doi: 10.17605/OSF.IO/UT4FB

Motivations of Cosplayers to

Participate in the Anime Fandom

Dr. Stephen Reysen, Texas A & M University at Commerce

Dr. Courtney N. Plante, MacEwan University

Dr. Sharon E. Roberts, Renison University College, University of Waterloo

Dr. Kathleen C. Gerbasi, Niagara County Community College

Abstract discussed in relation to past research examining anime cosplayers. We examined differences between cosplaying and non-cosplaying anime Keywords: anime, cosplay, fans with regard to their motivation to cosplayer, motivation, fandom, escape, participate in the anime fandom. belongingness Participants, all anime fans, completed scales assessing a myriad of possible Introduction motivations for anime fandom participation. Cosplayers rated all of the Fans are people who ardently and assessed motivations higher than non- loyally admire a particular interest, be it cosplayers. The highest-rated an athletic team, a genre of media, or a motivations for cosplayers included hobby (Reysen & Branscombe, 2010). entertainment, escape from everyday Given the importance of fandom to life, belongingness, eustress, and peoples’ lives (Chadborn, Edwards, & aesthetic beauty. Modest sex differences Reysen, in press) and the considerable were also found, as women were more resources people devote to their fan likely than men to cosplay and, even interests (Reysen & Branscombe, 2010), among cosplayers, women reported it is little wonder that researchers have higher belongingness, family, self- sought to better understand underlying esteem, and escape motivations. With factors motivating fandom participation the exception of sexual attraction, (Chadborn, Edwards, & Reysen, in however, where men were considerably press; Reysen & Branscombe, 2010). more motivated by sexual attraction than Early psychological research studied the women, the effect sizes for sex question of fan motivation within the differences were fairly small, suggesting context of sport fans, with Wann (1995) little true difference between male and identifying eight such motivations: (1) female cosplayers. The results are belongingness (affiliation, seeking to

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gain or maintain social contact), (2) motivated by the same factors as sport family (maintain family contacts), (3) fans. In recent years, there has been aesthetic (perceived beauty or growing interest in studying the appreciating as a form of art), (4) self- idiosyncrasies of individual fandoms and esteem (positive sense of self or understanding important theoretical accomplishment), (5) economic dimensions underpinning differences (economic gain through participation), between different fan groups (Schroy, (6) eustress (positive stress or arousal), Plante, Reysen, Roberts, & Gerbasi, (7) escape (diversion from typical or 2016). For example, Schroy and everyday life), and (8) entertainment colleagues (2016) re-examined Wann’s (amusement or enjoyment). Wann found eight motivations, adding two additional that for sport fans, the top-rated ones—attention (seeking feedback and motivations were entertainment, regard from others) and sexual attraction eustress, belongingness, self-esteem, and (sexual arousal from fan interest)—and aesthetics, although all eight of the assessed the extent to which they motivations were positively correlated predicted fan identification in three with identification with one’s favorite different fan groups: Anime fans, furries, sport team. Subsequent research on sport and fantasy sport fans. Most presently fans has found a myriad of important relevant are the findings for anime moderator variables: sex of the fan, fans—fans of Japanese animation and individual versus team sports, whether manga—that belongingness, family, the sport is aggressive or nonaggressive self-esteem, economic factors (Wann, Schrader, & Wilson, 1999), (negatively), eustress, escapism, and stylistic (e.g., figure skating) versus entertainment all drive fandom nonstylistic sports (e.g., football; Wann, identification, with belongingness and Grieve, Zapalac, & Pease, 2008), race of entertainment being the biggest the fan (Armstrong, 2002), and fantasy motivators. Unlike fantasy sport fans, sport versus traditional sport (Billings & belongingness was the biggest predictor Ruihley, 2013). Put simply, there exists of fandom for anime fans, not a considerable body of research entertainment, while factors such as assessing the complex interplay of aesthetics and eustress were only factors that drive sport fans. minimally associated with anime fandom Despite a broad range of different participation. In short, findings such as fan interests, the majority of these demonstrate the value of assessing psychological research on fan groups has the idiosyncratic motivations of different focused on sport fans and has largely fan communities rather than treating all neglected less mainstream fan interests fans as a homogeneous category. In the (Reysen & Shaw, 2016). There is little present study, we take this notion one reason, both intuitively and empirically, step further, assessing whether to believe that fans of all interests are systematic differences in fan motivation

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exist within subgroups of the same reasons. No explicit mention was made fandom. in prior research regarding family, Closely tied to the anime fandom is aesthetic beauty, or eustress despite the the practice of cosplaying. Cosplay—a mention of such motivations in prior portmanteau of the terms “costume” and research on sport fans. “play”—is the act of dressing up and It is also important to note the cross- role-playing as a character from an national and cross-methodological anime series, manga, video game, or similarities of cosplayer motivation, as story (Winge, 2006). Although many shown in Table 1. Cosplayers from studies have touched upon the question around the world mentioned being of cosplayer motivation within the anime driven by many of the same motivations. community, few studies have Moreover, regardless of the size of the quantitatively assessed these motivations sample or the researcher’s methodology, or focused directly on the question of similar motivations emerged. That said, cosplayer motivation. In the present most of the existing research has been research, we expand upon the results of open-ended and qualitative in nature, Schroy et al. (2016), which included ten allowing respondents to list any reason motivations, but examine differences for why they cosplayed. The result is a between cosplaying and non-cosplaying variety of responses that, in some anime fans. It is also worth considering instances, represent idiosyncratic or these motivations within the context of personal reasons rather than general prior research assessing anime cosplayer motivations shared by all cosplayers or motivation. For example, a review of the anime fans. To address this in the existing literature reveals that the present research, all respondents rated motivation of belongingness almost the same 10 possible motivations for always arises in such work (see Table 1), participation in the anime fandom. often taking the form of getting into An additional methodological cosplay to make friends, maintaining consideration in the present study is the friendships through cosplaying, making examination of potential sex differences cosplay costumes with friends, in cosplayer motivations. While the performing cosplay with teams of anime fandom consists of more men than friends, online interactions, and a felt women (Reysen, Plante, Roberts, need to belong. A second frequently- Gerbasi, & Shaw, 2016), women are mentioned motivation is entertainment, more likely to cosplay than men with cosplayers enjoying building (Lotecki, 2012; Rosenberg & Letamendi, costumes and performing for their own 2013), suggesting that there may exist sake. Other less-commonly-mentioned sex differences in how fanship and motivations for cosplayers include fandom manifest. Although no research escape from everyday life, seeking has directly examined sex differences attention, self-esteem, and economic within cosplayers with respect to

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motivations, Ray, Plante, Reysen, Method Roberts, and Gerbasi (2017) examined sex differences in psychological needs in Participants and Procedures a sample of anime fans. Across a variety of different psychological needs Self-identified anime fans (N = 3077, commonly met by membership in 69.2% male; Mage = 23.23, SD = 6.61) groups, women only scored higher than were recruited at A-Kon (anime fan men on self-esteem and social support convention in Dallas, TX) and from compared to men. The results suggest online anime-related websites and that, at least within the general anime forums. As part of a larger study of the fandom, women and men are similar in anime fandom, participants indicated the needs they fulfill through whether they participated in cosplay (n = membership in the anime fandom. That 1048, 34.1% participate in cosplay) and study only assessed anime fans in completed items assessing their general, however, and did not consider motivations for participating in the the subgroup of cosplayers, wherein the anime fandom. All items used a 7-point sex composition is reversed. Likert-type response scale, from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree. Present Study Materials The purposes of the present study are to examine differences between Participants completed 10 items cosplayer and non-cosplayer motivations assessing different motivations to with regard to the anime fandom and to participate in the anime fan community assess sex differences in the motivations on a measure adapted from prior of cosplayers. Participants, all self- research (Reysen et al., 2016) and based identified anime fans, completed on motivations identified by Wann measures of the extent to which they (1995). Following a prompt (“I were motivated to participate in the participate in the anime community anime fandom on ten different factors. because of…”), participants rated Based on the reviewed research, we different motivations (“belonging (social predict that cosplayers, relative to non- reasons),” family,” “aesthetic (beauty),” cosplayers, will rate belongingness, “self-esteem,” “economic reasons,” entertainment, and escape as “eustress (positive stress),” “escape from significantly stronger motivations everyday life,” “entertainment,” driving their interest in anime. “attention,” and “sexual attraction”). Additionally, we predict that female cosplayers will rate self-esteem motivation significantly higher than male cosplayers.

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Results Cosplayer Sex Differences. To examine sex differences is cosplayers’ Cosplayers vs. Non-Cosplayers. To motivations, we conducted a MANOVA examine differences in motivations, we with sex as the independent variable and conducted a MANOVA with whether or motivations as the dependent variables, not the fan cosplays as the independent using only those participants who variable and the 10 different motivations indicated that they participate in cosplay. as dependent variables. The omnibus test The omnibus test was significant: Wilks’ was significant: Wilks’ Λ = .86, F(10, Λ = .87, F(10, 1037) = 16.23, p < .001, 2 2 3066) = 50.15, p < .001, ηp = .141. As ηp = .135. As shown in Table 4, women shown in Table 2, anime cosplayers rated belongingness, family, self-esteem, rated all of the motivations higher than and escape motivations higher than men. anime non-cosplayers. To examine Men were found to rate sexual attraction which motivations were endorsed most motivation higher than women. We strongly (above the midpoint of the should note that, with the exception of measure), we also conducted a series of sexual attraction, the effect sizes of the one-sample t-tests to examine whether sex differences are fairly small in the means, split by sample (cosplayer magnitude and are likely significant and non-cosplayer) differed from the because of the large sample size. midpoint of the scale (i.e., 4). All of the means for cosplayers and non-cosplayers Discussion differed significantly from the midpoint (ps < .05). Thus, for cosplayers, the The purposes of the present research motivations with which they agreed were to examine differences between motivates them to participate in the cosplayers and non-cosplayers’ anime fandom include (in order of motivations to participate in the anime rating): Entertainment, escape from fandom and to examine potential everyday life, belongingness, eustress, differences between male and female and aesthetic. cosplayers’ motivations. We predicted, Sex and Cosplay. Before examining and found, that cosplayers (vs. non- whether there exist sex differences in cosplayers) reported being more cosplayers’ motivations for anime motivated to participate in the anime fandom participation, we first tested fandom by the sense of belongingness, whether women were more likely than entertainment, and escapism. men to cosplay in our sample using a X2 Unexpectedly, cosplayers also rated the test. As shown in Table 3, women were other motivations significantly higher significantly more likely, and men than non-cosplayers. Cosplayers significantly less likely, than expected to indicated that entertainment, escape, participate in cosplay, X2(1, N = 3077) = belongingness, eustress, and aesthetic 496.84, p < .001, Cramer’s V = .402. were significant motivations to

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participate in the anime community, as The present results also highlight a indicated by their scores being above the disparity in the anime fandom between midpoint of the scale. We also found, in the number of male anime fans and accordance with past research, that number of male cosplayers. Consistent women were more likely than men to with prior research (Lotecki, 2012; participate in cosplay. Female cosplayers Rosenberg & Letamendi, 2013), a higher scored higher on motivations of proportion of women than men indicated belongingness, family, self-esteem, and participating in cosplay in the present escape, while male cosplayers rated study. Given this odd reversal of sex sexual attraction higher as a motivation composition within this subgroup of to participate in the anime fandom. anime fans, we explored whether The present results build upon prior motivations differed between male and research examining motivations of female cosplayers. Female cosplayers anime fans (Schroy et al., 2016), rated belongingness, family, self-esteem, showing that cosplayers rated all ten of and escape significantly higher than the assessed motivations to participate in male cosplayers. Male cosplayers rated the anime fandom higher than non- sexual attraction as a motivation to cosplayers. This result suggests that, in participate in the anime fandom higher general, cosplayers are simply bigger than female cosplayers. However, the fans than non-cosplayers. While the effects sizes were relatively small for all relative pattern of motivation was of the sex differences with the exception similar for both cosplayers and non- of sexual attraction. That is, given the cosplayers, cosplayers simply scored large sample sizes we do not place much higher on all of them. Also consistent weight in the impact of these sex with prior research regarding cosplayer differences, with the exception of male motivations (Table 1), belongingness, cosplayers being more motivated than entertainment, and escape were strongly female cosplayers to participate in the endorsed as motivational factors fandom for sexual attraction reasons. underlying anime fandom participation Despite the present study being the in the present data. However, two largest examination of cosplayers’ additional motivations were endorsed by motivations ever conducted, it is not cosplayers – had a mean score above the without a number of important midpoint of the scale – in the present limitations. First, an important limitation results (eustress and aesthetics) that were of the present findings is the use of a not mentioned in prior research. The scale to assess fan motivation that was present results thus suggest two derived from research on sport fans. additional motivations that have been Based on past research involving overlooked in prior open-ended or cosplayers (cited in Table 1), there may qualitative studies of cosplayers. exist other motivations that should be included in future research such as

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artistic expression, practice interacting fandom. The results highlight the need to with other people, overcoming social not only consider less traditional, non- anxiety, learning crafting skills, and mainstream (i.e., non-sport) fan groups adopting alternative identities. Second, in future psychological research on the survey was conducted in English, a fandoms, but also illustrates the value of factor which limits its generalizability to considering specific subgroups within English-speaking countries. However, individual fandoms, which may reveal given the similarities in motivations just how nuanced and heterogeneous fan found in past research with cosplayers groups can be. from different countries, we have little reason to expect that the results would References differ dramatically for cosplayers in other cultural settings. Ahn, J. (2008). Animated subjects: In summary, the present study Globalization, media, and East Asian examined differences between cultural imaginaries (Doctoral cosplayers and non-cosplayers’ dissertation). Retrieved from motivations to participate within the ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. same fan group – namely anime fans. (UMI No. 3311139) Cosplayers were found to rate all of the Armstrong, K. L. (2002). Race and sport motivations significantly higher than consumption motivations: A non-cosplayers. The motivations with preliminary investigation of a Black the highest ratings for cosplayers were consumers’ sport motivation scale. entertainment, escape from everyday Journal of Sport Behavior, 25, 309- life, belongingness, eustress, and 330. aesthetic beauty. Women were more Benino, J. A. R. (2014). The shifts in the likely than expected than men to Filipino youth’s perceptions of participate in cosplay. Sex differences in Japan through cosplay (Unpublished cosplayers’ motivations were found, master’s thesis). De La Salle however, the effect sizes for these University-Manila, Manila, differences were small indicating little Philippines. impact for cosplayers on the whole (with Billings, A. C., & Ruihley, B. J. (2013). the exception of male cosplayers Why we watch, why we play: The reporting higher sexual attraction as a relationship between fantasy sport motivation to participate in the fandom). and fanship motivations. Mass Based on the present results, cosplayers Communication and Society, 16, 5- appear highly motivated anime fans and 25. the reported motivations suggest they Bonnichsen, H. (2011). Cosplay – gain important psychological needs (e.g., creating, or playing identities? An escape from daily stressors, analysis of the role of cosplay in the belongingness) from participating in the minds of its fans (Unpublished

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master’s thesis). Stockholm Research popular audiences (pp. University, Stockholm, Sweden. 123-131). Oxford: Inter- Chadborn, D., Edwards, P., & Reysen, S. disciplinary.net. (in press). Reexamining differences Langsford, C. (2014). Cosplay in between fandom and local sense of Australia: (Re)creation and community. Psychology of Popular creativity: Assemblage and Media Culture. negotiation in a material and Chen, J.-S. (2007). A study of fan performative practice (Unpublished culture: Adolescent experiences with doctoral dissertation). University of animé/manga doujinshi and cosplay Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia. in Taiwan. Visual Arts Research, 33, Lin, S. K. (2016). Fans, friends, and 14-24. family: An ethnographic study of Davis, C. R. (2017). The formation of youths in Singapore’s cosplay temporary communities in anime community (Unpublished master’s fandom: A story of bottom-up thesis). National University of globalization (Master’s thesis). Singapore, Singapore. Retrieved from ProQuest Lotecki, A. (2012) Cosplay culture: The Dissertations and Theses. (No. development of interactive and living 10604452). California State art through play (Unpublished University, Fullerton, California. master’s thesis). Ryerson University, Flatt, S. (2015). Cosplay in the USA Toronto, Ontario. (Unpublished honors thesis). Middle Peirson-Smith, A. (2013). Fashioning Tennessee State University, the fantastical self: An examination Murfreesboro, Tennessee. of the cosplay dress-up phenomenon Hill, N. L. (2017). Embodying cosplay: in Southeast Asia. Fashion Theory, Fandom communities in the USA 17, 77-111. (Unpublished master’s thesis). Rahman, O., Wing-Sun, L., & Cheung, Georgia State University, Atlanta, B. H.-M. (2012). “Cosplay”: Georgia. Imaginative self and performing Kane, L. (2017). Why cosplay? identity. Fashion Theory, 16, 317- Motivations behind participation and 342. use of social media among Ramirez, M. (2017). From the panels to cosplayers who maintain Facebook the margins: Identity, artist pages (Unpublished doctoral marginalization, and subversion in dissertation). Oregon State cosplay (Master’s thesis). Retrieved University, Corvallis, Oregon. from ProQuest Dissertations and Lamerichs, N. (2014). Cosplay: The Theses. (No. 10260027) affective mediation of fictional Ray, A., Plante, C. N., Reysen, S., bodies. In A. Chauvel, N. Lamerichs, Roberts, S. E., & Gerbasi, K. C. & J. Seymour (Eds.), Fan studies: (2017). Psychological needs predict

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Table 1 Motivations in Anime Cosplay Research Study BG FM AE SE EC EU ES EN AT SA N T C Ahn (2008) X X X 20* I Japan Benino (2014) X X X 55 S Philippines Bonnichsen (2011) X 4 I Sweden Chen (2007) X X X X 6 I Taiwan Davis (2017) X X 37 I U.S. Flatt (2015) X X 49 S U.S. Hill (2017) X 16 I U.S. Kane (2017) X X X X 20 I Unknown Lamerichs (2014) X X 30 I Netherlands Langsford (2014) X X 8 I Australia Lin (2016) X 8 I Singapore Lotecki (2012) X X 529 S Canada/U.S. Peirson-Smith (2013) X X 40 I China Rahman et al. (2012) X X X X 15 I China Ramirez (2017) X 9 I U.S. Rosenberg et al. (2013) X X X X 198 S U.S. Taylor (2009) X 11 I U.S. K. Wang (2010) X X 17 I China P.-T. Wang (2010) X X X 15 I Taiwan/U.S.

Present Study X X X X X 1048 S Western Note. BG = belongingness, FM = family, AE = aesthetic, SE = self-esteem, EC = economic, EU = eustress, ES = escape, EN = entertainment, AT = attention, SA = sexual attraction. * 20 groups (participant number unknown). N = sample size, T = type of study, I = interview, S = survey, C = country. Western = mainly U.S./Canada/UK (i.e., western, English speaking countries).

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Table 2

Means (Standard Deviations) of Cosplayers versus Non-Cosplayers

Variable Non- 2 Cosplayer Cosplayer F(1, 3075) p-value ηp

Belongingness 4.48 (1.92) 3.16 (1.89) 332.39 < .001 .098 Family 2.73 (1.89) 1.89 (1.40) 193.88 < .001 .059 Aesthetic 4.14 (2.03) 3.31 (2.05) 115.03 < .001 .036 Self-esteem 3.73 (1.94) 2.56 (1.67) 306.03 < .001 .091 Economic 2.30 (1.56) 1.89 (1.34) 57.43 < .001 .018 Eustress 4.29 (1.99) 3.49 (2.01) 112.59 < .001 .035 Escape 5.51 (1.69) 4.70 (1.95) 130.51 < .001 .041 Entertainment 6.54 (0.87) 6.29 (1.15) 39.41 < .001 .013 Attention 3.44 (2.06) 2.44 (1.73) 202.42 < .001 .062 Sexual attraction 2.82 (1.97) 2.28 (1.69) 63.04 < .001 .020

Note. Responses ranged from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree.

Table 3

Chi-Square Analysis of Cosplay by Sex

Sample Male Female

Non-Cosplayer Observed 1675 354 Expected 1404.5 624.5 Cosplayer Observed 455 593 Expected 725.5 322.5

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Table 4

Means (Standard Deviations) of Cosplayer Motivations by Sex

2 Male Female F(1, 1046) p-value ηp

Belongingness 4.32 (2.01) 4.60 (1.83) 5.51 .019 .005 Family 2.53 (1.82) 2.88 (1.93) 9.20 .002 .009 Aesthetic 4.15 (2.05) 4.14 (2.05) 0.01 .933 < .001 Self-esteem 3.55 (1.97) 3.88 (1.91) 7.30 .007 .007 Economic 2.36 (1.61) 2.25 (1.53) 1.28 .258 .001 Eustress 4.28 (2.03) 4.30 (1.96) 0.03 .858 < .001 Escape 5.36 (1.72) 5.63 (1.60) 6.15 .013 .006 Entertainment 6.56 (0.92) 6.54 (0.83) 0.13 .716 < .001 Attention 3.42 (2.06) 3.45 (2.07) 0.04 .839 < .001 Sexual attraction 3.44 (2.08) 2.35 (1.73) 86.68 < .001 .077

Note. Responses ranged from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree.

This research was supported by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. Address correspondence to Dr. Stephen Reysen, Department of Psychology, Texas A & M University at Commerce, Commerce, TX, 75429. E-mail: [email protected]

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