sign in sign up
<<
Home , Beatrice Warde, Modern typography, Typography

Modernism and the New Media: Constructing the Crystal Goblet Online

by Ollie Briggs 200792765 for Principles of DESN2730

Accompanying materials at olliebriggs.com/projects/typography Modernism and the New Media: Constructing the Crystal Goblet Online

Abstract

This report first outlines the main philosophies and practice-orientated principles which formed the modernist period in typography, with several key modernist manifestos outlined, including ’s “Die Neue Typographie” and ’s “The Crystal Goblet”. Key modernist prin- ciples are identified throughout.

The philosophy behind the conception of the internet as a communication medium is then explored and defined, which is compared with the driving principles behind modernism. The report makes the argument that modernist principles are indeed applicable to the new media. Examples of modernist principles are then identified within the development of a case study of , from the early years of the internet to a present day , identifying online examples which adhere to modernist principles and in what capacity.

The report concludes by identifying how traditional principles can be developed into a set of technical guidelines and recommendations for those wishing to set typography online when it is desired that the should adhere to modernist principles, in doing so presenting a brief overview of online related technologies.

Structure

1.1 An overview of modernism 1.2 “The Crystal Goblet”, a modernist mindset 1.3 “Die Neue Typographie”, a modernist dictatorship?

2.1 New media and modernism, a philosophical marriage 2.2 Modernism online, an overview of typographic practice 2.3 Development of Apple Inc.’s online typography

3.1 An overview of web technologies relating to type 3.2 Conclusion

1 1.1 An overview of modernism

In order to fully understand modernism one must consider the social context An overview of during which the ideological1 movement arose: a post-World War I world, modernism [1.1] where sought to reject historical unnecessary decoration2, and believed that their practice alongside technological advancement could transform society3.

According to Steven Heller, modernism can be defined as an ethic which highlights a ’s responsibility to “understand, improve, change and refresh our condition in the world”4. When studying the work and teachings of key modernist typographers, a common practice-based ideology emerges: that typography should be designed with a concern for structuralism5 and a responsibility to “clarify and organise information”6 for readers as the typographer’s primary concerns: creating a universal style with little time for individual expression7, in doing so rejecting the “facade-orientation of pre-wartime days”8.

Tschichold describes the imbuing of personality into design work as “personal vanity”, arguing for it’s dismissal in favour of “pure design”9, and so the often quoted dictum “”10 can be used to succinctly express the modernist attitude and subsequently its style. With the introduction of mass production in the modernist period, standardisation was rife, which found a place in typographic practice with the introduction of the Deutsche Industrie-Normen (DIN) standards for stock size11.

Typographic modernism is often attributed to have its roots in post-World War II and Switzerland, where typographers such as Tschichold and Müller-Brockman pioneered the use of underlying structural grids to

1 Keedy, J. 1995. Zombie Modernism. Emigre. 34(1), p.161 2 McMurtrie, D. 1929. & Layout. Chicago: Eyncourt Press. 3 Victoria & Albert Museum. 2015. Modernism. [Online]. [Accessed on 28/04/15]. Available from: www.vam.ac.uk 4 Heller, S. 1995. Design Is Hell. Emigre. 33(1), p.48 5 Baines, P. and Haslam, A. 2005. Type & Typography. : Laurence King. 6 ibid. 7 Gropius, W. 1927. Systematische Vorarbeit für rationellen Wohnungsbau. . 1(2). 8 Tschichold, J. 1928. Die Neue Typographie. Berlin: Brinkmann & Bose. 9 ibid. 10 McMurtrie, D. 1929. Modern Typography & Layout. Chicago: Eyncourt Press. 11 Deutsches Institut Für Normung. 2008. Papier-Endformate - C-Reihe. Berlin: DIN. 2 position all elements of a 12. Modernism within typography, then, places An overview of on a minimalist attitude 13, whereby the medium of typography is modernism [1.1] seen solely as a means to convey the information to be typeset with as little friction or alteration of meaning as possible. This attitude is encapsulated in Beatrice Warde’s 1930 speech ‘The Crystal Goblet’.

1.2 “The Crystal Goblet”, the modernist typographic mindset

Warde’s argument in “The Crystal Goblet” presents the idea that “all good “The Crystal Goblet”, the typography is modernist”, as the modernist philosophy prioritises form over modernist typographic function14. Warde herself describes her one main idea as the belief that “the mindset [1.2] most important thing about is [conveying] thoughts, ideas and images from one mind to other minds”15, and reinforces the modernist dismissal of ornament with her notion that it is incorrect to label printed typography as fine art, as this implies that it is an expression/work of 16 rather than a purely functional object. This is a mindset shared by Douglas McMurtrie, another modernist typographer, as he remarks that all truly modernist typo- graphic work must foremost “express the function of ”17.

A recurring metaphor is presented by Warde throughout the talk, in which she describes good typography as being akin to a “crystal goblet”18, from which she draws the title.

Warde’s teachings, and their summarisation in her eloquent metaphor, perfectly summarise the modernist philosophy applied to typographic practice. To accompany her speech, Jan Tschichold’s revolutionary 1928 teachings 19 in ‘Die Neue Typographie’ mirror Warde’s philosophies, building upon them to present practice-orientated recommendations.

12 Müller-Brockmann, J. 1999. Grid Systems in . Berlin: Verlag Niggli. 13 Rams, D. 2014. Weniger, Aber Besser. Berlin: Gestalten. 14 Warde, B. 1930. Printing Should Be Invisible. October 7th 1930, St. Bride Institute, London. 15 ibid. 16 ibid. 17 McMurtrie, D. 1929. Modern Typography & Layout. Chicago: Eyncourt Press. 18 Warde, B. 1930. Printing Should Be Invisible. October 7th 1930, St. Bride Institute, London. 19 Kinross, R. 1998. Foreword in: Tschichold, J. Die Neue Typographie. Berlin: Brinkmann & Bose.

3 1.3 “Die Neue Typographie”, a modernist dictatorship?

Jan Tschichold’s discussion on the “principles of the new typography”20 “Die Neue Typographie”, begins with an argument in defence of modernist typography, with Tschichold a modernist pointing out that with the increasingly fast pace of living at the time, clarity dictatorship? [1.3] and ease of reading were to be prioritised 21 - an idea also highlighted by McMurtrie, who remarks that nowadays we “must […] read as we run”2 2. This is in contrast to the typographic styles of pre-modernist eras, during which readers (often only religious leaders/aristocracy) had more time to “read quietly line by line”2 3, somewhat excusing the pre-modernist flamboyantly decorative type handling with little attention paid to clarity and .

Other practice-orientated recommendations laid down by Tschichold include the glorification of asymmetry 24, an emphasis on hierarchy 25, and the rejection of seriffed 26. Tschichold’s push for the adoption of the DIN 476 27 (later developed to become the ISO 216 international standard) standards further cements modernism’s strive for standardisation and universality.

Many, however, including Tschichold himself since, have criticised ‘Die Neue Typographie’ Jan Tschichold’s for being too fascistic 2 8 - the tone of the text Sabon itself is indeed more forceful that it is merely ABC abc 123 – Regular + Italic ABC abc 123 – Demi + Italic ardent. Most noticeable is Tschichold’s aban- ABC abc 123 – Bold + Italic ABC abc 123 – Extrabold + Italic donment of his teaching of the exclusive ABC abc 123 – Black + Italic use of sans- typefaces 29, as he released Sabon, a serif, in 1967 (Figure 1). Academics Figure 1 - Jan Tschichold’s Sabon since have indeed reported that serif and typeface sample sans-serif typefaces are equally legible 30.

20 Tschichold, J. 1928. Die Neue Typographie. Berlin: Brinkmann & Bose. 21 ibid. 22 McMurtrie, D. 1929. Modern Typography & Layout. Chicago: Eyncourt Press. 23 Tschichold, J. 1928. Die Neue Typographie. Berlin: Brinkmann & Bose. 24 ibid. 25 ibid. 26 ibid. 27 ibid. 28 Tschichold, J. 1967. Asymmetric Typography. London: Farber & Farber. 29 Tschichold, J. 1928. Die Neue Typographie. Berlin: Brinkmann & Bose. 30 Lonsdale, M. dos S. 2014. Typographic Features of Text: Outcomes from Research & Practice. Visible Language, 48(3), p.33

4 So it can be seen that modernism’s historic penchant for a dictatorship-like “Die Neue Typographie”, obedience of rules can be dismissed in two distinct manners. Firstly, as a modernist outlined above, many of the practice-orientated teachings of modernist dictatorship? [1.3] typographers can be proven to be false 31, and therefore one could easily refute modernism’s credibility. Secondly, postmodernists’ emphasis on the blandness of a sole focus on legibility marked a fundamental shift from the modernist philosophy, encapsulated in Wolfgang Weimar’s remark of “what’s the use of being legible if nothing inspires you to take notice of it?” 3 2.

2.1 New media and modernism, a philosophical marriage

New media, which I shall use herein to signify any online platform, began to New media and mod- take off in 1993 with the introduction of the graphical Mosaic web browser 33, ernism, a philosophical clearly a long time after modernism yielded to postmodern principles in the marriage [2.1] mainstream design industry in the latter half of the 20th century 34. How then, can modernism possibly be relevant when engaging in typographic practice for online communication?

Typesetting on the internet has to work towards the media’s purpose, to provide information and communication facilities 35, and modernism’s philos- ophy is best in line with concerns of readability and clarity, with research having proven that its practice-orientated ideas are indeed effective 3 6.

Müller-Brockman, one of the forerunners in the proliferation of modernist philosophy within typography, notes that “design which is objective, […] well composed, and refined constitutes the basis of democratic behaviour” 37, a goal to which the internet has also been repeatedly argued to strive for - “the internet is transforming democracy” 3 8.

31 Lonsdale, M. dos S. 2014. Typographic Features of Text: Outcomes from Research & Practice. Visible Language, 48(3), p.33 32 Tam, K. 2003. Wolfgang Weingart’s Typographic Landscape. 2+3D . 2003(6). 33 Andreessen, M. 2000. Mosaic: The First Global Web Browser. [Online]. [Accessed on 30/04/15]. Available from: www.livinginternet.com 34 Victoria & Albert Museum. 2015. Postmodernism. [Online]. [Accessed on 30/04/15]. Available from: www.vam.ac.uk 35 Compact Oxford English Dictionary. Third Edition. 2008. p.531 36 Lonsdale, M. dos S. 2014. Typographic Features of Text: Outcomes from Research & Practice. Visible Language, 48(3), p.33 37 Müller-Brockmann, J. 1999. Grid Systems in Graphic Design. Berlin: Verlag Niggli. 38 Kirkhope, T. 2012. How the Internet is Transforming Democracy. [Online]. [Accessed on 01/05/15]. Available from: www.independent.co.uk

5 Modernist typography’s visual style is often referred to as the “Swiss typo- New media and mod- graphic formalism”39 or an “international style”4 0, which spread rapidly from ernism, a philosophical the design/typography schools in Switzerland and Germany to become an marriage [2.1] international standard for readability, a philosophy “adaptable to every design situation in every country on the globe” 41. This spirit of a universally accessible format is mirrored in Tim Berners-Lee’s vision for the internet: for it to be a “universal ” 4 2, an arguably attained vision, with every single country in the world reporting internet access to some degree 4 3.

The internet’s essence as a communication medium is rooted in an optimistic neutrality. Berners-Lee argues that “when you make something universal […] it can be used for good things or nasty things” 44 - a neutrality mirrored by the modernist philosophy within typography. The optimism surrounding the internet’s potential as a communication medium has been highlighted recently by the efforts of internet.org 45, founded on the belief that everyone should and will be able to communicate across this standardised global network. This neutrality principle was loudly echoed by modernist typog- raphers, their philosophy of allowing the written content and it’s ideas be presented clearly forming the basis of the modernist movement - even if it can be argued that the alphabet as a medium is not wholly neutral 46, nor can any given typeface be described as truly neutral 47.

39 Campbel, A. et al. 2014. Typography Pocket Essentials. London: ILEX. 40 Encyclopaedia Brittanica. 2015. Graphic Design. [Online]. [Accessed on 30/04/15]. Available from: www.britannica.com 41 Giampietro, R. 2001. The Typographic ‘Modern’. [Online]. [Accessed on 23/04/15]. Available from: www.linedandunlined.com 42 Berners-Lee, T. 2013. Internet Freedom Must Be Safeguarded. [Online]. [Accessed on 30/04/15]. Available from: www.theguardian.com 43 Census Bureau. 2012. Countries & Areas Ranked by Population. Washington: United States Census Bureau. 44 Berners-Lee, T. 2013. Internet Freedom Must Be Safeguarded. [Online]. [Accessed on 30/04/15]. Available from: www.theguardian.com 45 Internet.org. 2013. Technology Leaders Launch Partnership to Make Internet Access Available to All. [Online]. [Accessed on 30/04/15]. Available from: www.newsroom.facebook.com 46 Mander, J. 1978. Four Arguments for the Elimination of . : Harper & Collins. 47 Giampietro, R. 2001. The Typographic ‘Modern’. [Online]. [Accessed on 23/04/15]. Available from: www.linedandunlined.com

6 Social progression was a large concern for the modernists, and the internet is New media and mod- arguably the biggest driving force for social progression today 4 8, and so the ernism, a philosophical parallels with the philosophy of new media and the philosophy of modernism marriage [2.1] are undeniable and striking. This warrants the argument for modernist typo- graphic principles being applied to the new media when clarity of communi- cation is the primary concern for the typographer.

2.2 Modernism online, an overview of typographic practice

Before the introduction of styling with the CSS file (cascading style sheet) Modernism online, in 1996 49 to accompany the HTML file (the core technology for information an overview of typo- retrieval and display on the new media), the creators of web pages were graphic practice [2.2] not designers, but rather engineers 50 who were able to code the raw HTML required to construct the web pages.

Rob Giampetro highlights the issue of “default systems in graphic design”51 in a discussion entitled as such. This discussion highlights the issue of the predetermined typesetting settings which, unless manually overwritten, are often left unspecified and revert to to the in-built default value for the platform in question 52. It is interesting that Giampetro fails to mention that online (i.e. HTML) files carry their own default systems (the discussion only touches on desktop typesetting software), as the default HTML formatting sets the for typography on the new media.

The HTML (hypertext ) is broken down into sections known as tags, with each tag representing an alteration in style. The default tags introduced with the first versions of HTML allowed for a very limited range of elements - for example: , numerated lists, bulleted lists, six hierarchies of title, horizontal rules, and anchors (links) 53 - however all of

48 Uimionen, P. 1997. The Internet as a Tool for Social Development. Switzerland: United Nations Research Institute. 49 World Wide Web Consortium. 2015. Cascading Style Sheets. [Online]. [Accessed on 30/04/15]. Available from: www.w3.org 50 Berners-Lee, T. 2013. Internet Freedom Must Be Safeguarded. [Online]. [Accessed on 30/04/15]. Available from: www.theguardian.com 51 VanderLans, R. and Giampietro, R. 2003. Default Systems in Graphic Design. [Online]. [Accessed on 28/04/15]. Available from: www.linedandunlined.com 52 ibid. 53 Berners-Lee, T. and Connolly, D. 1993. Hypertext Markup Language (HTML): A Representation of Textual Information and MetaInformation for Retrieval and Interchange. [Online]. [Accessed on 30/04/15]. Available from: www.w3.org

7 these elements were indeed typographic. The World Wide Web Modernism online,

The WorldWideWeb (W3) is a wide-area hypermedia information retrieval initiative aiming to give world’s first webpage, written in unformatted universal access to a large universe of . an overview of typo- Everything there is online about W3 is linked directly or indirectly to this , including an executive summary of the project, Mailing lists , Policy , November's W3 news , Frequently Asked HTML, demonstrates the default formatting Questions . graphic practice [2.2] What's out there? Pointers to the world's online information, subjects , W3 servers, etc. Help on the browser you are using of these elements (see Figure 2). Software Products A list of W3 project components and their current state. (e.g. Line Mode ,X11 Viola , NeXTStep , Servers , Tools , Mail robot , Library ) Technical Details of protocols, formats, program internals etc Bibliography Paper documentation on W3 and references. People Modernist typographers would very likely A list of some people involved in the project. History A summary of the history of the project. How can I help ? cringe at the sight of this default HTML type- If you would like to support the web.. Getting code FigureGetting the code2 by- anonymous The FTPworld’s , etc. first webpage setting, as its driving philosophy is being easy to parse (convert from code into the visualisation shown to the user) by a browser, a philosophy which can be deduced from its history as mentioned above, and which pays no concern to the modernist focus on readability 54.

Given that modernism’s philosophy aligns rather perfectly to the philosophy which led to the founding of the new media, it must be asked why the default system55 for online typography does not consider any of the practice-based teachings of modernist typographers. This disparity of philosophies eschews the web’s purpose as an accessible and universal platform 56, and so this essay shall conclude by exploring the means by which typographers can transpose modernist philosophies onto the new media.

2.3 Development of Apple Inc.’s online typography

In order to gauge an indication of the progression of online typography, Apple Inc.’s website has been chosen as a case study, as Apple are an internation- Development of ally recognised longstanding business renowned for being at the forefront Apple Inc.’s online of technology and design. This means we are not only able to gain access to typography [2.3] archived copies of their website 57, but with their current iteration we can be assured that their design is up-to-date. The international ‘Hot News’ page of the Apple website 58 has been selected for analysis, as it has consistently held a substation amount of type since its conception, and shall be referred to as ‘Apple’s Website’ throughout this . The website will be tracked from 1998 to present day (2015 at the time of ), with major design overhauls identified and discussed.

54 Warde, B. 1930. Printing Should Be Invisible. October 7th 1930, St. Bride Institute, London. 55 VanderLans, R. and Giampietro, R. 2003. Default Systems in Graphic Design. [Online]. [Accessed on 28/04/15]. Available from: www.linedandunlined.com 56 Berners-Lee, T. 2013. Internet Freedom Must Be Safeguarded. [Online]. [Accessed on 30/04/15]. Available from: www.theguardian.com 57 The Internet Archive. 2015. The Internet Archive. [Online]. [Accessed 01/05/15]. Available from: www.archive.org/web 58 Apple. 2015. Hot News. [Online]. [Accessed 01/05/15]. Available from: www.apple.com/hotnews 8 To garner some context, we must first consider Apple’s design ethic from Development of 1998 onwards. Apple’s co-founder had just been brought back into Apple Inc.’s online the company and made CEO after their 1997 merger with NeXT 59, and Jony typography [2.3] Ive begun working as Vice-Chair of 6 0. An industrial/product designer, Ive often cites Dieter Rams (a modernist industrial designer) as his inspiration 61, and Dieter Rams’ principles of good design include “good design is as little design as possible” 62 - an apt declaration for a modernist producing minimalist 63 in the period.

All this considered, it is easy to see why Apple may be a forerunner in aligning modernist principles with it’s online type treatment. To begin an analysis of their website, one must start by reviewing their website as of 1998.

Figure 3 - Apple’s 1998 Website

The 1998 iteration of Apple’s website (see Figure 3) is interesting in that the main content is all left in the default system style (refer back to Figure 2), most noticeably the default Times typeface and retention of the default blue link colour. Whilst the aesthetic value of such typographic treatment is debatable, it could be argued that the principle behind leaving these defaults intact is essentially modernist; for it allows a user to quickly and easily decipher the function of the different elements of the page. This is achieved via the use of a universally used default, which does in fact remain the same today as it did back in 1998.

Apple’s site received its next major design overhaul in 2000.

59 Isaacson, W. 2011. Steve Jobs. New York : Simon & Schuster. 60 Kahney, L. 2013. Jony Ive: The Genius Behind Apple’s Greatest Products. London: Penguin. 61 ibid. 62 Rams, D. 2014. Weniger, Aber Besser. Berlin: Gestalten. 63 ibid.

9 Figure 4 - Apple’s 2000 Website

This 2000 iteration (see Figure 4) retains the default type handling for the Development of main body copy of the news , however the right hand column has Apple Inc.’s online been updated to use the default system sans-serif typeface (in this case typography [2.3] ), and the type size has been shrunk to allow for more information to be presented in a smaller space. Again, aesthetically displeasing, but the modernist principle of readability is adhered to quite well, with the suggested line length64 adhered to via the division of elements into columns.

Figure 5 - Apple’s 2007 Website

Apple’s circa 2007 website update (see Figure 5) introduced a new typographic style for Apple, one of solely sans-serif typefaces. This is echoed as the main copy has been adjusted to be unrecognisable from the default type treatment hitherto used, with two weights of a sans-serif (Lucida Grande) set in a two different shades of grey used to create a more subtle sense of hierarchy.

64 Bringhurst, R. 2008. The Elements of Typographic Style. Edition 3.2. Washington: Hartley & Marks.

10 At first glance, this type treatment may seem nearly perfectly aligned with Development of modernist principles, however the lessened emphasis on hierarchy and lack Apple Inc.’s online of attention paid to call it’s consideration into question. typography [2.3]

Figure 6 - Apple’s 2015 Website

Apple’s current (as of April 2015) website’s typesetting (see Figure 6) differs only slightly from the 2007 incarnation, with the subtle change to move the date of a post to the top of the post , creating a third of hierarchy within the news column. This simple, clean typesetting, lack of ornament, and slightly enhanced combine to better adhere to modernist prin- ciples of typesetting, with the purpose of quickly and efficiently displaying pre-written press release copy successfully fulfilled.

Throughout Apple’s website history, then, we see that the use of typography within the news section has been intended to serve the purpose of being wholly transparent, a crystal goblet 65, intended to convey the written copy as efficiently as possible. Whilst some may make the shallow argument that historically Apple’s use of online typography has been (albeit subjectively) ugly, it is Apple’s adherence to the system default for ease of usability which demonstrates their alignment with a modernist philosophy.

65 Warde, B. 1930. Printing Should Be Invisible. October 7th 1930, St. Bride Institute, London.

11 3.1 An overview of web technologies relating to type

As mentioned earlier, at HTML’s conception, the only styling achievable was An overview of web the assignment of a limited number of HTML tags which would format the technologies relat- text they bounded in a default styling (refer back to Figure 2). However, as ing to type [3.1] the CSS standards have developed up to the present day CSS 2.1 standard 66, designers have been slowly offered more and more granular control over every aspect of a website’s form and function.

However, an analysis of the CSS files of various major websites reveals that many designers tasked with typesetting on the new media have not made use of all of these technologies, allowing for the questionable default system styling to automatically specify values left unspecified by the designer. As discussed, these default settings and the style which they generate (refer back to Figure 2) fail to fulfil modernist philosophy, and so it is useful to explore how creating the crystal goblet online can be achieved.

Firstly, the typefaces available to web designers used to be restricted to those which came preinstalled on every single device with a web browser, however all major browsers now support custom embedding using a CSS insert called @font-face 67. This allows typesetters the use of any digital typeface they desire - however when the distinction between typeface and font is made, it becomes apparent that every weight and variation of a typeface (i.e. the indi- vidual font) must be downloaded as a separate file, which affects the loading time of a webpage 68. It is important then for a typesetter to bear this restric- tion in mind when designing type for the new media, as the modernist drive for clarity and ease of communication would be betrayed should content fail to display due to a strive for varied hierarchy. This balance between loading multiple typeface weights for clarity and reducing page load time is a delicate one, and one which the web typographer should always bear in mind.

Secondly, the current CSS specification allows for a larger range of adjust- able options and values relating to typography than ever before. Born of the study of the teachings of several modernist typographers, the following list gives an overview of the options and values which may be of use to typogra- phers wishing to take granular control over their online typography to align their practice with modernist principles. This list follows the following format: option or value, CSS property.

66 World Wide Web Consortium. 2015. CSS Namespaces. [Online]. [Accessed 01/05/15]. Available from: www.w3.org 67 Santa Maria, J. 2014. On Web Typography. New York: A Book Apart. 68 Google. 2015. Google . [Online]. [Accessed 02/05/15]. Available from: www.google.com/fonts 12 Size of typeface, font-size Line height, line-height Font weight, font-weight Italicisation, font-style Underline and strike-through, text-decoration Inter- spacing (tracking), letter-spacing Font color, color Justification, text-align Case (uppercase/lowercase), text-transform

Thirdly, a large consideration in since it was first suggested in An overview of web 2002 as ‘liquid design’ 69 is what is now referred to as responsive design70. This technologies relat- means that with the myriad of internet connected devices now saturating the ing to type [3.1] market, website typography must be fluid to adapt to varying screen sizes, resolutions and restrictions. To combat this, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C, setup by Tim Berners-Lee in 1994)71 has borrowed the unit from traditional typesetting, which, identical to it’s traditional meaning, is used to signify the (or pixel on the new media) size of a given piece of text. This means that type and any other design elements on a webpage can be scaled proportionally. However, W3C also introduced a new internet-exclusive unit, the Root EM or REM 72. The REM is set for the whole document, and so the sizing of type and all it’s other adjustable values (see the preceding and accompanying list) can be calculated as a percentage of this one given value which can be adjusted depending on screen size and/or resolution.

3.2 Conclusion

In conclusion, when one explores the driving philosophies behind both the Conclusion [3.2] modernism movement and the conception of the new media, the parallels that one can draw are undeniably clear. With a shared value for universality and accessibility, and both with the goal of communication, sitting at the intersection of these two movements and making use of modernist typo- graphic principles is a useful tactic for typographers looking to work on the

69 Wilson, N. 2002. What is Liquid Design? [Online]. [Accessed on 30/04/15]. Available from: www.sitepoint.com/liquid-design 70 World Wide Web Consortium. 2014. Responsive HTML. [Online]. [Accessed on 30/04/15]. Available from: www.w3.org 71 World Wide Web Consortium. 2015. World Wide Web Consortium. [Online]. [Accessed on 23/04/15]. Available from: www.w3.org 72 World Wide Web Consortium. 2015. CSS3.0 Values. [Online]. [Accessed on 30/04/15]. Available from: www.w3.org

13 new media. Also, when the technology behind typesetting on the new media Conclusion [3.2] is explored, it is seen that a wide range of technologies are in place which can be exploited to achieve the formation of ‘the crystal goblet’ online.

3150 words

14 Biblography

• Andreessen, M. 2000. Mosaic: The First Global Web Browser. [Online]. [Accessed on 30/04/15]. Available from: www.livinginternet.com. • Baines, P. and Haslam, A. 2005. Type & Typography. Second edition. London: Laurence King. • Berners-Lee, T. 2013. Internet Freedom Must Be Safeguarded. [Online]. [Accessed on 30/04/15]. Available from: www.theguardian.com. • Bringhurst, R. 2008. The Elements of Typographic Style. Edition 3.2. Washington: Hartley & Marks. • Campbel, A. et al. 2014. Typography Pocket Essentials. London: ILEX. • Giampietro, R. 2001. The Typographic ‘Modern’. [Online]. [Accessed on 23/04/15]. Available from: www.linedandunlined.com. • Gropius, W. 1927. Systematische Vorarbeit für rationellen Wohnungsbau. Bauhaus. 1(2). • Heller, S. 1995. Design Is Hell. Emigre. 33(1). • Isaacson, W. 2011. Steve Jobs. New York City: Simon & Schuster. • Kahney, L. 2013. Jony Ive: The Genius Behind Apple’s Greatest Products. London: Penguin. • Keedy, J. 1995. Zombie Modernism. Emigre. 34(1). • Kirkhope, T. 2012. How the Internet is Transforming Democracy. [Online]. [Accessed on 01/05/15]. Available from: www.independent.co.uk. • Lonsdale, M. dos S. 2014. Typographic Features of Text: Outcomes from Research & Practice. Visible Language, 48(3). • McMurtrie, D. 1929. Modern Typography & Layout. Chicago: Eyncourt Press. • Müller-Brockmann, J. 1999. Grid Systems in Graphic Design. Berlin: Verlag Niggli. • Rams, D. 2014. Weniger, Aber Besser. Berlin: Gestalten. • Santa Maria, J. 2014. On Web Typography. New York: A Book Apart. • Tam, K. 2003. Wolfgang Weingart’s Typographic Landscape. 2+3D Magazine. 2003(6). • Tschichold, J. 1967. Asymmetric Typography. London: Farber & Farber. • Tschichold, J. 1928. Die Neue Typographie. Berlin: Brinkmann & Bose. • Victoria & Albert Museum. 2015. Modernism. [Online]. [Accessed on 30/04/15]. Available from: www.vam.ac.uk. • Warde, B. 1930. Printing Should Be Invisible. October 7th 1930, St. Bride Institute, London. • Wilson, N. 2002. What is Liquid Design? [Online]. [Accessed on 30/04/15]. Available from: www.sitepoint.com/liquid-design.

15