CHAPTER ONE DRUG CONTROVERSIES AND DEMONIZATION Drugs appeal to us because they deliver a variety of moods and states not immediately available from our surrounding realities. These may take in complete relaxation, ecstatic happiness, the negation of suffering, radically transformed perceptions, or just a sense of being alert and full of potential energy. (Walton, 2002) Drug use is ubiquitous in American society and throughout the world. The US Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration’s (SAMHSA) National Survey on Drug Use and Health estimated that in 2017 (the most recent year for which data are available), 30.5 million Americans aged 12 yearsdistribute or older, or 11.2% of the population in that age group, used an illegal drug during the month prior to the survey (SAMHSA, 2018c). The same survey indicated that 140.6 million people aged 12 years or older were current (past month) users of alcohol, while 48.7 million were current cigarette smokers. Theor use of prescription drugs is also widespread—in 2016, an estimated 55% of the US population took at least one prescription medicine, and those who use a prescription drug take an average of four (Preidt, 2017). In 2016, more than 4.5 billion prescriptions were filled at retail pharmacies in the United States (this figure does not include mail, Internet, and other types of prescription purchases) (Preidt, 2017), and spending on medicines reached $450 billion in the same year (IQVIA, 2017). The widespread use of drugs, both legalpost, and illegal, is by no means restricted to the United Elephants, like many of us, enjoy a States. The United Nations Office on Drugs and good malted beverage when they Crime (UNODC, 2018) estimates that approxi- can get it. At least twice in the past mately 275 million people (roughly 5.6% of the ten years, herds in India have world’s population aged 15–64 years) used stumbled upon barrels of rice beer, illegal drugs at least once in 2016, and the retail value of the world trade in illicit drugs is estimated drained them with their trunks, and … to be between $426copy, billion and $652 billion gone on drunken rampages . (US dollars) (Tharoor, 2017). Globally, an esti- Howler monkeys, too, have a taste mated 192 million people used cannabis in 2016, for things fermented. In Panama, 34 million used amphetamines/prescription they’ve been seen consuming stimulants, 34 million used opioids, 18 million overripe palm fruit at the rate of usednot cocaine, and more than 8 million injected ten stiff drinks in twenty minutes. drugs (UNODC, 2018). Data such as these have Even flies have a nose for alcohol. led some commentators on drug use to assert that They home in on its scent to lay intoxication is not unnatural or deviant; instead, their eggs in ripening fruit, absolute sobriety is not a natural or primary ensuring their larvae a pleasant Do fl human state. As Andrew Weil (1986) suggests, buzz. Fruit y brains, much like “The ubiquity of drug use is so striking that it ours, are wired for inebriation ” must represent a basic human appetite (p. 17). (Bilger, 2009). 1 Copyright ©2021 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. While drugs—both those that are currently illegal in the United States and those that are legal—provide a number of benefits to those who use them, all drugs are also associated with certain harms. For example, globally, it is estimated that nearly 6 million deaths per year, including more than 480,000 in the United States, are related to tobacco (Centers for Disease Control, 2017), that 88,000 people die from alcohol-related causes annually in the United States (National Institute on Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse, 2017), and in 2017, there were more than 17,000 deaths related to prescription opioids (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2019). It is important to note that all of the drugs mentioned above are currently legal in the United States, and although as we discuss below, there have been recent increases, thenumberofdeaths related to currently illegal drugs in the United States pales in comparison to the deaths associated with legal drugs. If we consider deaths associated with drugs to be at least one acceptable measure of their harmfulness, we may question why alcohol, tobacco, and many pharmaceutical drugs are legal substances, while drugs such as cocaine, ecstasy,heroin,methamphetamine, and marijuana (which has never been shown to cause an overdose death, although as of this writing, it is illegal in 39 US states and the overwhelming majority of countries in the world) are currently illegal. We may also question why the most noteworthy response to the alleged illegal drug problem in the United States has been the incarceration of massive numbers of people. While the 28 countries of the European Union (with a collectivedistribute population of about 200 million more than the United States) incarcerated a total of 574,469 people in 2015, in the United States, approximately 435,000 people were incarcer- ated for the commission of drug offenses alone (Wagner & Sawyer, 2018). These paradoxes require us to consider the distinctionor between legal and illegal drugs, and, more directly, to examine how certain drugs have been demonized in order to justify their illegal status. DEMONIZING (ILLEGAL) DRUGS: THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OFpost, DRUG “EPIDEMICS ” The data presented above indicate that the use of psychoactive sub- stances—both legal and illegal—is widespread throughout the United States and the rest of the world. It appears that people need to ingest an increasingly diverse array of substances in order to alter their consciousness. But this need for psychoactive substances extends to other constituencies, including gov- ernment and criminal justice system officials and the popular media. As O’Gradycopy, (2010) notes, “The drug warrior industry, which includes both the private sector and a massive government bureaucracy devoted to ‘enforcement’ has an enormous economic incentive to keep the war raging.” Government officials need drugs in order to create heroes and villains and, in many cases, to divert attention from policies that have led to drug use in the first place. notCriminal justice system officials need psychoactive substances in order to justify increases in financial and other resources devoted to their organizations, and the popular media need drugs in order to create moral panics and sell news- papers and advertising time. As a result of these needs, throughout the 20th century and into the 21st Do century, government and criminal justice system officials in the United States, frequently assisted by the popular media, have engaged in a concerted campaign to demonize certain drugs in order to justify their prohibition. A number of tactics have been used in this endeavor. One strategy used in emphasizing the dangers of 2 THE CONTROL OF CONSCIOUSNESS ALTERATION Copyright ©2021 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. (illegal) drugs is to claim, often without any sound empirical data, that the use of these Government officials, the media, substances is responsible for a significant and other authorities have found proportion of the crime that occurs in society. that drug addiction, abuse, and For example, when President Nixon was even use can be blamed by almost ’ attempting to justify his administration s war anyone for long-standing problems on drugs in the early 1970s, which he referred and the worsening of almost ’“ ” to as the United States second civil war, he anything. Theft, robbery, rape, claimed that heroin users were responsible for malingering, fraud, corruption, $2 billion in property crime annually. This physical violence, shoplifting, was a rather strange calculation, given that the juvenile delinquency, sloth, total amount of property crime in 1971 sloppiness, sexual promiscuity, low amounted to only $1.3 billion (Davenport- productivity, and all-around Hines, 2001). — A second frequently used strategy is to irresponsibility nearly any social attribute unique powers to (illegal) drugs that problem can be said to be made allegedly induce users to commit bizarre acts worse by drugs (Levine, 2001). (including sexually deviant acts) while under their influence. Sullum (2003a) refers to this tendency as “voodoo pharmacology”—the idea The news mediadistribute can always be that (illegal) drugs are incredibly powerful substances that can take control of people’s relied upon to come up with behavior, turning them into “chemical zom- somebody who had a six-day bies.” Zimring and Hawkins (1992) emphasize a session onor the stuff and ended up similar theme in their discussion of the meta- by killing and eating the physical notion of the unique psychoactive drug neighbor’s dog, later claiming that that leads to a situation whereby each new they remember nothing of what substance identified as being problematic is had happened, and another viewed as chemically, physiologically, and psy- devastating crime wave. The last chologically both novel and unique. arises because each new Illegal drugs have also been demonizedpost,substance has to be described as over the past 100 years by claims that they being more rapaciously, are consumed primarily by members of instantaneously addictive than underrepresented groups and that the sub- anything else previously heard of stances are distributed primarily by evil (Walton, 2002, p. 171). foreign traffickers. As Musto (1999) suggests, “The projection of blame on foreign nations for domestic evils harmonized with the ascription of drug use to ethnic minorities. Both the externalcopy, cause and the internal locus could be dismissed as un-American” (p. 298). A definitive example of the attribution of drug problems to foreigners appeared in the US Drug Enforcement Administration’s (2018b) National Drug Threat Assessment: Mexiconot remains the primary source of heroin available in the United States ...Illicit fentanyl and other synthetic opioids, primarily from China and Mexico, are now the most lethal category of opioids used in the United States ..