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Den Operasjonaliserte Protestvirkelighet No. 13 REPORT Rolf Werenskjold A CHRONOLOGY OF THE GLOBAL 1968 PROTEST Author Rolf Werenskjold Publisher Volda University College Year 2010 ISBN 978-7661-295-0 (digital version) ISSN 1891-5981 Print set Author Distribution http://www.hivolda.no/rapport © Author/Volda University College 2010 This material is protected by copyright law. Without explicit authorisation, reproduction is only allowed in so far as it is permitted by law or by agreement with a collecting society. The Report Series includes academic work in progress, as well as finished projects of a high standard. The reports may in some cases form parts of larger projects, or they may consist of educational materials. All published work reports are approved by the dean of the relevant faculty or a professionally competent person as well as the college’s research coordinator. Content Chronology of 1968: 5 Protest Events as an Empirical Standard….……………………………............. January ………………..………………………………………………............. 11 February ……………...……………………………………………….............. 35 March ………………...……………………………………………….............. 61 April…………….……………………………………………………………... 95 May……………………………………………………………………………. 131 June …………………………………………………………………………… 181 July ……………………………………………………………………………. 217 August ………………………………………………………………………… 241 September …………………………………………………………………….. 279 October ………………………………………………………………………... 301 November ……………………………………………………………………... 327 December ……………………………………………………………………... 357 Sources…………………………………………………………………………….. 378 References………………………………………………………………………… 379 Rolf Werenskjold: A Chronology of the Global 1968 Protest. Report no. 13 (2010). Volda University College and Møreforsking Volda. Rolf Werenskjold: A Chronology of the Global 1968 Protest. Report no. 13 (2010). Volda University College and Møreforsking Volda. 5 Chronology of 1968: Protest Events as an Empirical Standard What really happened in 1968? 1968 as an annus mirabilis, watershed after World War II and turning point of the Cold War is both a social construct created by contemporary activists and media coverage, as well as historians in retrospective. Despite these politics of memory, 1968 was nonetheless a year marked by extraordinary events throughout the world. The goal of this global chronology of the most important protest events in 1968 is thus to establish an empirical standard; a yard stick on the background of which it is possible to assess the extent and structure of the Norwegian media coverage in 1968. Limited to the events of that year, the chronology is based on a more extensive log of protest events in Europe from the late 1950s and early 1970s included in an online research- and study guide that accompanies 1968 in Europe. A History of Protest and Activism, 1956-1977 and was developed in cooperation with Martin Klimke and Joachim Scharloth.1 This chronology is/was the first and only comprehensive overview of protest events in the various European countries considering both Eastern and Western Europe. The data in the chronology has been checked through a rigorous peer-review process, during which experts on the 1968 protests in the individual countries listed checked the information.2 This chronology for the year 1968 is a revised and substantially expanded version, also comprising North-, Latin- and South America, as well as Asia and Africa. Although limited to the year 1968, it offers individual references and documentation for each event. It is based on a variety of different sources that, taken together, provide a solid and reliable documentation of the events of this year. The purpose of creating such a chronology has been to establish a representative empirical standard outside the media itself for comparative purposes. Several scholars have emphasized the importance of building data about events outside the media coverage itself. In 1970, Karl Erik Rosengren called for the necessity of a standard to measure analyses of the media’s news criteria based on something other than inter media data, i.e. data exclusively drawing on the media products. Rosengren asserted a need for extra media data, i.e. data on events that originates outside the media to be able to judge shortcomings, 1 Klimke, M. and J. Scharloth (2008). 1968 in Europe: A History of Protest and Activism, 1956-77. New York, Palgrave Macmillan. 2 Werenskjold, R. (2008) "1968 - A Chronology of Protest in Europe. Online Teaching and Research Guide.". See online: http://www.1968ineurope.com/index.php/chronologies. A comprehensive chronology of protest events in Europe in 1968 is published in Klimke, M., J. Pekelder, et al. (2011 (fortcoming)). Between Prague Spring and French May 1968. Opposition and Revolt in Europe, 1960-1980. New York - Oxford, Berghahn Books. Rolf Werenskjold: A Chronology of the Global 1968 Protest. Report no. 13 (2010). Volda University College and Møreforsking Volda. 6 tendencies or gaps in the news coverage of news and potentially connect them to editorial processes.3 His articles were the first significant methodological critique of Galtung and Ruge’s hypotheses on news criteria and structures in foreign news reporting.4 Rosengren postulated certain criteria for a standard based on extra media data, the principle one being that the data should originate from sources outside the media itself, preferably from independent references such as almanacs, yearbooks, indexes, periodicals or other statistical publications. This theoretical premise is difficult to implement in practice, however, since many of the aforementioned sources also draw on the media as primary sources, hence combining intra and extra media data. Ostensibly, the most important criterion for an empirical standard against which to measure the media coverage is therefore the ability to verify the existence of historical events through a variety of mutually independent sources to the greatest possible degree. Such a standard can apparently never become Das Ding an sich, but it is an operationalized reality based on verifiable and accessible sources. Although some degree of uncertainty may remain with regard to potential changes of such a sample in the light of new data, future revision are unlikely to fundamentally alter the general picture, given that all of the available media data are already part of the empirical standard; in other words, future additions would only alter the media’s relative share of coverage with regard to the total number of events. New events will thus not influence the existing knowledge of which events the media in question covered during a given period of time. The most important source in creating this global chronology has been Keesing’s Contemporary Archives. Weekly Diary of World Events (now online Keesing’s Record of World Events), which was published from 1931 as weekly reports of international events. The reports were based on other coverage, statistics and data from international newspapers, periodicals and public publications in Great Britain, the Commonwealth and a host of other countries. They also included material from international organizations and well-renowned international news agencies. Keesing’s main office has been based in London since 1945 and its reports were chronologically arranged in loose-leaf binders. These reports have been an indispensable source in foreign news coverage in the West and all editorial desks in the analyzed Norwegian media in 3 Rosengren, K. E. (1970). "International News: Intra and Extra Media Data." Acta Sociologica 13(1): 96-109. 4 Galtung, J. and M. H. Ruge (1965). "The Structure of Foreign News." Journal of Peace Research 2(1): 64-90. Rolf Werenskjold: A Chronology of the Global 1968 Protest. Report no. 13 (2010). Volda University College and Møreforsking Volda. 7 this thesis used this service. Therefore, they offer an insight into the contemporary knowledge of the foreign news editorial desks and when specific information was available to them. Another important source was Colin Legum & John Drysdale’s Africa Contemporary Record, which contained the most comprehensive sources to events in Africa during the 1960s. In addition, Ivison Macadams’s The Annual Register provided further material on Africa, Asia, as well as Latin- and South America. This yearbook has been published annualy since 1758 and is, among others, based on the news coverage in The Times and references from The Royal Institute of International Affairs, Chatam House, in London. Moreover, this global chronology of 1968-chronology is based on a plethora of other Nordic yearbooks such as the Norwegian Hvem Hva Hvor published by the Norwegian newspaper Aftenposten; Hvem Hvad Hvor published by the Danish newspaper Politikken; När, Var Hur published in Sweden; and Anno published by Svenska Dagbladet. Also included is the yearbook Anno, which has its own sections for foreign events and Swedish domestic events. Collectively, these yearbooks offer a survey of the most important events in each of the Nordic countries, as well as information on major international developments. Further data could be obtained from Daily Mail’s Year Book, which has been particularly useful to get an overview of events in Great Britain, the Commonwealth and Northern Ireland. With regard to official and government sources, a CIA report on “Restless Youth” commissioned by the U.S. government from September 1968 provided a broad survey and analysis of protest events in 21 different countries, many of whom had not been available through other means.5 To identify single events, a 57 page report by the CIA on oppositional
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