes is permitted. are considered important for wildlife, flora and fauna or for features of geological or (4) Limited ecotourism via predetermined other special interest. These areas are routes is permitted. reserved and managed for conservation

19 Figure 10. A pair of Mongolian gazelle in Toson Hulstay nature reserve, Dornod province. In recent years the steppe grasslands have been under increasing threat from development such as oil and min- eral exploration, which would disrupt gazelle migration. Changing land use patterns, including agricul- tural expansion, fencing of land, overgrazing and altered fire regimes, also affect gazelle habitat in the area. Photo by Ronald Myers.

observations and interpretations observations and interpretations and to provide special opportunities for ern Mongolia. Vegetation in the reserve is scientific study and research. a dry to moderately dry steppe grassland ecosystem which provides critical habitat Eighteen of Mongolia’s SPAs are classified for a number of species including the as “Nature Reserves”; six more are classi- Mongolian gazelle (Procapra gutturosa) or zeer fied as “Monuments” (natural or mixed (Fig. 10). Toson Hulstay is the focus of natural-cultural heritage sites). Such areas much of TNC’s Mongolia program con- account for only 0.38 percent of SPAs. servation effort in the Eastern Steppe. The Based on their respective site conservation future staffing plan includes up to 10 objectives, Nature Reserves are divided rangers for the park. According to the into four sub-categories: complex, histori- chief ranger of the reserve, most fires in cal artifacts, biological and geological the reserve start in the spring after snow nature reserves. Monuments are divided melt or in late June prior to the summer into two sub-categories: natural and his- rainy season. The ranger suggested the torical-cultural. majority are caused by lightning; few are started by people. Of particular concern is Toson Hulstay Nature Reserve the fact that when fires do occur they tend Toson Hulstay Nature Reserve was estab- to burn the vast majority of the area with- lished in 1998 and covers an area of nearly in the reserve boundaries. This results in 470,000 ha (1,161,395 acres) in northeast- significant short-term loss of habitat for 20 observations and interpretations species such as the Mongolian gazelle that Mongolian law, people can move freely, inhabit the area. Gazelle will graze burned even though protected area laws restrict areas if there is enough rainfall to produce use and movement. new grass growth; however, if it is dry fol- lowing a fire they will move to unburned Fire data were obtained from the Eastern areas to graze. Additionally, fires reduce Mongolia Protected Area Administration suitable gazelle breeding areas that have in Choybalsan for the period from 1996 to grass that is two years or older, causing the 2008 for Toson Hulstay Nature Reserve animals to seek habitat outside of the pro- According to the data, over the last 13 tected area. years this landscape had an average fire return interval of between four and five The chief ranger stated that late-June fires years (Table 1). This level of fire frequency are not good for the pastures/grasses due is supported by research conducted by to the lack of precipitation. This contra- Daubenmire (1968) for similar grassland dicts comments we received from at least ecosystems in North America which found one herder who stated that June fires were that about three to five years is required better than fall fires because of the rapid for grassland litter biomass to accumulate green-up with the coming of the rains. to pre-fire levels. However, it is more fre- Conversely, fires that occur earlier in the quent than the 10-year average fire return year during the wet season have better re- interval for similar grassland ecosystems in growth of grass due to the availability of Mongolia cited by Gray (2006). This dis- moisture. Mid-March is generally the ear- crepancy is most likely due to the relatively liest that fires occur as there is still snow short duration (13 years) of fire occurrence cover prior to that. record-keeping in the Nature Reserve. Analogous grassland systems in parts of Toson Hulstay straddles both Dornod and the North America, such as in eastern Khentii provinces and contains five soums, Colorado, exhibit fire return intervals of each of which is responsible for fighting between five and 20 years (Milchunnas et fires in the area, both inside and outside al. 2007). the park. According to Mr. Amar, this is a source of conflict as the soums feel that Bogd khan Uul Strictly Protected Area the park personnel should be responsible In 1996, Bogd khan Uul was designated as for the fires that occur there, and little to a UNESCO World Biosphere Reserve in no coordination between the soums exists large part due to the fact that in the 12th when it comes to fighting fire in the park. and 13th centuries the khan of Khereid Aimag banned logging on the mountain In 2007 park personnel began to manage and declared it a holy site. Bogd Khan buffer zones around the perimeter of the Mountain is classified as a Strictly park. Problems exist within the park when Protected Area whose boundaries encom- the area within the buffer zones becomes pass approximately 42,000 ha (103,784 over-grazed or burned and herders move acres), with an additional 26,000 ha livestock into the park to graze. The gov- (62,247 acres) in buffer and transition ernment has allowed livestock into the zones. The reserve is located in Töv park during the winter months; however, province just a few kilometers south of the many remain year round. Under Mongolian capital city Ulaanbaatar. The 21 Table 1. Fire data for Toson Hulstay Nature Reserve (1996–2008). (Source: Eastern Mongolia Protected Area Adminstration)

Total Area Year Area Burned/Year Area Burned/Year (ha) (ha) (%) 462,070 1996 397,381 86 462,070 1997 365,054 79 462,070 1998 0 0 462,070 1999 3,601 1 462,070 2000 130,562 28 462,070 2001 0 0 462,070 2002 0 0 462,070 2003 0 0 462,070 2004 162,800 35 462,070 2005 277,242 60 462,070 2006 0 0 462,070 2007 0 0 462,070 2008 0 0 observations and interpretations

Figure 11. A stand of Siberian pine on a north-facing slope in Bogd khan Uul Strictly Protected Area that exhibited evidence of beetle infestation and fire damage, including scorched foliage and charred bark. It was not apparent which disturbance event occurred first in this stand—beetle infestation or fire. Photo by Darren Johnson. 22 observations and interpretations highest point on the mountain reserve is Ignition Sources and Suppression the summit of Tsetseegun Uul, at 2,256 Responses meters above sea level. Bogd Khan occu- Lightning was cited as an important source pies a transition zone between boreal of ignitions. Other commonly cited igni- coniferous forest and forest steppe, and tion sources are Russian farmers burning eventually grades into dry steppe grass- their fields, hunters using tracer bullets lands. Much of the mountain is vegetated and general carelessness with cooking fires. by dense stands of Siberian pine (Pinus Hunting roe deer for the blood and antler sibirica) and Scotch pine and occasional trade has significantly increased over the Siberian spruce. Scotch pine tends to be last decade and is an important source of on upper slopes, Siberian pine on lower support for many low income families in slopes and the majority of the spruce scat- the Eastern Steppe forests. Many individu- tered with the Siberian pine. Trees grow als interviewed during this assessment primarily on north-facing slopes; southern believe the majority of fires occurring in slopes are covered in steppe grass and northeastern Mongolia originate just rocky outcrops. north of the border in Siberia, usually between March and early June. Locals stat- The assessment team observed areas that ed that since the early 1990s, fires started were burned as recently as two years ago on the Mongolian side of the border have on the north-facing mid-slope and on the decreased, while fires originating in Russia ridge tops. There was evidence of bark have been more common. In Tsagaan beetle infestation in a stand of Siberian Ovoo, for example, there were reports of pine in and around one of the mid-slope large fires occurring in 1993, 1995, 1998, burn sites (Fig. 11). Large patches of 2007 and 2008, with all but the 1993 fire standing dead trees are visible on the originating further north in Siberia. In north-facing slope of the reserve from 2007 a large fire was thought to have orig- nearby Ulaanbaatar. Based on its obser- inated on the Russian side of the border, vations, the assessment team speculate 40 km north of Dadal, burned to Dadal that mortality is due to a combination of and continued 150 km south to Norovlin beetle kill and fire. However it is not before being extinguished. Satellite clear which disturbance event occurred imagery (NOAA) from August 5, 2007 first. A similar mountain pine beetle indicates that the fire originated near (Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins) distur- Mogoyt, Siberia just north of the bance occurs in the pine forests of west- Mongolian border. The prevailing ern North America. These beetles are north/northwest winds in this region may one of a small number of bark beetles be a factor in pushing most of these fires that kill their host in order to reproduce. south from Siberia into Mongolia. The beetles spend most of their lifecycle feeding on the inner bark or phloem of In 2006, in an effort to mitigate the prob- living trees (Heavilin and Powell 2007). lem of cross-border fires, a blackline was Tree mortality caused by these beetles created along a section of the Mongolian creates the fuel conditions that predis- Russian border north of Dadal. The black- pose a stand to fire (Peterman 1978). line was created by 20 fire technicians from the Khentii provincial capital and 30 locals from the Dadal area. This 140-km- 23 long, 10-m-wide blackline significantly in early July, which in this part of reduced the amount of fire coming into Mongolia is late in the dry season and just Mongolia from Russia. Individuals prior to the onset of the rainy season. The involved in constructing the blackline were herders added that the winter of initially paid by the Mongolian govern- 2007/2008 had very little snow, resulting ment; however, there have not been funds in a very dry early spring. This initial lack available to maintain this fire break. As a of moisture combined with heavy grazing result, the blackline has fallen into disre- from livestock resulted in few grassland pair and fire coming from Siberia into fires due to the lack of fuel. Fires tended to Mongolia is again perceived as a problem. be restricted to the surrounding forest and The general belief of locals is that the forest steppe where grazing pressure was majority of fires start in Siberia. Satellite less intense and higher moisture levels imagery shows that fires often originate in maintained higher fine fuel loadings. Mongolia. In 2006, two fires occurred in the forests a few kilometers north of Fires in the forest and forest steppe started Norovlin. Locals stated that one of them in early spring and burned until June when was started by someone smoking and the rain eventually extinguished them. Some other from people logging in the forest. ignited peat or duff and continued to Both fires started in the springtime; one of smolder through the summer; a few re- them burned into the peat and re-ignited ignited as surface fires in the fall. Fires that in the autumn. In 2004, a particularly dry occur in forested vegetation are generally year, there were seven documented fires in left to burn, as they typically prove too dif- the area surrounding Norovlin that were ficult to suppress by locals with limited started by lightning in mid-summer. resources.

observations and interpretations Each year the Russians and Mongolians A list of the primary terrestrial ecosystems hold a regional meeting in order to discuss found in the Eastern Steppe, fire manage- the number and causes of large fires in the ment needs and issues and a brief descrip- cross-border region and to develop corre- tion of the fire ecology of the region are sponding fire management strategies. One summarized in Box 1. strategy was the development of an agree- ment between the two countries that allows resources to cross back and forth across the border. The Mongolian border army is responsible for performing many of the fire suppression activities along the Russian border, a task often done in col- laboration with the Russian military.

Several herders with pastures located in the upland meadow steppe between Batshireet and Dadal indicated that there had been more rain in 2008 than in the previous eight years. This was evidenced by the abundance of green grass in the area 24 observations and interpretations

Box 1: Summary

Primary Ecosystems z Boreal coniferous forest z Sub-boreal coniferous forest z Upland meadow steppe z Moist lowland meadow steppe z Moderately dry steppe z Dry steppe

Fire Management Needs z Formal training in fire suppression techniques that take into consideration minimal resources and technical capability. z Education and awareness programs that focus on prevention and suppression. z Increased understanding by locals and conservation managers of the ecological role that fire plays these grassland ecosystems.

Issues z Cross-border fires between Mongolia and Russia. z Climate change effects on fire regimes and regional weather trends. z Increasing land use pressure from increasing rural population, intensive grazing and mining interests. z Dwindling critical habitat for key species such as the Mongolian gazelle. z Minimal available resources, including funding, equipment and trained personnel.

Fire Ecology The majority of the terrestrial ecosystems found in this region can be broadly classified as fire dependent, where fire is essential and species have evolved adaptations both to respond positively to fire and to facili- tate its spread (Myers 2006). Fire regimes vary considerably from the forested ecosystems to the grassland steppe systems in this region of Mongolia. Current average fire return intervals range from 10 to 175 years in the forested systems to an average of every 10 years in the grasslands.

25 proposed fire management conceptual 4framework

Integrated Fire Management concept can be visualized as a triangle with Integrated Fire Management (IFM) is the con- three sides: 1) fire management, 2) fire sci- ceptual framework that the Conservancy ences, and 3) communities (Fig. 12). proposes to use to identify and address fire-related threats to biodiversity conser- The Conservancy’s approach to IFM vation at priority conservation areas. The includes eight fundamental steps that can term refers to various aspects of fire man- be adapted and incorporated into conser- agement. TNC’s definition includes the vation management planning efforts in combination of science and society with Mongolia. They are designed to develop fire management technologies at multiple and implement IFM approaches in levels. It implies a comprehensive ecosystems that are fire-dependent as well approach to address fire issues that inte- as those that are fire-sensitive (defined as grates biological, environmental, cultural, ecosystems largely composed of species social, economic and political issues. which have not evolved with fire as a sig- Furthermore, IFM addresses problems nificant recurring process). Species in fire- and issues posed both by damaging and dependent areas lack adaptations to beneficial fires within the context of the respond to fire, and mortality can be high natural environments and socio-economic even when fire intensity is low. Vegetation systems in which they occur (Myers structure and composition tend to inhibit 2006). ignition and fire spread. Under natural,

IFM helps communities find cost- effective approaches to preventing damag- ing fires while maintaining ecologically appropriate and socially acceptable fire regimes. When fires do occur, IFM pro- vides a framework to: proposed fire mgt conceptual framework fire proposed (1) evaluate whether the effects will be detrimental, beneficial or benign;

(2) weigh relative benefits and risks; and

(3) respond appropriately and effectively based on stated objectives for the area in question. Figure 12. The Integrated Fire Management trian- gle illustrates a conceptual framework that inte- IFM takes into account fire ecology, socio- grates basic perceptions of fire and the need to economic issues and fire management use fire by local communities with the beneficial and detrimental role that fire may play in ecosys- technology to generate practical solutions tems, coupled with all the technical aspects of to fire-related threats to biodiversity. This fire management. 26 proposed fire mgt conceptual framework undisturbed conditions, fire may be such a and who should do that? rare event that some of these ecosystems z What mix of fire use, prevention and could be considered fire-independent. suppression strategies should be uti- lized? Step 1: Assessment and Situation Analysis z How will local communities be Effective analysis of a given situation is key involved? to integrating ecology, social issues and appropriate fire management technologies Step 3: Laws, Policy and Institutional successfully. Identifying the role that fire Framework plays in the cultural, economic and social In addition to an institutional framework context of various stakeholders is critical that embraces the concept of IFM, sup- in developing this understanding. portive laws and policies must be in place. Questions that should be asked when con- To ensure adequate dissemination and ducting such an analysis include: implementation, ecological and social information must be incorporated into fire z What is the ecological role and impact management curricula at universities, tech- of fire in a given area? nical schools and professional training pro- z What is the social, cultural and eco- grams. nomic context in which fires are occur- ring? Step 4: Prevention and Education z Who is doing the burning and why? This step aims at gathering and dissemi- z How are they burning? nating information so that fire managers z What are the characteristics of the fuels and communities can make informed deci- in the area and how does fire behave in sions about on-the-ground fire manage- them under different burning condi- tions? ment. It is necessary to understand the z What other factors or threats are exac- ecology of fire in a particular landscape in erbating the fire problem, such as land order to make assessments as to whether tenure issues, illegal logging, invasive people are burning too much, too little or species or climate change? inappropriately to meet both conservation goals and to maintain the ecosystems on Step 2: Fire Management Goals and which communities depend. The informa- Desired Ecosystem Condition tion gained from these assessments can be Identify desired future conditions and used in developing appropriate and effec- establish fire management goals that will tive fire prevention programs and educa- achieve and maintain those conditions. tional curricula and supporting materials. Key questions are: Identifying and understanding local needs as well as the ecological constraints of an z What role should fire be allowed to play area will lead to the design and application in the landscape? of more effective fire management and z Are there land uses or other constraints outreach programs. that limit fire from playing an ecologi- cally appropriate role? Step 5: Fire Use z How and where should fires be con- Fires can be both beneficial and/or detri- strained? mental depending on how, where, when z Should some fires be purposely ignited and why they are burning. In order to 27 make decisions that maximize potential Step 8: Adaptive Management, Research benefits and minimize damages, a good and Information Transfer understanding of local ecology, fire behav- This final step ensures that active learning ior and the variables that determine that will constantly occur and will refine the behavior is essential. When fire is deter- management of fire. This is extremely mined to be beneficial, either as a tool to important because many IFM decisions combat detrimental fire or to maintain the will be made with incomplete knowledge natural role of fire in a particular ecosys- and limited experience. It is important tem, it can then be applied judiciously with that an adaptive management framework minimal risk. exists, through which continual improve- ment and adjustments can be made. Step 6: Preparedness and Response Current plans and actions should be based Effective fire management invariably on existing knowledge and inferences involves preparedness and response capa- derived from the initial situation analysis bility to deal with emergency situations. (Step 1). The effects of those decisions Fire events can be better anticipated, and must be monitored, and it is those moni- better decisions made when fires do occur, tored trends along with the incorporation if managers know about past fires, ignition of new knowledge that will inform future sources and the need and propensity of management actions. Effective mecha- certain vegetation types to burn. nisms need to be in place that will facili- tate review of implementation strategies, Step 7: Restoration, Recovery, and and translation and dissemination of tech- Maintenance nology, information and new knowledge. The objective of this step is to gather information needed to deal with a post- fire environment. Post-fire recovery and restoration efforts are frequently poorly designed, ineffective and costly. They can be better designed by incorporating eco- logical knowledge of the burned vegetation and its recovery potential. proposed fire mgt conceptual framework fire proposed

28 conclusions and recommendations 5conclusions and recommendations

Socio-Economic Necessities and Fire Management Options and Perceptions Related to Fire Strategies The Mongolian Eastern Steppe region exhibits a culture that does not use fire Fire Management Options and in which fire is considered negatively. Fire management encompasses all techni- This seems at odds with the flammability cal strategies, actions and decisions involv- of the vegetation and fire use in similar ing fire prevention, suppression and use. steppe environments elsewhere in the world. During informal interviews many Prevention of the pastoralists who reside in the The prevention of unwanted or undesirable Eastern Steppe indicated that they were fires is the hallmark of fire management in unaware of any benefits resulting from both fire-dependent and fire-sensitive either wild or controlled fire. For example, ecosystems, as it is considerably cheaper and locals seemed to make no clear linkage more effective to prevent unwanted fires between the use of fire and the stimula- than to try to put them out after they are tion of berries for food, or of fire and the ignited. Prevention is an essential compo- improvement of pasture quality for live- nent of all fire management programs stock grazing. Fire, when it does occur in because of the risk of fires that threaten the Eastern Steppe, is fought quickly and health, life and property, or which are eco- aggressively, particularly when it threatens logically and economically damaging. In property and pastures. Due to the eco- many places, prevention campaigns and nomic importance of steppe grasslands programs have been so successful that for livestock grazing, and the fact that undesirable environmental changes result. much of this grazing is done at the subsis- tence level, the current focus on fire pre- Existing fire prevention campaigns in vention and suppression as the sole fire Mongolia focus exclusively on the negative management approach is understandable. aspects of fire, e.g., it is assumed that all However, recent conservation efforts in fires are bad and must be prevented. The fire-dependent steppe ecosystems such as campaigns ignore the ecological necessity Toson Hulstay Nature Reserve may neces- of fire to maintain the health of conifer- sitate a shift in this suppression/preven- dominated forest ecosystems and steppe tion approach to fire management in areas grasslands. The assessment team recom- of the Eastern Steppe. Coupled with an mends a more balanced approach that rec- increasing pressure on regional land use by ognizes fire as an essential element of the mining interests, an increasing rural popu- environment. lation and more intensive grazing prac- tices, effective conservation in the Eastern Suppression Steppe may well require a paradigm shift Control of unwanted fires is an expensive in the way fire is perceived and managed. and logistically difficult part of the fire management equation. Suppression is par-

29 ticularly important when fires threaten life Decisions may involve aggressive suppres- and property or could be ecologically dam- sion, monitoring or indirect management aging. Except for the limited suppression regarding locations where fire could be activities of the National Emergency allowed to burn based on fuels, natural fire Management Agency and the Provincial breaks, weather patterns and other factors. Emergency Management Departments and Divisions, suppression capacity in the Fire Management Strategies Eastern Steppe is very limited. Suppression In most instances, the prevailing attitude in should be community-based with greater the Eastern Steppe is that fire is a negative emphasis being placed on the training and event. Therefore, a management strategy is coordination of organized local volunteer needed that focuses on an integrated firefighters. approach to fire prevention that includes suppression, training, education and out- The assessment team noticed that equip- reach. For example, the use of fire breaks or ment such as hand tools and tractors is blacklines, though currently practiced, could scarce in many towns. A strategy to remedy be expanded and more strategically utilized, this is needed. particularly in protected natural areas. The Eastern Steppe is crisscrossed with two- The development of comprehensive com- track roads and trails whose width could be munity fire management plans supports expanded using fire that is ignited off the effective decision-making regarding areas: existing tracks and ruts. Resulting blacklines 1) that need to be protected from fire for could halt the spread of unwanted fires, specific intervals, 2) that can be allowed to assist in fire suppression efforts and facili- burn, 3) that need to burn either to stimu- tate controlled burning in protected areas late regeneration or to protect them from where fire may be beneficial. Most burning intense wildfires and 4) where firebreaks, could be done using existing knowledge of particularly blacklines would be effective. fuels, weather, topography and fire effects

conclusions and recommendations Such plans would likely improve the effec- and by using locally available resources. tiveness of the limited fire suppression Most burns need not be highly technical resources. prescribed burns, though providing basic prescribed fire training to individuals respon- Fire Use sible for the programs would be helpful. Fire use is the purposeful application of fire to meet specific economic or ecological The latter would be an appropriate strategy objectives. Fires may be controlled or in Toson Hulstay Nature Preserve. A poten- uncontrolled, and planned or unplanned. tial fire management approach in the park Prescribed burning is the controlled use of might be the use of extensive blacklines that fire using a written plan designed to meet are constructed along and use the existing specific objectives. Controlled burning is two-track roads. These dirt roads tend to essentially the same thing but without a have multiple ruts that could serve as initial written plan. Unplanned, uncontrolled fires fire breaks or baselines for the blackline. also can be used or managed to meet specif- The park, and perhaps some of the sur- ic objectives and resource management rounding buffer grasslands, could be divided goals. Decisions are made regarding appro- into a relatively small number of compart- priate courses of action regarding fires that ments that would be surrounded by black- occur or which may occur in a given area. lines, and thus potentially reduce the spread 30 conclusions and recommendations of fires that occur in and around the park. They would also prevent the entire protect- ed area from burning in a single fire event. This strategy has been applied in Emas National Park, an extensive savanna in Brazil (Fig. 13). The theory behind using blacklines is that fires operate at a signifi- cantly larger scale than the park itself and there is a relatively high probability that the entire park will burn in any one year, elimi- nating forage for gazelles and other wildlife in the short term. As grazing pressures increase outside the park, the option of moving the gazelles outside the park, if it burns, may become less feasible. A system of Figure 13. Blackline in the savannas of Emas compartments separated by blacklines National Park, Brazil used to prevent lightning would reduce the probability of the whole fires from burning the entire park in a single sea- son, while at the same time allowing fire to play park (and more) burning in one season. At its ecological role. Photo by Ary Soares. the same time, it allows fire to play its eco- logical role in those compartments that do burn. In effect, this strategy would make the cent literacy rate in Mongolia even amongst park landscape a microcosm of what it used pastoralists.) Similarly, fire season calendars to be, with smaller patches burning each and posters could be developed that depict year. local heroes such as wrestlers and horse rid- ers that contain information regarding fire Another useful fire management strategy prevention and safety. The months when for Toson Hulstay Nature Preserve might be fire risk is high could be highlighted and the organization of Fire Councils or offer important information regarding pre- Commissions that consist of representatives vention and safety. from each of the five soums that encompass the preserve. Such a group might be able to Technology Transfer make better decisions regarding fire man- Adopting and using technology that is agement in the park. This strategy should affordable, useful and which requires mini- be incorporated into the TNC mal technical support would be of great Conservation Action Planning (CAP) value in Mongolia where current fire man- process for the Eastern Steppe. agement resources and expertise are limited. There are some obvious opportunities to Education and outreach should always be a transfer existing modeling technology and component of effective fire management methodology from the U.S. LANDFIRE planning. The development of fire preven- National Mapping Project directly to fire tion and safety brochures to distribute to management and conservation efforts in the local herders could provide a way to reach Mongolian steppe grasslands. many of the people directly affected by fire. The brochures could be designed to include The ecological models developed for the information on black lining and basic sup- LANDFIRE project are useful tools in pression techniques. (There is a 100 per- illustrating and summarizing current 31 scientific and management knowledge as well as inferences and hypotheses about the dynamics of vegetation and fire regimes. Ecological models illustrate relationships between vegetation types and their distur- bance regimes. In some cases LANDFIRE models developed in the U.S. can be “cross- walked” to corresponding analogs in the Eastern Steppe. These cross-walked models would need only slight modifications to more closely represent specific situations in Mongolia. The LANDFIRE vegetation models and their descriptions can be down- loaded from the LANDFIRE Web site at http://www.landfire.gov/NationalProductDe scriptions24.php. conclusions and recommendations

32 6next steps next steps (8) Discuss the value of a similar assess- (1) Disseminate report to TNC Mongolia ment and report for the Hulunbuir for comment. Translate and dissemi- Grasslands in Inner Mongolia. nate in Mongolia. (9) Discuss who in TNC’s Mongolia (2) Discuss with TNC Mongolia the Program could take the lead on fire potential implementation of selected management issues and serve as liaison strategies and actions. with the Global Fire Initiative.

(3) Invite up to two key representatives from Mongolian agencies to attend the joint FAO-TNC CBFiM training workshop in Yunnan, China in March 2009.

(4) Identify and discuss training needs with TNC Mongolia and their partners.

(5) Promote IFM concepts within NEMA to better address and manage the large number of fires that occur in the forest steppe and steppe ecosystems of north- eastern Mongolia.

(6) Promote the Two Faces of Fire as an alternative to existing prevention cam- paigns. The Two Faces of Fire is a learn- ing approach being used by TNC’s Global Fire Initiative in some areas to explain the dual role that fire may play in ecosystems and communities.

(7) Identify possible demonstration proj- ects within the Eastern Steppe or elsewhere in Mongolia where IFM concepts can be applied through com- munity-based programs. Seek funding for one or more programs.

33 7references

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